Hydraulics

&23<5,*+7529&

$OOHUHFKWHQYRRUEHKRXGHQ1LHWVXLWGH]HXLWJDYHPDJZRUGHQYHUYHHOYRXGLJG
RSJHVODJHQLQHHQJHDXWRPDWLVHHUGJHJHYHQVEHVWDQGRIRSHQEDDUJHPDDNW
LQHQLJHYRUPRIRSHQLJHZLM]HKHW]LMHOHNWURQLVFKPHFKDQLVFKGRRUIRWRNRSLHsQRSQDPHQ
RIRSHQLJHDQGHUHPDQLHU]RQGHUYRRUDIJDDQGHVFKULIWHOLMNHWRHVWHPPLQJYDQGHXLWJHYHU

$OOULJKWVUHVHUYHG1RSDUWRIWKLVSXEOLFDWLRQPD\EHUHSURGXFHGVWRUHGLQDUHWULHYDOV\VWHP
RUWUDQVPLWWHGLQDQ\IRUPRUE\DQ\PHDQVHOHFWURQLFPHFKDQLFDOSKRWRFRS\LQJUHFRUGLQJ
RURWKHUZLVHZLWKRXWWKHSULRUZULWWHQSHUPLVVLRQIURPWKHSXEOLVKHU

6(&5(7$5,$$7529&
3267%861/%&('(
7(/()221)$;
%(=2(.22.21=(:(%6,7(:::529&1/

2 Versie: 8 maart 2013

Hydraulics
Hydraulics
 Table of 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Introduction to Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Contents 2 Introduction to Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Symbols and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
The difference between pressure and force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
A simple hydraulic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Gear pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
The improved system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Uncomplicated systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3 Hydraulic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Basic systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Construction open hydraulic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Flow capacity of the different components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Series circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Parallel circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Series-Parallel circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
High and low pressure pump combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
The closed hydraulic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Regeneration system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Accumulator for return movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Synchronized cylinder movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

4 Hydraulic Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Viscosity Index (VI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

5 Hydraulic Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Directional valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2/2 valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4/3 valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Spool-coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Non-return valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Pilot operated non-return valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Excess flow valve/Blocking valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Pressure control valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Pressure limiting valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Pilot operated sequence valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Pilot operated pressure limiting valvel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Pilot operated pressure relief valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Pressure reducing valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Flow control valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Flow control valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Two-way pressure compensated flow control valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
The influence of viscosity on the throttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Proportional valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Proportional 3-way pressure compensated flow control valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Electronic proportional valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Pressure switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

6 Hydraulic Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
O-ring seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Sliding O-rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
U-Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

7 Hydraulic Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Speed control of hydraulic cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Outlet Throttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Inlet throttling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Speed control by of means two-way pressure compensated flow control valve (series valve) . . . 134
Speed control by means of three-way flow control valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Pump safety and discharge control HD and LD pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Load Safety Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

3
 Braking valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
Pump controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
Constant Flow System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
Constant Pressure System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
Constant Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153

8 Hydraulic Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
Hydraulic hand Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Pump Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
General Points of Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
Gear Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
Gear-Ring Pumps (also referred to as Internal Gear Pump) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
Vane Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167
Piston Pumps/Plunger Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
Screw Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179

9 Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
Single-acting Hydraulic Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
Double-acting Hydraulic Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
Hydraulic Cushioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188
Telescopic Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190
Special Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191

10 Hydraulic Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
Gear Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
Geroler Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
Vane Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
Radial Plunger Motor/Radial Piston Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
The Axial Piston Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
Oscillating Motors (Hydraulic Motors with a Limited Angle of Rotation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209

11 Accumulators, Oil Filters, Coolers, reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211

Accumulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
Membrane Accumulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .214
Bellow Accumulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
Piston Accumulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
Accumulator Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
Filters for Hydraulic Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
Filter Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
Coolers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
Reservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234

12 Line Materials and Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239
Hydraulic Pipes and Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
Hydraulic Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
Hydraulic Pipe And Line Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
Assembly of Pipes, Lines, and Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247

13 Inspection, Maintanance and Malfunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
Inspection and Maintenance of Hydraulic Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
Measuring malfunctions in the hydraulic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266
Measuring Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
Putting into operation, testing, and control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275

4
 Chapter 1

Introduction
Introduction to Hydraulics
Hydraulics is applied in many installations and
Hydraulics machines. In Figure 1 the basic principle of an
excavator is depicted. Hydraulic cylinders are
used to lift and bend the arm in the desired
position. Hydraulic motors allow the rotation
and driving mode of the excavator. Both
cylinders and motors are operated by means
Figure 1 Basic principle of an excavator
of hydraulic fluid (hydraulic oil) under
pressure.The hydraulic oil is transferred from
an oil tank to the cylinders and motors by
means of a hydraulic pump.
Application of Hydraulics
Hydraulics is applied in circumstances that
require high forces and torques. High
pressures compensate for relatively small
components, as the excavator in Figure 1.
7
 Hydraulic diagrams and sym- inefficient and will take too much time.
bols Knowledge of hydraulic symbols, basic prin-
ciples of hydraulics and the ability to
Fault finding in hydraulic installations requires
understand hydraulic diagrams will simplify
knowledge of the working principles of the
fault finding. Knowledge of hydraulic diagrams
installation. One way to acquire that
will allow you to identify the components as
knowledge is to disassemble all components
well as to understand how cylinders and
to understand the operation of the installation
motors are operated.
by means of assessment of the working
principle of each component. However, this is

