THERMODYNAMICS

Science which deals with the concept of energy and Fuel

conservation of energy. CHE ENERGY
CHEM ENERGY
Heat
Engineering thermodynamics will here in defined
as that part of the science which deals primary Heat
with heat and work. (friction) ME CHE ENERGY
MECHANICAL ENERGY

ENERGY ENEMECHANIRGY
Capability of matter of producing an effect. (work)
EEELECTRICAL
ENERGY (electricity)
ENERGY

TYPE OF ENERGY
POTENTIAL ENERGY
1. Stored Energy
2. Internal Energy
3. Energy in Transition

FORMS OF ENERGY

1. Potential Energy
2. Kinetic Energy
3. Chemical Energy
4. Nuclear Energy

THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY SPECIFIC WEIGHT = = = 3 = 3
1. Extensive Property depends on the amount

of mass or material in a system. Ex. (mass =
and volume).
2. Intensive Property independent of the size For Physics: F = mg = 1kg 9.8066 2

or the amount of mass or material in a
system. Ex. (specific volume, temperature,
For Thermodynamics: =
pressure, density)
CONVERSION:

Specific Volume ( )=
3
, 1 2 = 9.8066 2

1 kgf = 9.8066 N
Specific Weight ( ) = 1 9.8066 2



Specific Gravity( S.G.) = = =

1
2

Density ( ) =
F = 9.8066 N

therefore
Force

Weight = mg = =
= 9.8066 3

Pressure = 1000

9.8066 2
3
Temperature = = =

1
2
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
TEMPERATURE
C = 5/9 (F - 32) S.G. =

F = 9/5 C + 32 water = 9806.6 3 1000
R = F + 32
K = C + 273 water = 9.8066 3

K = 5/9 R S.G. = =
 EX. #2] An lunar excursion module (LEM) weights

= 1500 kgf on earth where g=9.75 mps2, (a) what will be

() its weight on the surface of the moon where gm=1.70
= mps2. (b) on the surface of the moon, what will be the

()

force in kgf and in newtons required to accelerate the
S.G. = () module at 10 mps2.

GIVEN:
S.G, = W = 1500 kgf
g = 9.75 mps2

k = 1 kgf = 9.8066 N gm = 1.70 2
= 1 slug = 32.174 lbm
SOLUTION:
K Proportionality Constant =

; =



Metric System (MKS) (a). =

k = 9.8066 2 1500 9.8066

2

=
9.75 2
= 1 2
= 1508.7077
English Sytem

k = 32.174 2 =


=1
1508.7077 1,70 2
2 =

Cent. Gram Sec. (CGS) 9.8066
2

k = 980.66 2
= 261.5385
=1
2

EX. #1] An object having a mass of 9 kg falls towards

the earth because of gravitational pull. At a certain
time there is a wind resistance of 3 kg acting on the (b). =

object. Determine the acceleration of the object.

1508.7077 10
= 2
GIVEN:
m = 9kgm 9.8066
2
F = 3 kgf = 1538.4615

k = 9.8066 2

1508.7077 10
2
SOLUTION: =


= 1
2

=

= 15087.077
3 9.8066 2
= 9

= 3.2689 2

(b). =
EX. #3] The mass of a fluid system is 0.311 slug, its m = V
density is 30 lb/ft3 and g is 31.90 fps2.
Find: (a) Specific Volume = 40 3 9.43 ft3
(b) Specific Weight
(c) Total Volume M = 376 lbm

GIVEN: (c). =
1

M = 0.311 slug
1

= 30 3 =
40
3
g = 31.90 fps2
3
= 0.025
SOLUTION:
1 1 3
(a). = = = = 0.3333

30 3 (d). =


40 3 31.90 2

30

31.90 2
=
3 32.174
(b). = =
2
32.174
2

= 29.7445 3 = 39.6594 3

(c). m= 0.311 slug 32.174
m = 10.006114 lbm
10.006114
V= =
30
3
V = 0.3335 ft3

EX. #4] A cylindrical drum ( 2ft diameter, 3ft height) is

filled with a fluid whose density is 40 lb/ft3.
Determine: (a) Total volume of fluid
(b) Total mass in pounds and slug
(c) Specific volume
(d) Specific weight (g = 31.90 fps2)

GIVEN:
d = 2ft
h = 3ft

= 40 3
(d). g = 31.90 fps2

SOLUTION:
(a). V = 2
2
= (2 )2 3

V = 9.43 ft3
PRESSURE
GAGE PRESSURE
A.) The absolute pressure is greater than
atmospheric pressure