Figure 2 Hydraulic diagram

8
 Chapter 2

Introduction to Hydraulics
Symbols and Hydraulic diagrams are used to understand
the working principles of hydraulic instal-
Functions lations. Symbols are used to visualize the
hydraulic components in a hydraulic diagram.
A symbol depicts the function of a component,
the constructive design is disregarded.
However in addition to the function many
symbols indicate the working principle of the
component. This is useful because it allows
quicker understanding of the symbols and
their function. For instance: A non-return valve
ensures that oil flows in one direction only.
The oil cannot flow in the other direction. That
is the single function. In Figure 3 depicts the
symbol as well as the working principle of the
non-return valve in which you can view the
open and the closed direction of the valve.
This drawing clearly shows that the symbol
depicts part of the working principle. However
non-return valves exist in different constructive
executions, some work with a valve rather
than a ball.

% %

$ $ $

FORVHGGLUHFWLRQ RSHQGLUHFWLRQ V\PERO

Figure 3 Non-return valve

In Figure 4 a picture of a hydraulic non-return

valve is depicted. The functional knowledge of
components allows us to read and understand
hydraulic systems. The latter reveals the
working principle of a hydraulic system. The
ability to read and understand hydraulic
drawings as well as the ability to think in
functions are important assets for fault finding.
You have to be able to understand which
function is missing when a machine does not
work properly. The engineer who knows which
function is missing also understands which
component is malfunctioning. The size of a
component big or small, the material type, nor
the construction does matter, the main point is
that: THE FUNCTION REMAINS
UNCHANGED.

Figure 4 Non-return valve

11
 The difference (Application of the law of Pascal)
between
The finger in Figure 5 is applying a force on
pressure and piston surface 1. As a consequence of this
force the liquid in the reservoir is pressurized.
force The pressure is a force per surface unit. The
force per square centimeter is usually
expressed in bar.
According to the law of Pascal a pressure
on a liquid is distributed equally in all
directions of the reservoir. This means that:
The pressure in the reservoir is equally
distributed meaning an equal force on every
square centimeter. The force on the pistons is
a result of the pressure in the system. The
surface of piston 2 is not equal to the surface
of piston 1.

 

Figure 5 Liquid reservoir

Assignments
1. Is the force from the liquid on piston 2
bigger, equal, or smaller as opposed to
the force on piston 1? Explain your
answer.
2. Is the unit of the expressed in pressure or
force? And what about a pressure
gauge?

12
 A simple See Figure 6

hydraulic system
OHYHURSHUDWHGSXPS

ORDG

SUHVVXUHJDXJH

VXFWLRQYDOYH SUHVVXUHYDOYH

YDOYH

UHVHUYRLU

Figure 6 A simple hydraulic system

The operating principle of this hydraulic instal- The symbols explain themselves. Only the
lation is as follows: When the piston of the symbol of the lever operated pump is
lever operated pump is moving down (delivery explained in more detail because it is lever
stroke) the suction valve is closing while the operated.
volume of the pump cylinder (small cylinder) is
transferred to the big cylinder via the pressure
valve. When the plunger of the lever operated
pump is moving up the pressure valve is
closed because of the pressure in the big I
cylinder. At the same time oil is transferred
from the reservoir via the suction valve to the
pump cylinder. The suction valve and the
pressure valve in figure 6 are non-return
G
valves. These valves allow oil to flow through
the valve in one direction while they block the H
oil flow in the opposite direction. The capacity
of the small plunger is limited, it can only pump
a limited amount of oil to the big cylinder per
stroke. The weight or load on the cylinder can F
only be moved over this large distance by J
pumping the required amount of oil from the
E
reservoir to the cylinder. This requires a large
amount of pump strokes, which logically
requires time. This hydraulic system works
D
fine and is useful to lift a chair at a dentist or a
barber shop. However this system is not
suitable when high pressures are required to Figure 7 Drawing of a hydraulic system with
frequently lift heavy loads. The drawing in symbols
Figure 6 is a rather complicated drawing for
such a simple hydraulic installation. Therefore Assignment
we have made a drawing with symbols of the
3. Provide de correct name and function for
same installation in Figure 7
symbol a up to g.

13
 Gear pump Industrial and hydraulic systems of any size
are not equipped with simple pumps. In
Figure 8 you can see a common pump. It is a
rotating gear pump
A gear pump suitable for two flow directions.
You can see the symbol in Figure 11.
housing, and off-course the gear. On the
pressure side of the pump a tooth of the other
gear is pressing the oil out of the tooth gap.
The suction operation of the pump is created
by the opposite. When a tooth moves from the
tooth gap, the space becomes bigger which
creates an under pressure, the oil flows in this
direction.

Figure 8 Gear pump

Figure 10 Gear pump

In Figure 9 and Figure 10 The same pump is
depicted however in cross section. The gear
pump works as follows (see Figure 8 and
Figure 9):

SUHVVXUH
Figure 11 Pump with two flow directions

The suction and the pressure side are

changed when the rotation direction is
changed. The symbol for a (gear) pump, only
suitable for one flow direction is:

VXFWLRQ
Figure 12 Pump for one flow direction

Figure 9 Cross section of gear pump

In practice a pump is usually marked whether
it is suitable for one or two flow directions.
One gear is driven from the motor and this
gear is driving the other gear. The gears accu- Assignment
rately fit in the pump house, between the flat
4. What do you think, is the pump in Figure
sides, and in each other. The The thrust plates
9 suitable for two flow directions or not.
are also referred to as pressure plates or wear
Explain your answer.
plates. The rotating gears transfer the oil
between the the teeth gaps (space between
two gear teeth) along the circumference of the
gear pump housing. In a way the space
between the teeth creates a chamber. This
chamber is locked by the side plates, the

14
The improved See Figure 13. In this system the hand pump
is replaced for a gear pump. When this system
system is installed on a truck, the engine of the vehicle
can drive the pump, which can be manually
switched on and off as required.

JHDUSXPS

3 SUHV FRQWUROYDOYH
7 WDQN 3
7 VDIHW\YDOYH

Figure 13 The improved system

The pump is in operation. The control valve in

the return line is kept open until the lifting
cylinder needs to move up. Thereafter the
control valve is closed to allow oil into the
lifting cylinder. When the load is blocked
during the lifting action the sudden inhibition of
the oil flow can cause damage to the lifting
cylinder, the pump or another part of the
system. A safety valve or over-pressure valve
is designed to cope with unforeseen pressure
increases. . The safety valve has a connection 3 7
between the pump and the cylinder. The
second connection is connected to the tank.
So the safety valve has a discharge
connection to the reservoir. Normally, a spring
with adjustable tension is keeping this valve
closed. When the pressure in the system 0
exceeds the tension of the spring the ball of
the safety valve is lifted from its seat. The oil
can flow back to the tank and the pressure in
the system remains on the set pressure. This
hydraulic system is the basic principle as Figure 14 Schematic diagram of Figure 13
applied in all kind of machines.
Figure 14 is the schematic diagram of the
installation of Figure 13. Some new symbols
are included in this drawing.

15
 The safety valve
The most important new symbol is the one of
the safety valve. The symbol of the safety
valve also depicts the working principle. When FRQGXLWFRQQHFWLRQ

the pressure before the valve exceeds the set

spring tension, this pressure is pressing the
FRQWUROOLQH
valve (depicted by the arrow in the box) down
against the spring tension via the dotted pilot
line. The latter creates a connection between
VSULQJ
the pressure line and the tank, which is why
the pressure cannot exceed the set spring
pressure. In Figure 15 the safety valve is DGMXVWDEOHVSULQJ
depicted as an activated symbol. In Figure 16
the working principle of the safety valve is
depicted.
DGMXVWDEOH
VDIHW\YDOYH
GUDZQDFWLYDWHG
SUHVVXUHQRW
H[FHHGLQJ WRWKHWDQN
EDU

Figure 17 New symbols

VSULQJWHQVLRQ A hydraulic system contains at least the

VHWDW
EDU following components:

hydraulic pump:
Figure 15 Safety valve

a. supplied with mechanical energy from an

electric motor or a combustion engine.
b. transfers mechanical energy to hydraulic
energy

hydraulic cylinder:
3 a. transfers hydraulic energy to mechanical
energy
7 b. supplies mechanical energy (linear
motion)
Figure 16 Safety valve opened
hydraulic motor:
In Figure 17 some more new symbols are
a. transfers hydraulic to mechanical energy
depicted.
b. supplies mechanical energy (rotary
movement)

switching and control equipment, valves.

pipes.
hydraulic fluid, usually oil.
auxiliary equipment, such as filters, tank,
coolers, gauges, and so on.

16
Encodings hydraulic valves
When valves are operated by oil, the control
lines are also encoded. The control lines are
coded with z and y. By putting pressure on
control line z connection P-A is made.
Pressure on control line y creates the
connection P-B. This encoding is according to
the DIN-norm and uses letter encodings.
Function hydraulic pump and
motor
The feature of a pump is that it transfers
mechanical energy into hydraulic energy,
whilst a hydraulic motor transfers hydraulic
energy into mechanical energy. A pump that
can also serve as a hydraulic motor has the
symbol of Figure 21:

The DIN encoding Assignments

5. What is the difference between the drawn
Hydraulic
lines in Figure 18?
P pressure connection
R return connection work port A
S return connection work port B
A work port
B work port
z control port for the connection P to A
y control port for the connection P to B
L leakage line Figure 18

Some important concepts 6. Write down the names of the symbols in

When a valve is returned in its neutral position Figure 19, Figure 20 en Figure 21.
by means of a spring we refer to a mono-
stable valve. Mono-stable means one fixed
position. The counterpart of mono-stable is
bi-stable. A bi-stable valve has two fixed
positions. Both positions of the valve need
their own control signal. A bi-stable valve will
remain in its last position when the control Figure 19
signal is removed.

Figure 20

Figure 21

17
 Hydraulic cylinder
Single acting cylinders with a spring return do
not occur often in hydraulic applications. Much
better known are the so-called plunger
cylinders also referred to as ram cylinders or
hydraulic jacks (see Figure 22), which returns
by the load.

ORDG
NJ

ORDG
NJ

PRYHRXW UHWUDFW

IURPWKHSXPS WRWKHWDQN

Figure 22 Plunger cylinder

In Figure 22 It stands out that there is only

one line connection Both the supply and
return flow through the same pipe. This is also
common with single-acting piston cylinders.
Double acting cylinders are applied regularly. IURPWKH WRWKH
In Figure 23 you can see a double acting SXPS WDQN
cylinder.