= + = +
=

= ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
= =
B.) The absolute pressure is less than
atmospheric pressure = ; = ; =


=



=


= But since =

=
=

=

the gage reading (- ) is called vaccum pressure

EXAMPLE:
=

1.) A composite piston is held in an equilibrium

by the pressure gas () . If the pressure (20 ) (9.8066 )
= 2
( ) is690 KPa, and pressure ( ) is 140
KPa, Find if mass of piston is 20 Kg. 1
2
1
= 196.133
1000
= 0.196133

Find :

= + +

SOLUTION: = 1.9503 + 0.39584 + 0.196133

Area of Piston = 4.2252

2 (0.15)2 ) 4.2252
= = = 0.017672 = =
4 4 0.017672

= = 239.1171
2
=0

= + +

Find :

= 690 2
[( (0.06)2 ]
4
= 1.9503

Find :

=
2
{ 4 (0.15) }
= 140 2 [ ]
{( (0.06) 2
}
4

= 0.39584

Find Wp:

= {(. ) (. )}

2.) For two components vessel gage reading are {(. ) (. )(. ) + .

Gage A = 254 mmHg vac and Gage B = 32.5
mmHg. If the barometer reads 777.4 mmHG, = .
determine the reading Gage C.

= + [(. ) (. ) (. )]


+ .

Conservation of Mass

The law of conservation of mass states that

mass is indestructible.
SOLUTION:

= + The quantity of fluid passing through a given

section is given by the formula:
=
V =v
=
V Av
= + . m = =

= .

= . + . 1
Since: =
=
Then:
= .
m = A
+ .

3.) An open manometer is converted to a flow

line containing water. Determine the
pressure at point A and B if gage fluid of
mercury is 13.57
SOLUTION:

= ( ). . +

= ( )
( )( ). .
+
Where: 1 =100
ft lb
2 =0.20 ft 3
min

V =volume flow rate ft 3

1 =4 lbm
A=cross-sectional area
Requiresd:
v=velocity
a.) m
=specific volume
b.) 2
=Density
Solution:
=mass flow rate

For mass flow rate:

m1 = m2
A1 v1
m1 = m 2 = 1

ft
Figure 1 2
(10 ft )(100 )
m = min
ft3
4
Applying the law of Conservation of mass: lbm

m1 = m2 lb
m = 250 m
min
m =A

A1 1 1 = A2 v2 2

Example: For velocity at section 2:

A fluid moves in a steady flow manner A2 v2

m 2 = = A2 v2 2
between two sections in a flow line, at section 1 2
ft ft 3
A1 =10 ft 2 , 1 =100 , 1 =4 . At section 2 m2
min lbm v2 =
lb ft 3
A 2 2
A2 =2 ft 2 , 2 =0.20 ft 3 , 1 =4 . Find mass
lbm
flow rate and velocity at section 2.
lbm
250
v2 = min
2 lb
(2 ft )(0.20 3 )
ft

ft
v2 = 625
min
Given:

A1 =10 ft 2 A2 =2 ft 2
Conservation of Energy (+) when added

Energy is the capacity to do work, and (-) when rejected

energy is neither created nor destroyed.

On the First law of thermodynamics one form of

energy maybe converted to another form. Flow work (Wf ):
Wf =(Pressure)(Volume)=PV
Energyin =Energyout

Enthalpy (H,h):
h=u+pV
H = m(u+Wf )
H = m(u + pV)

Summarizing the equations:

Energyin =Energyout

PE1 + KE1 +(u1 + Wf )+Q=PE2 + KE2 +(u2 + W2 )+W

Forms of Energy:
Q=(KE2 - KE1 )+(PE2 - PE1 )+[ (u2 + Wf2 )- (u1 +
Potential Energy (PE):
Wf1 )]+W
(Mass)(acc. due to gravity)(elevation)
PE= Q= KE+ PE+(u+ Wf )+W
Proportionality constant
Q= KE+ PE+h+W
mgh
PE=
k Work:
IF:

Kinetic Energy (KE): Work done by the system (+)

Work done on the system (-)
()()2
= Work Non-Flow:
2(
V2
mv 2 WNF = pdV
KE= V1
2k
Q= KE+ PE+(u+ Wf )+ Wnf

Internal Energy (U,u) (IF KE, PE &Wf= 0)

u=specific internal energy
U=(mass)(specific internal energy) Wnf =Q-u
U=mu

Heat (Q):
 Q=(KE2 - KE1 )+[ (u2 + Wf2 )- (u1 + Wf1 )]+ W
Work Steady Flow:
P2 m(v2- v1 )2
WSF = Vdp KE= =
2k
P1 Kg m m
(4.56 min )(183 s -122 s )2 60 sec
Q= KE+ PE+(u+ Wf )+ Wsf x
Kg-m 1 min
2(1 )
N-s2
(IF KE & PEare = 0) 1000 N