URGVLGH

WRWKH IURPWKH
WDQN SXPS
SLVWRQVLGH

Figure 24 Double-acting Cylinder

Figure 23 Double-acting Cylinder

Both sides have one pipe, which is used for

both supply and discharge of oil. When the
piston in Figure 23 is moved out, the oil from
the rod side needs to find a way to the
reservoir. This is opposite when the piston is
retracted. This is depicted in Figure 24.

18
Uncomplicated In Figure 25 and Figure 26 uncomplicated 14. How high will the pressure become when
hydraulic systems are depicted the piston is reaching the end of its
systems stroke?
15. How high will the pressure in the system
become during the return stroke of the
cylinder? The returning piston is not
ORDG
loaded.
$ % The lever operated 4/2 valve in the hydraulic
,, ,
system of Figure 25 is replaced by a 4/3
valve with a spool detent action. This is
depicted in Figure 26 The advantage of this
3 7 valve is that the piston rod can be fixed in any
position (between fully retracted and fully
moved out).
3 7

EDU

0 ORDG

$ %

3 7
Figure 25 Uncomplicated system

Assignments 3 7
0
7. What is the full name for the control valve
in Figure 25?
EDU
8. What happens with the oil flow in the
0
drawn position of the valve in Figure 25?
9. The control valve of Figure 25 is set in
position 1. What is the value of the
pressure on the rod side of the cylinder?
If you do not know, indicate on which
factors this pressure is depending.
Figure 26
10. The control valve of Figure 25 is set in
position II. What is the value of the
pressure on the piston side of the
cylinder? The load on the cylinder
requires a pressure of 60 bar.
11. What happens with the oil flow when the
4/3 valve of Figure 26 is set in the mid-
position?
12. How high is the pressure in the pressure
line when the 4/3valve is set in the mid-
position?
13. Indicate on which factors the pressure in
the hydraulic system in Figure 26 is
depending when the piston is moving out.

19
 Definitions There is a lot of discussion about the defi-
nitions of operation and control organs of
hydraulic systems. When we do not know
whether the inside of a valve is equipped with
a spool or a valve we simply use the collective
name valve. Both in pneumatic engineering
and hydraulic engineering the collective name
valve is applied.
Hydraulic valves
A closed mid-position is not ideal for the
system. Preferably the oil should be pumped
to the tank without generating a pressure in
the neutral position. This would prevent a lot
of energy loss. There should be an open
connection (open center) in the neutral
position between the pressure connection of
the pump and the return line. In Figure 28 the
solution is depicted The valve in Figure 28
depicts that the oil is pumped back without
generating a pressure. In Figure 27 the
hydraulic system is drawn again, however the
4/3 valve is equipped with and open center
mid-position. In addition the control of the 4/3
valve is changed. The lever is replaced by two
electrical coils (solenoids). The advantage is
that we can operate the valve at a larger
distance.
/RDG
$ %
3 7
0
0
Figure 27 4/3 valve with an open-center mid-
position
20
$ %
3 7
Figure 28
A current will flow through the coil when the
coil is powered by means of a push button or
switch. As a result the coil will work as a
magnet. In Figure 31 the complete valve is
depicted in a sectional drawing. The mid
(central) block consists of a spool with
housing. Electric coils are placed on both
sides. The spool will remain in the mid-position
when the coils are not powered. This is
because of the springs which are placed on
both sides of the spool. When coil 1 is
powered the coil becomes magnetic and will
attract the core. The core will push the spool to
the right against the spring pressure which will
allow a P-A connection. When coil 2 is
powered the same actions will occur however
the spool is moved to the left, which allows a
P-B connection. The symbol for the electric
control of Figure 31 is:
Figure 29 Electric control
The symbol for the complete valve is:
$ %
FRLO 3 7 FRLO
Figure 30
Assignment
16. Provide the full definition (name) for the
valve in Figure 30. Naturally the best
approach is to read the name from the
symbol.
 VSULQJV

FRLO
FRUH

% 3 $ 7 HPHUJHQF\KDQG
RSHUDWLRQZLWKWKHDLG
FRLO FRLO RIDFRWWHUSLQ

VSULQJV

Figure 31 4/3 valve

$ % & ' (

) * + , 0 -

.
/

Figure 32

Assignments
17. Provide the names for the symbols of
Figure 32.
18. What is the feature of a hydraulic pump?
19. What is the feature of a hydraulic motor?

21
 Design simple system in the neutral position the oil must be
able to free flow;
Assignments
the system has to be protected against
20. Design a simple hydraulic system in
too high pressures;
normalized symbols, which complies with
the following terms:
furthermore, the installation consists of
the cylinder can be moved in and out by a pump with one flow direction, a reser-
means of an electrical controlled valve; voir, pipes, one filter and a pressure
gauge.
the cylinder can be stopped in any posi-
tion;

Figure 33 Design simple system

22
 Chapter 3

Hydraulic Systems
Basic systems Hydraulic installations are distinguished in two
basic systems:
The open system
In an open system the pumps are obtaining
their oil from a reservoir. The return oil is
discharged to the same reservoir.
The closed system
In a closed system the pump obtains the oil
straight from the return line. Return line and
suction line are the same.

25
 Construction In Figure 34 depicts a cylinder that can be
send in and out by means of a manually
open hydraulic operated 4/2 valve. The hand-pump supplies
the oil for the in and out motion of the piston.
system

3 7

EDU
E 0

F
D
Figure 34 Open system

This installation has a number of disad-

vantages. We call two:

The pressure line or the cylinder in Figure

34 will burst when one keeps pumping. A Figure 35 Hydraulic system
safety by means of a safety valve is neces-
sary.
Normally one chooses for one or two of these
Parts wear out considerably faster
filters. Off-course the flow capacity of the filter
because the oil is not filtered. This wear is
needs to be larger than the maximum oil flow.
caused by the dirt from the tank and parti-
A large flow capacity of the filter prevents
cles derived from wear of the parts.
large pressure differences over the filter in
case of minimal pollution of the filter
Safety valve d in the hydraulic system of
Figure 35 is applied for the safety of the
Assignments
pressure section. The pressure in the
pressure section can increase up to 85 Bar. At 21. Assume that the pump in Figure 35 is
this pressure the oil is discharged to the tank running. What is the reading on the
via the safety valve while the load stops. In pressure gauge? What determines this
practice different terms are used to indicate pressure?
the pressure safety valve, such as hydraulic
22. How will one proceed in practice with the
overpressure valve, pressure relieve valve,
adjustment of the safety valve?
safety valve and maximum valve.
23. What will happen with the installation in
In the hydraulic system of Figure 35 one can
Figure 35, when it will maintain running
distinct the following filters;
in the depicted select mode?

Suction filter a, between tank and pump
Pressure filter e, in the pressure line
Return filter c, in the return line
In the system of Figure 35 all energy in the
rest position of the 4/2 valve is transferred into
heat by means of the safety valve. This allows
the oil temperature to increase to high very
rapidly. Because of this reason a 4/2 valve is
often replaced by a 4/3 valve.

26
Flow capacity of In Figure 36 two 4/3 valves are depicted with
a P to T connection in the mid-position. In the
the different rest-position of these 4/3 valves the oil is
returned from P to T at zero pressure.
components
When the flow of the pump is 20 l/min the
capacity of the safety valve also needs to be at
least 20 l/min. The cylinder space y needs to
be filled with 20 liters of oil in order to send out
the piston of Figure 36 sending out will than
take one minute. To send the piston in
VSDFH[
OLWHU
0 0
Figure 36 Flow capacity
requires not so much oil. The piston rod is
included in space x. When the piston rod has a
volume of 10 liter it will only take 30 seconds
to send the piston in. In that half minute 20 liter
of oil has to flow from space y through the 4/3
valve to the tank. Therefore, the 4/3 valve
must have a flow capacity of 40 l/min. Of
course the same reasoning counts for the
return filter.
VSDFH\
OLWHU
27
 Series circuit In a series circuit the oil from the pump is send
to the hydraulic motor. The oil leaving this
motor is send directly to a next motor. The oil
flows from the one motor to the other motor.
The same can be done with cylinders. A series
circuit with two hydraulic motors is depicted in
Figure 37 When the valves P en Q are in
position 1, the oil can flow via motor A to motor
B. The advantage of this circuit is that the
rotating speed of both motors is virtually the
same, also when the load of the motors is
different. The disadvantage is that the return
connection of motor A and valve P is pres-
surized. With some components this is not
desirable.

$ %

, ,, , ,,

0
3 4

&
0 0

EDU

( '
0 SXPSIORZ
OPLQ

Figure 37 Series circuit

28
Assignments
24. Provide the names for the components A,
C, D, E, F, and P. Component P is
switched in position I and component Q in
position II. Hydraulic motor A is loaded so
that a pressure difference of 20 bar is
required to allow rotation. The load on
motor B requires a pressure difference of
30 bar to allow rotation.
25. What are the readings on the pressure
gauges M1, M2 and M3 in above
mentioned situation?
26. What is the reading on flow meter F?
27. The displacement volume of hydraulic
motor A is similar to the displacement
volume of hydraulic motor B. What can
you say about the rotation speed of
hydraulic motor A and the rotation speed
of hydraulic motor B?
28. What can you say about the rotation
speeds of both hydraulic motors when
leakage in the different components is
considered?
The situation is changing as follows:
component P is switched in position II and
component Q is also switched in position II.
Hydraulic motor A is loaded so that a pressure
difference of 45 bar is required to rotate
hydraulic motor A. At the same time hydraulic
motor B has a load that requires a pressure
difference of 40 bar to allow rotation.

29. What are the readings on pressure gauge

M1, M2 and M3 in this new situation?
30. How much flow will the flow meter
register?
31. What is the rotation speed of both
hydraulic motors in this situation?
32. Is the return oil filtered in all cases?

29
 Parallel circuits In a parallel circuit all control valves are
connected to the pump and tank by means of
a common pressure and return line (see
Figure 38). The circuit can in most cases be
established by means of 2 and 3 way valves.
An advantage in comparison with a series
circuit is that more appliances can be switched
simultaneously and separately from each
other. However, the disadvantage is that the
appliance with the lowest resistance takes
priority. The pump is running on zero-load
when none of the appliances are used. This is
due to the zero-load circuit with 3/2 valve H.
Assignments
33. Provide the names for the components A,
B, D, E, G, H, I and J.
34. What is the function of valve H, and when
is valve H switched?
Valve H is switched in position II and valve E
in position I.
35. What determines the pressure reading of
pressure gauge M3? (The pump is
running).
36. M3 indicates 60 bar. What are the
readings on pressure gauges M1, M2 and
M3 in the in the obtained situation with
running pump?
The situation is as follows: the components D,
E and F are switched in position I, and valve H
in position II. The load on the cylinders is as
follows: Cylinder A is 40 bar, the first stage of
cylinder B is 60 bar, and cylinder A is 10 bar.