Wsf = Q- h 1 KN
KJ
Examples: =509.0328Sec

1.) A thermodynamic steady flow system

receives 4.56kg per minute of fluid where P1 = 139.90
m3 m KJ
H = m[(u2 + p2 V2 ) (u1 + p1 V1 )]
Kpa, v1 = 0.0388 , v =122 s and u1 = 17.16Kg. The
kg 1
fluid leaves the system at a boundary where p2 =
m3
551.6 Kpa,v2 =0.193 kg , v2 =183 and = (4.56 ){[(52.80

kJ
u2 =52.80kg.During the passage through the system 3
+ (551.6 )(0.193 )]
J
the fluid receives 3000s of heat. Determine the Work.

[(17.16
Given:
3
P1 = 139.90 Kpa p2 = 551.6 Kpa + (139.90 )(0.0388 )]}

m3 m3 KJ 1 min KJ
v1 = 0.0388 kg v2 =0.193 kg H = 623.2183min x 60 sec = 10.3870 sec

m
v1 =122 s v2 =183

KJ kJ Q-(KE2 - KE1 )-[ (u2 + Wf2 )- (u1 + Wf1 )]= W

u1 = 17.16Kg u2 =52.80kg
KJ KJ KJ
W = 3 sec -509.0328Sec - 10.3870 sec
J
Q=3000s m = 4.56kg per minute
KJ
Required: W = - 516.4198 sec

Work=?

Solution:

Q=(KE2 - KE1 )+(PE2 - PE1 )+[ (u2 + Wf2 )- (u1 +

Wf1 )]+ W

[PE = 0]
 Q= (-17.25 KJ +61.489504 KJ)

1
= 78.7395
1.055

Q = -74.6350 KJ

2.) A close system containing a gas undergoes a

reversible process of compression in which the
3.) Air having an enthalpy of 96.5 enters a
decrease in internal energy is 17.25 KJ and the
volume changes from 140L to 55L. The pressure is compressor. It leaves with an enthalpy of 175 of
constant at 1125.09 TORR. Determine the heat heat loss from the compressor through it. Determine
transferred in BTU. 3
the power required for a flow rate of 0.2225 .

Given:
Given:
-u= 17.25 KJ
1 = 96.5 2 = 175
v1 = 140L=0.14m3
3

v2 = 55L=0.55m 3 =0.2225 .

P = 1125.09 TORR = 149.9744Kpa Required:

Required: Power=?

Q = BTU

Solution:
()
=

Solution: kN m KN m
(175 -96.5 ) Kg
Kg Kg
Q= KE+ PE+(u+ Wf )+W P= 3
1000 3
m m
0.2225 s
(PE & KE & W=0)

Q= (u+ Wf ) P = 0.3528 KJ

Wf = PV=(P2 V2 -P1 V1 )

(Constant Pressure)

Wf = P(v2 v1 )

Wf = 149.9744Kpa (0.553 -0.143 )

Wf = 61.489504 KJ
4.) Water being drained through a hole at the bottom

of an tank at a velocity of 10 . For a tank diameter of
The Ideal Gas
1.18 meters and a hole diameter of 5cm. Find the
rate of change of the water level in the the tank in Boyles Law ( T=C )

.
If the temperature remains constant, the volume of a
Given: given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to the
pressure.
m
=10 s = 1.18 meters

= 5 cm = 0.05 m

Required:
m
=min

Solution:

P1 V1 = P2 V2

Pabs = Pg + Patm

Tabs = + 273

Tabs = + 460

V =v 1
V ; T=C
P
2
(0.05m) m
Vh = ( )(10 ) C
4 s
V= ; T=C
P
m3
Vh = 0.01963 PV
s = C; T = C
T
PV = C

*C- PROPORTIONALITY CONSTANT*

Charles law P=C

A. If the pressure is held constant, the volume

of given gas varies directly as the absolute
temperature.