37. Are all cylinders moving out simulta-

neously? Explain your answer. If no,
specify in which sequence they move out
and under which pressure this happens.
38. Is the return oil completely filtered in all
cases?

$ &

0
0 0
, ,, , ,, , ,,

' ( )

*
,
, ,, +
0

- 0
EDU
SXPSIORZ
4 OPLQ

Figure 38 Parallel circuit

30
Series-Parallel An example of two series-parallel connected
hydraulic motors by means of one 4/3 valve
circuit and one 4/2 valve is depicted in Figure 39.
Position I of valve B is the series circuit and
position II will allow the parallel circuit. Valve A
allows for the change of the flow direction and
has an open mid position.
, ,,
,,
Figure 39 Series-parallel circuit
Assignments
39. How should the switching valves be posi-
tioned to connect the motors in series
with a liquid flow through the motors from
right to left?
40. How should the valves be positioned to
run the motors in parallel while main-
taining the rotation direction as in the
previous assignment?
41. What happens with the rotation speed
and the maximum achievable pressure
difference of both motors in a:
a: series circuit?
b: parallel circuit?
,
31
 Parallel circuit tandem of valves
In Figure 41 you can see an example of a
parallel circuit tandem of 6/3 valves. This
example clearly depicts that such a system
can be built in modules (sandwich layout). It
concerns an excavator with two cylinders and
two hydraulic motors.

Assignments
42. The cylinders and hydraulic motors are
not operated. What is the pressure
reading on pressure gauge M1?
43. Which motions can be performed simulta-
neously?
44. What will happen if you will start driving
during swerving?
45. Which risk does the designer take if he
makes the sandwich assembly too thick?

Figure 40 Sandwich valve Assembly

32
 H[FDYDWRUDUP H[FDYDWRUUHFHSWDFOH GULYLQJ VZHUYLQJ
XSZDUGVGRZQZDUGV WLOWLQJ

$ %

& '

0 0 0 0

   

7 7 7

0

0 EDU
0

Figure 41 Parallel circuit of 6/3 valves.

33
 High and low In Figure 42 you will see the schematic
diagram of a press.For this press a low
pressure pump pressure pump (40 bar) and a high pressure
pump (120 bar) are applied. The low- and high
combination pressure pump jointly serve to allow a quick
motion of the piston (a large oil volume at a
low pressure). As soon as the piston
encounters resistance the high-pressure
pump will increase the pressure to 120 bar.
I
F
0
0
EDU
D
0
/'
OPLQ
Figure 42 High and low pressure pump combination
Assignments
46. What is the function of non-return valve f?
47. What determines the pressure reading on
pressure gauge M3 in the current
position?
48. Assume that valve e is switched in
position 1 and pressure gauge M3 is
reading 20 bar. What are the approxi-
mately pressure readings on pressure
gauge M1, M2 and M4?
49. Pressure gauge M3 is reading 60 bar.
What are the approximately readings on
the pressure gauges M1, M2 and M4?
50. How many liters of oil are flowing through
valve e? (The cylinder is still moving)
51. Valve e is switched in position I, and the
stamp is clamped in the mould. What are
the pressure readings on pressure
gauges M1, M2, M3 and M4 in this case?
52. How many liters of oil are now flowing
through valve e?
34
Valve d is a safety valve. Valve c opens when
the pressure in the system is exceeding 40
bar. The low-pressure pump is able to
discharge to the tank against zero pressure
when the pressure in the system is higher than
40 bar. This is why this valve is referred to as
a pressure relief valve.
0 ,
,,
VWDPS
G
PRXOG
0

EDU E
+'
OPLQ
53. How many liters of oil are now flowing
through valve c?
54. What is the difference between the flow
capacity of valve c and valve d?
55. What is the flow capacity of respectively
the filters a, and b and the valve e, consi-
dering the thick piston rod? Piston
surface = 100 cm, rod surface = 75 cm.
56. When M3 is reading 20 bar, M4 is reading
1 bar and when M3 is reading 100 bar,
M4 is reading 0,5 bar. Try to explain this.
57. In which component of Figure 42 will (in
certain cases) generate a lot of heat?
58. Is the driving motor able to deliver, when
the high-pressure and the low-pressure
pumps are exchanged by one pump with
a capacity of 110 l/min and a maximum
pressure of 120 bar? Explain your
answer.
 The closed Assignments
3 59. At which pressure should safety valve a
hydraulic system open?
60. What should be the minimum flow
0 capacity of valve a?
61. Is the non-return valve mounted
= correctly? Motivate your answer.
62. Change the non-return valve into a
Figure 43 Basic closed system braking valve. What can happen if the
spring is too heavy?
The system of Figure 43 consists of a pump, 63. Hydraulic motors in a closed system can
an electric motor, and a hydraulic motor. The fulfill an unplanned pump function, and
pump and the hydraulic motor are working in a cause dangerous situations. How can this
closed circuit. This means that the pressure occur?
side of the pump is connected with the suction
side of the pump via the hydraulic motor. The 64. Is this also possible for hydraulic motors
closed system will be expanded gradually in in open systems?
the following diagrams. 65. Can a cylinder also fulfill this unplanned
pump function, and cause dangerous
Safety Devices situations?
A safety valve is prerequisite to secure the
safety of the pump also in a closed system 3
(see Figure 44). When one stops the pump of
Figure 44, the hydraulic motor does not get oil
anymore. The hydraulic motor will work as 0
pump when the hydraulic motor keeps turning D

because of weight of the driven machinery.

=
The non-return valve allows free running of the
external driven hydraulic motor, which even-
tually will come to a stop. The free running Figure 44 Safety device of a closed system
time can be reduced when the non-return
valve is equipped with a spring. This does
involve heat generation. In this case the non-
return valve is used as a simple hydraulic
braking valve.

35
 To reverse rotation direction
In Figure 45 you will see a pump with two flow
directions and a hydraulic motor with two
rotation directions. When the flow direction is
reversed the suction-and pressure side of the
pump are also switched while the electric
motor is running in the same direction. A
safety valve is applied for each flow direction
separately. The arrow through the pump
indicates that the pump is adjustable. Also a
closed system is subject to wear and pollution
of the oil. In Figure 45 a special circuit with
non-return valves is made because the oil can
flow in two directions while a filter can only
filter in one direction.
Assignments
66. Which flow direction is secured by safety
valve a, and which flow direction is
secured by safety valve b?
67. How is the rotation speed of the hydraulic
motor controlled?
The pump delivers 40 l/min and the flow
direction is counterclockwise. The load of the
hydraulic motor creates a pressure difference
of 70 bar over the hydraulic motor.
68. What are the readings on pressure gauge
M1 and M2 in this situation?
69. Assume that the pump output is
controlled back to approximately 10 l/min,
and the load is maintained. Do the
pressures in the system change? Explain
your answer.
70. The load of the hydraulic motor is
increasing and requires a pressure
difference of 110 bar. Does the rotation
speed of the hydraulic motor change?
Explain your answer.
71. What do you think of the execution of the
filter? Should this be lined out as a return
or as a pressure filter?
0
IORZ 3=
GLUHFWLRQ PD[LPXP
WRWKHULJKW OPLQ D
EDU
0
EDU
E
IORZ
GLUHFWLRQ
WRWKHOHIW ORDG
=3
0

Figure 45 Winch drive

36
Filling pump
In a closed system an oil shortage is caused
by the expansion of the pipes at high
pressures however specifically because of
leakage oil losses. To resupply this shortage a
small filling pump (see Figure 46), is applied
that extracts the oil from a tank specifically
applied for that purpose.

0
WRWKHULJKW

0 D
H EDU
PD[LPXP E
OPLQ
OPLQ
EDU
0 I
K J L

WRWKHOHIW
0

F
G EDU

Figure 46 Application of a filling pump

Assignments
72. Provide the names for the components a,
c, d, e, g, h, and i.
The pump h is adjusted to a capacity of 40 l/
min and the rotation direction is clockwise.
The load of the hydraulic motor i creates a
pressure drop of 40 bar over the hydraulic
motor.
73. Via, which components are the leakages
resupplied (approximately 1 l/min) and
what are the readings on the pressure
gauges M1, M2, and M3?
74. Are the leakages in the system of Figure
46 always the same? If no, indicate on
which factor these depend.
75. At which pressure drop over the hydraulic
motor is the installation overloaded?
(take note of valve d).
76. What should be the size of the flow
capacity of the suction filter?
77. For what reason is the safety valve d
included in the diagram?
78. What should be the approximately size of
the flow capacity of safety valve d?

37
 The flushing valve
In Figure 47 a flushing valve F is included
The flushing valve must extract a part of the
return oil from the system to filter and to cool.
The oil is resupplied in the system by means
of filling pump C.

0
,

)
0
' EDU
 EDU
$ 0

0
&
PD[LPXP  * + %
EDU
OPLQ (

,,
0

/ .

Figure 47 Application of a flushing valve

Assignments
79. Assume that line I is functioning as
pressure line. Which position will valve F
take and which oil will be cooled; the oil
from the pressure, or the oil from the
return line? Why will this be done this
way?
80. What should be the size of the pump
capacity of pump C? Take into account a
flush capacity of 10 l/min and leakages of
1 l/min.
81. What should be the approximately size of
the flow capacities of the valves H and
M?
82. What size should be the through puts of
the components F, J, K, and G?
83. What is the value of the pressure in the
return line of the main system?
84. On what pressure will valve J be
adjusted? Higher or lower than 15 bar? Figure 48 Closed system
85. What is the approximately allowed
working pressure in the system? What
determines this pressure?

38
Regeneration In Figure 49 a regeneration system is
depicted In this diagram the cylinder can be
system send out in two ways. Position 1 of the 4/3
valve is connecting the pressure side of the
pump with the bottom side of the cylinder. The
rod side of the cylinder is connected with the
tank. In this case the full pump capacity is
supplied to the bottom side of the cylinder.
The oil on the rod side is discharged to the
tank via the 4/3 valve. Position II of the 4/3
valve is connecting the pressure side of the
pump with both the bottom side and the rod
side of the cylinder. The pressure on the rod
SLVWRQVXUIDFH$ URGVXUIDFH%
side and the bottom side is the same because
the bottom side and the rod side are
connected. The force in the outgoing direction
is the pressure multiplied with the piston area
A. The force in the ingoing direction is the
same pressure multiplied with the ring surface
C. It is obvious that the force in the outgoing
direction is larger than the one in the ingoing
direction. The piston rod will move out. The
speed is higher than in position I. (see Figure
49).