P T; V = C

P CT; V = C

P1 V1 P2 V2
= ; V=C
T1 T2

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN P,V,T

V T; P = C

V = CT; P = C

P=C

P1 V1 P2 V2
= ; P=C
T1 T2

V1 V2
=
T1 T2

V
=C PV
T 1. =C
T
B. If the volume is held constant, the pressure 2. =
of a given mass of a gas varies directly as 3. h = U + PV; PV = RT
absolute temperature. = +

4. =
+

du dh
Cv = Cp =
dt dt
5. = +

C- Specific heat
Cp - Constant Pressure
Cv - Constant Volume
 Cp
=k FOR CONSTANT PRESSURE ( )
Cv
=

Cp = Cv +R
Cv k= Cv +R
Cv Cv =
Cv ( 1) =

6. = ()

Cp 1
Cp = + Qp = mCp TW = PdV

Cp 2
Cp =
Q = U + WW = P(V2 V1 )
1
Cp (1 ) =
Qp = U + PV P2 V2 P1 V1

( 1) Qp = H PV
Cp =


7. =
FOR CONSTANT VOLUME( )
IDEAL GAS EQUATION

SPECIFIC HEAT (C)

- Quantity of heat required to change the

temperature of unit mass through 1 degree.


()()

UNIT:

; U

V=C

2 Qv = mCv T

= ; =
2 Qv = U

= (2 1 )
Ratio of Specific Heat (K) Derivation of

R = Cp Cv ; k=

= >1

= (2)
Internal Energy of Ideal Gas

- Joules law states that the change in internal Substitute eq. 2 to eq. 1:
energy of an ideal gas is function of only the
R = Cv Cv
temperature change.
U = mCv T; R = ( 1)Cv
whether the voume is constant or not

= .(3)

Derivation of
Enthalpy of an Ideal Gas

H = mCp T; Cv = .(4)

whether the pressure remains constant or not Substitute eq. 4 to eq. 3:

Cp R
=
k k1
Relation of and

h = U + Pv; Pv = mRT =

dH = du + Rdt

Cp dt = Cv dt + Rdt Relationship of H and U

Cp = Cv + R H mCp T
=
U mCv T
= .(1)

= =

EX.An automobile tire is inflated to 32 psig pressure EX If 100ft 3 of atmospheric air at zero Fahrenheit
at 50. Aft. er being driven the temperature rise to temperature are compressed to a volume of 1ft 3 at a
75. Determine the final gage pressure assuming temperature of 200, what will be the pressure of
the volume remains constant. the air in psi

Given: Given:

P1 = 32 psig + 14.7 psi = 46.7 psia 14.7 psi

P1 = 100 atm = 1470 psi
1 atm
T1 = 50 + 460 = 510 R
T1 = 0 + 460 = 460R
T2 = 75 + 460 = 535R
V1 = V2 = 1ft 3

T2 = 200 + 460 = 660R

Required:
Required:
P2 in gage
P2 in psi

Solution:
Solution:
P1 P2
= P1 P2
T1 T2 =
T1 T2
P1 T2
P2 = P1 T2
T1
P2 =
T1
46.7 psia (535 R)
P2 = 1470 psi (660 R)
510R P2 = 460R
P2 = 48.9892 psia
P2 = 2109.1304 psi
P2 = 48.9892 14.7

P2 = 34.2892 psig
 U = H PV

Ex. A gas initially at 15 psia and 2 cu. Ft. undergoes U = 15.5 BTU 4.4422 BTU
a process to 90 psia and 0.60 cu. Ft., during which
the enthalpy increases by 15.5 BTU; Cv = U = 11.0578 BTU

2.44 . Determine (a.) U, (b.)Cp and (c.) R (b. )

Given: U = mCv

144 2 U
1 = 15 = 2160 = mT
2 2 Cv

1 = 2.3 11.0578
mT =

2.44
144 2
2 = 90 2
= 12960 2
mT = 4.6319

H = mCp T
2 = 0.6.3 H
Cp =
H = 15.5 BTU mT
15.5 BTU
Cp =
Cv = 2.44 4.6319 lbm R

Required: BTU
Cp = 3.4202
lbm R
U
(c.)
Cp
R = Cp Cv
R
BTU BTU
R = 3.4202 2.44
Solution: lbm R lbm R

(a. ) BTU
R = 0.9802
lbm R
H = U + PV

PV = 2 2 1 1

PV =(12960 0.6.3 )
2

( 2160 2.3 )
2

1
PV = 3456 ft
778 ft

PV = 4.4422 BTU

Ex. For a certain gas, = 0.277 and k=
1.384. (a.) what are the value ofCp and Cv ? (b.) what C.
mass of this gas would occupy a volume of 0.425 cu
m. at 517.11 kPa and 26.7 ? (c.) if 31.65 kJ are Qv = mCv T
transferred to this gas at constant volume in (b), what Qv = mCv (T2 T1 )
are the resulting temperature and pressure?
Qv
Given: = T2 T1
mCv
kJ Qv
R = 0.277 T2 = + T1
kg K mCv
K= 1.384 3165 kJ
T2 =
kJ
Required: (2.6473kg m ) (0.7214
kg K
)

Cp and Cv + (299.7 K)

Mass T2 = 316.2727K or 43.2727

T2 and P2

Solution: 2 2 = 2

A.

kR 1
Cp =
k1
kJ
Cp = 0.9984
kg K = ; =

R
Cv =
k1
kJ
Cv = 0.7219
kg K

B.

PV = mRT

PV
m=
RT
kN 3
2 ) (0.425m )
(517.11
m
=
kN m
(0.277 ) (26.71273K)
kg K

m = 2.6473 kg m
First Law of Thermodynamics EX During one cycle the working fluid in an engine
engages in two work interactions; 15 kJ to the fluid
- Deals with the conservation of energy and and 44 kJ from the fluid, and 3 heat interactions, two
introduce the concept of internal energy
of which are known: 75 kJ to the fluid, 40 kJ from the
QW
fluid. Evaluate the magnitude and direction of the 3rd
Q
S= heat transfer.
T
Second Law of Thermodynamics =

- Provides the guidelines on the conservation 1 2 3 = 1 + 2

of heat energy of matter into work. It also
introduce the concept of entropy. 75 40 3 = 15 + 44

= }
3 = 15 + 44 75 + 40

3 6
Third Law of Thermodynamics =
1 1
- Defines the absolute zero of entropy. The 3 = 6
entropy of a pure crystalline substance at
absolute zero temperature.
0K or 0R
EXA domestic refrigerator is loaded with food and the
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics door closed. During a certain period the machine
consumes1kwh of energy and the internal energy of
- With thermal equilibrium and provide means
the system drops by 5000 kJ. Find the net heat
for measuring temperatures.
transfer for the system.

*1st Law
E = Q W
dQ dW = dE
Q = E + W
or simply

Q-W=E

(1 ) 3600

E=Q-W = 3600

PE + KE + U + Wf + W = Q

PE + KE + H E = 5000 kJ
+W=Q
E
Q21 = 5000 kJ 3600 kJ

Q21 = 8600 kJ
 IDEAL GAS PROCESSES =
P
The path taken to change a property is known
a process. In thermodynamics, processes usually
Wsf
involve the heat transfer of energy such as heating
and cooling, compression and expanding, stirring and
pumping. The amount of energy transferred depends
on the processes as well as the end of state. V
Reversibility T
1. Process controlled through a series of
=
equilibrium state (no fluid friction).
2. No mechanical friction
3. No temperature difference during transfer of
heat.
S
Note: The process is reversible only if both the
system and the surroundings can be returned to their
initial state. A. PVT Relation

n=0 = ; =

n=k
P 1<n<k
=
n=1

B. CHANGE IN INTERNAL ENERGY

n=0 n=1 = ; =

1<n<k =
n=k
C. CHANGE IN ENTHALPY

= ; =
PV diagram V

D.WORK

n=0 Wnf = Pdv ; V = C

T 1<n<k n=
=

Wsf = vdP
n=1
n=0 = P2 V2 P1 V1 ; V = C
= ( )
n= =
1<n<k

E.HEAT
TS DIAGRAM S *WNF
Q = U + Wnf ; Wnf = 0
ISOMETRIC PROCESS (constant volume process) = =
Constant volume process is under the constraints of *WSF
incompressibility. The specific volume and density Q = E + Wsf
remains constant. Q = PE + KE + H + Wsf ; PE = 0, KE = 0
Q = H + Wsf
Q = mCpT mRT 2
. =
Q = mT(Cp R) 1
=
= 0.0359

F. CHANGE IN ENTROPY . =
Q = 20.0665
S =
T
S =
dQ mCvdT
= ISOBARIC PROCESS (P=C)
T T Constant isobaric process is change of state during

= ; = which the pressure remains constant. It may be reversible

or irreversible, non-flow or steady flow.
=

IRREVERSIBLE; V=C P T
V=C; Q=0
Q=E+W n=0 n=0

=
Wsf
Q

EX.1 pg.79] A perfect gas has a value of R= 58.8 dv V ds S
A.
and k=1.26. If 20 btu are added to 5lb of this gas at
PVT Relation
constant volume when the initial temperature is, 90.
Find (a)T2, (b), (c), (d), and (e) Work for non
= ; =

flow process.
=
Given:

R = 58.8 B. CHANGE IN INTERNAL ENERGY

K=1.26
= ; =
Q=20 btu
m=5 lb =
T1=90 + 460 = 550
C. CHANGE IN ENTHALPY
Solution:
= ; =
= =
ft lb 1 btu D.WORK
R 58 x
Cv = = lb R 778ft lb = 0.2907 Btu
Wnf = Pdv ; P = C
k1 1.26 1 lb R
Wnf = P2 V2 P1 V1
= ( )
Q IDEAL GAS EQUATION
= T2 T1
mCv PV = mRT; PV = mRT
PV = mRT; Wnf = PV
Q
T2 = + T1 =
mCv
20 btu Wsf = vdP ; P = C
= + 550K
ft lb 1 btu
5lb (58 x ) =
lb R 778ft lb
1.26 1
. 2 = 563.7605
E.HEAT
. =
*WNF
= 25.2671
Q = U + Wnf ; Q = H
Q = mCvT + mRT = 120.0323
Q = mT(Cv + R) d. . U = mCvT = 179.9585 Btu
= = T
e. S = mCvln T2
*WSF 1

= + Wsf = 0.3301

= + + + Wsf ; PE = 0, KE = 0
= + Wsf ; Wsf ; = 0
= ISOTHERMAL PROCESS (T=C)

F. CHANGE IN ENTROPY P
T
= n=1
T=C
T=C
Wsf
= =
T
Wsf Q
= ; =


= dv V S

A. PVT Relation

EX.4PG.79] Three pounds of a perfect gas with = ; =

.
R=38 and k=1.667 have 300Btu oh heat added =
during a reversible non-flow constant pressure change of
state. The initial temperature is 100, Determine the (a)
B. CHANGE IN INTERNAL ENERGY
final temperature, (b) , (c) W, (d) , (e) .
U = mCvT
Given:
m= 3lb =
.
R=38 C. CHANGE IN ENTHALPY
k=1.667 H = mCpT
Q=300Btu =
T1=100+460= 560R
D.WORK
a. Q = mCpT C
kR Btu Wnf = Pdv ; PV = C; P =
Cp = = 0.12205 V
k1 lb R C dv
Q = mCp(T2 T1 ) Wnf = dv; C
V V
V2
Q Wnf = Cln ; C = PV
T2 = + T1 V1
mCp
= ; 2 =1
1 2
300 Btu
=( + 560R) 460
Btu
3lb (0.12205
lb R
) = ; PV=mRT

2 = 919.3363
b. = =

= 300 C
c. Wnf = mRT Wsf = vdP ; PV = C ; V =
P
ft. lb 1 Btu C dP
= 3lb (38 x ) (919.3363 100) Wsf = dP ; C
lb R 778 ft. lb P P
 P2
= Cln
P1 =[ ]
P1
= Cln b. =
P2
c. =
( )
= d. = =

= = =

E.HEAT ( )
= =
*WNF
Q = U + Wnf ; U = 0 = =

= = = =

*WSF
Q = E + Wsf e. Q=0
Q = PE + KE + H + Wsf ; PE = 0, KE = 0 f. =
Q = H + Wsf ; H = 0
= =
F. CHANGE IN ENTROPY

=

POLYTROPIC PROCESS (PVn=C)
=

P T
ISENTROPIC PROCESS (PVK=C) 1 1
Isentropic process or adiabatic process is one when no
heat is transferred (Q=0). It is also defined as constant 2 2
entropy.
Q

1
T
V S


2 a. = [ ] = [ ]

b. =
S c. =
d. Wsf = vdP
( )
a. = ; = =


1 1 = 2 2
PV RELATION Wnf = Pdv

= [ ] =

e. =

TV RELATION =
1

=[ ]

f. =
PT RELATION
#10 Pg.80] A polytropic process of air from 150 psia,
300, and 1 3 occurs to 2 =20 psia in accordance Btu
H = 0.5328lb (0.24 ) (17.3934 300)R
with 1.3 = . Determine (a) T2 and V2, lb R
(b)U, H and S, (c) pdV and Vdp. (d) H = 36.1375 Btu
Compute the heat from the polytropic specific heat and
check by the equation, Q = U + pdV. (e) Find the kn 1.4 1.3
Cn = Cv ( ) = (0.1714) ( )
nonflow work and (f) the steady flow work for = 0. 1n 1 1.3
Btu
Cn = 0.05713
lb R
Given: Btu 477.3933
P1= 150 psia S = 0.5328lb (0.05713 ) ln ( )
lb R 760
T1=300+ 460= 760 R Btu
S = 0.01415
V1=1 3 R
P2= 20 psia
PV1.3=C
n=1.3 c. Wnf = Pdv
k=1.4 P2 V2 P1 V1
=
1n
lb in2 lb in2
Solution: (20 2 x144 2 ) (1.711ft 3 ) (150 2 x144 2 ) (1ft 3 )
in ft in ft
n1 =
T2 P2 n
1 1.3
a. = [P ]
T1 1
1.31 Wnf = 34.4136 Btu
20 1.3
T2 = 760R [ ] Wsf = vdP
150
T2 = 477.3933 R = 17.3934 Wsf = n x Wnf = 1.3(34.4136 Btu)
Wsf = 44.7372 Btu
n1
V1 n1 P2 n
[ ] =[ ] d. Q = mCnT
V2 P1
n1 Q = U + PdV
n1
V1 [P2 ]
n
= Q = 25.8086 Btu + 34.4132Btu
V2 P1 Q = 8.6046 Btu
V1
V2 =
n1
n1 e.
[P2 ] n
Q = 0.5328lb (0.05713
Btu
) (17.3934 300)R
P 1 lb R
Q = 8.6022 Btu
V2 = 4.711 ft 3

b. U = mCvT
H = mCpT
T
S = mCnln T2
1
PV = mRT
lb in2 3
PV 150 in2 x144 ft 2 (1ft )
m= =
RT lb ft
53.342 (760R)
lb R
= 0.5328
Btu
U = 0.5328lb (0.1714 ) (17.3934 300)R
lb R
U = 25.8081 Btu
GAS CYCLE all energy is received as heat by a heat-
Heat engine or thermal engine is a closed engine cycle cannot be converted into
system (no mass crosses its boundaries) that mechanical work.
exchanges only heat and work with its
Work of a Cycle
surrounding and that operates in cycles.
(a) W =
Elements of a thermodynamic heat engine
= QA + (-QR) (Algebraic sum)
with a fluid as the working substance:
= QA - QR (Arithmetic diff.)
1. A working substance, matter that (b) The next work of a cycle is the
receives heat, rejects heat, and algebraic sum of the works done by
does work; the individual processes.
2. A source of hear (also called a hot W =
body, a heat reservoir, or just W= W 1-2 + W2-3 + W 3-4 + ..
source), from which the working
substance receives heat;
3. A heat sink (also called a receiver,
a cold body, or just sink), to
which the working substance can
reject heat ;
4. An engine, wherein the working
substance may do work or have
work done on it

A thermodynamic cycle occurs when the

working fluid of a system experiences a
number of processes that eventually return
the fluid to its initial state.

Cycle Work and Thermal Efficiency

QA = HEAT ADDED

QB = HEAT REJECTED

W = NET WORK

Available energy is that part of the heat

that was converted into mechanical work.

Unavailable energy is the remainder of the

heat that had to be rejected into the receiver
(sink).

The second law of thermodynamics

CARNOT CYCLE
The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle
conceivable. There are other ideal cycles as
1
efficient as the carnot cycle, but none more
P T=S
so, such a perfect cycle forms a standard of
2
comparison for actual engines and actual
cycles and also for other lesss efficient ideal S=C
S=C
cycles, permitting as to judge how much 4
room there might be for improvement.
3
T=C
V

VD
substance. The cylinder head, the only vc
place where the hear may enter or leave the
substance (system) is placed in contact with
the source of heat or hot body which has a
V1
constant temperature T1. Heat flows from the
hot body into the substance in the cylinder QA
isothermally, process 1-2, and the piston 1 2
T T1=T2
moves from 1 to 2. Next, the cylinder is T=C
removed from the hot body and the insulator WNET
I is placed over the head of the cylinder, so T=C 4 3 T3=T4
that no heat may be transferred in or out. As QR
a result, any further process is adiabatic. S=C S2-S1 S=C

The isentropic change 2-3 now occurs

and the piston moves from 2 to 3. When the S
piston reaches the end of the stroke 3

the insulator I is removed and the cylinder

head is placed in contact with the receiver or
sink, which remains at a constant temperature
T3. Heat flows from the substance to the sink,
and the isothermal compression 3-4 occurs
while the piston moves from 3 to 4. Finally
the insulator I is again placed over the head
and the isentropic compression 4-1 returns
the substance to its initial condition as, the
piston moves from 4-1.
Analysis of the Carnot Cycle T3 V2 K1
=[ ]
T2 V3
QA = T1 (S2- S1), area 1-2-n-m-1

= [ ]
QB = T3 (S4-S3), area 3-4-m-n-3

= -T3 (S3-S4) = -T3(S2-S1) PROCESS 3-4

PV
W = QA- QB = T1 (S2- S1) - T3 (S3-S4) =C
T
P3 V3 P4 V4
= (T1-T2) (S2-S1 ), area 1-2-3-4-1 = ;T = C
T3 T4
(T1T3)(21)
P3 V3 = P4 V4
e= =
1(21) =

13
e=
1
PROCESS 4-1
K1
V4 K
ANALYSIS: T1 = T4 [ ]
V1
(HEAT ADDITION) QA QR
1-2: ISOTHERMAL EXPANSION e=
QA
2-3: PVK=C EXPANSION
= }
(HEAT REJECTED)
3-4: ISOTHERMAL; T=C
= }
4-1: PVK=C EXPANSION
QR
e=1
QA


PROCESS 1-2
=
PV

= C ;T = C
T TH TL
P1 V1 P2 V2 e=
= TH
T1 T2
TL
P1 V1 = P2 V2 e=1
TH

= TH = HIGH TL = LOW

The thermal efficiency is defined as the
PROCESS 2-3 fraction of the heat supplied to a thermodynamic
PV K = C cycl is converted into work.
P2 V2 K = P3 V3 K
Work from the TS plane
P3 V2 K
=[ ]
P2 V3 Q A = mRT1 ln1
2
PV
=C
T 4 3
P2 V2 P3 V3 QR = mRT3 ln 3 = - mRT3ln 4
=
T2 T3
P3 T3 V2 From the process 2-3,
= X
P2 T2 V3 3 2
V2 K T3 V2 =[3]K-1
2
[ ] = X
V3 T2 V3
From process 4-1, Expansion ratio:
4 1
= [ ]k-1
1 4

but T4 = T3 and T1 = T2

therefore 2
Isothermal expansion ratio = 1
2 1
[3]K-1 = [4]k-1
3
Isentropic expansion ratio = 2
2 1
Then, [3] = [4] 3
Overall expansion ratio = 1
2
QR = - mRT3ln 1

2 2
W = QA - QR ;mRT1 ln1 - mRT3 ln1 Compression ratio:

W = (T1- T3)mRln1
2

2
(T1T3)mRln
e = = 1 3
mRln
2 Isothermal compression ratio = 4
1

13 4
e= Isentropic compression ratio,rk = 1
1
3
Work from the pV plane. Overall compression ratio = 1

W = The isentropic compression ratio rk is the

compression ratio most commonly used.
W= W 1-2 + W2-3 + W 3-4 + W4-1
2 3322 4 1144
W=p1V1 ln1+ +p3V3 ln 3+
1 1

Mean effective Pressure (pm or mep)

=

VD = displacement volume, the volume swept
by the piston in one stroke.

Mean effective pressure is the average constant

pressure that, acting through one stroke, will do
on the piston the net work of a single cycle.

Ratio of Expansion, Ratio of Compression

OTTO CYCLE
an ideal thermodynamic cycle that describes the
functioning of a typical spark ignition piston Analysis of the Otto Cycle
engine. It is the thermodynamic cycle most
QA = mCv(T3-T2)
commonly found in automobile engines.
QR = mCv(T1-T4) = - mCv(T4-T1)

W= QA - QR = mCv(T3-T2) - mCv(T4-T1)
mCv(T3T2)mCv(T4T1)
e = = 2
mRln mCv(T3T2)
1

T4T1
e=1 (1)
T3T2

pV and TS diagram(air standard cycle) 1

e=1 1

Air standard cycle means that air alone is the
working medium. 2
whererk = 1, the isentropic compression ratio
1-2: isentropic compression

2-3: constant volume addition of heat

Derivation of the formula for e
3-4: isentropic expansion
Process 1-2:
4-1: constant volume rejection of heat
2 1
= [2]k-1
1

T2 = T1 rkk-1 (2)
3
Process 3-4:
S=C
3 4 1
4 = [3]k-1 =[2]k-1 (3)
4
2
1 Substituting equations 2 and 3 in equation 1
1
e=1
[ 1 ]
Work from the pV plane
2211 4433
W= = +
1 1

Clearance volume, percent clearance

1 +3 +
Rk = 2 = 3
=

1+
Rk =

Where c = percent clearance

V3 = clearance volume

VD= displacement volume

Ideal standard of comparison

Cold-air standard, k =1.4

Hot-air standard, k < 1.4

The thermal efficiency of the theoretical otto

cycle is

1. Increased by increase in rk
2. Increased by increase in k
3. Independent of the heat added