ULQJVXUIDFH&
0 0

, ,, ,,,
0

EDU
0
OPLQ

Figure 49 Regeneration circuit

Assignment
86. What can you say about the speed which
the cylinder moves out in position I and in
position II of the 4/3 valve?

39
 0 0 0 0

, ,, ,,, ,, ,
0 0
0 0

EDU EDU

OPLQ
OPLQ

Figure 50 Regeneration circuit Figure 51 Regeneration circuit

In Figure 50 you will see a regeneration In Figure 51 you will see another regeneration
circuit. circuit.

Assignments Assignments

87. In which position of the 3/2 valve in this 90. In which position of the 4/3 valve (Figure
circuit is the regeneration stroke 51 in this circuit is the regeneration stroke
performed? performed?

88. Assume that pressure gauge M1 reads
50 bar during the outgoing stroke. What
are the readings on M2 up to and
including M4?
89. Is it also possible to execute a regene-
ration stroke during the ingoing stroke of
the piston?
91. Is it possible to execute an outgoing
stroke at normal speed?
92. This circuit has a big advantage as
opposed to the previous two circuits.
Explain this advantage. (Consider the
mid-position of the circuit of Figure 51).
93. Explain why the valve capacity must be
larger than the maximum pump capacity.

40
 D

E
, ,, ,,,

Figure 52 Regeneration circuit

The regeneration circuit of Figure 52 disabled

at a high pre-adjusted changeover pressure.
This pressure is caused by the piston load.

Assignments
94. Is this switchover pressure adjusted with
component a or b?
95. Is the adjustment of pressure relief valve
a higher or lower as opposed to safety
valve b?
96. What is the advantage of this circuit in
case the cylinder is applied for a
clamping installation for various material
thicknesses?

41
 Accumulator for The accumulator is partly filled with nitrogen,
and is therefore able to absorb excess fluid
return movement (oil) from the system and resupply at lower
pressure. The plate press (Figure 53) needs
a lot of force for the pressing of the plate. For
the return stroke limited force is required. The
accumulator in Figure 53 is applied to deliver
the oil for the return stroke. In this case a very
low nitrogen pressure is used of 10-15% of
the working pressure.
0
9
Figure 53 Plate press
42
Assignments
97. What can you say about the through put
capacity of the 4/2 valve? (Consider the
free running and the return stroke of the
piston).
98. During operation the piston does not
move back anymore. What can be the
cause of this?
99. What is the consequence when the
bellow in the accumulator is leaking?
100. What are the consequences when the
setting of V2 is too low?
101. Why is the cylinder of Figure 53
equipped with a relatively thick piston
rod?
102. What is the reason for the accumulator
operating with a low nitrogen pressure?
ILOOLQJ
DFFXPXODWRU
9
Synchronized Cylinders movements can be synchronized in compensated flow control valves are adjusted
different ways. However 100% synchroni- on a similar throughput the cylinders will move
cylinder zation in hydraulic systems is difficult to out virtually synchronously independent from
achieve. In Figure 54the synchronization of the load.
movements the cylinders is accomplished by applying
two-way pressure compensated flow control
valves. When both two-way pressure-

Figure 54 Synchronous system

Assignments
103. Are the pistons of Figure 54 moving in
synchronously when the loads on the
cylinders are unequal?
In the diagram of Figure 55 a synchronous
control by means of a flow divider valve is
depicted.
104. Will the synchronous movement with the
flow divider valve occur during the
outgoing piston stroke, the ingoing piston
stroke or during both directions?

Figure 55 Synchronous movement with the flow

divider valve

43
 In the diagram of Figure 56 two pump/motor
combinations are depicted. These are mecha-
nically connected with each other. Both pump/
motor combinations are mounted on the same
shaft. The displacement volume and the
rotation speed of both pump/motor combi-
nations are equal. Therefore, the oil flow to
both cylinders is independent from the load.
In Figure 57 a series circuit of two cylinders is
depicted The surface on the rod side of
cylinder A is equal to the surface under the
piston of cylinder B. This referred to as
synchronization by means of positive
displacement.
An accurate hydraulic synchronization is
difficult to achieve. Some factors that have a
negative influence on synchronization are:

Large differences in cylinder load;

Differences in cylinder volume (toleran-
ces);
Differences in pipe lengths and /or pipe
volumes; Figure 56 Synchronization with flow dividing
Expansion of high pressure hoses; motors for cylinders with limited load
Leakages in pilot and control equipment; differences
Toggling speed of flow control valves;
Location of cylinders with regard to tempe-
rature differences;
Compressibility of oil;

Another way to achieve synchronization is to

electronically measure and to adjust the $ %

valves based on the measurements. This is

increasingly more applied in practice.

Figure 57 Synchronization by series circuit

Assignment
105. Does the synchronous sequence in
Figure 56 occur only with the outgoing
piston stroke or in both directions?

44
Assignment Two flow directions.
Safeties.
106. Complete Figure 58. It must be a closed
Cooling.
hydraulic system with a pump, and a
Filtering.
motor according to the following five
Filling pump.
requirements:

Figure 58 Closed hydraulic system

45
46
 Chapter 4

Hydraulic Fluids
Introduction Oil is one of the most important hydraulic
fluids. The main function of oil is the transpor-
,629* 6$(
tation of energy. However, at the same time oil  
  
must perform a number of other functions.

NLQHPDWLFYLVFRVLW\PPV
NLQHPDWLFYLVFRVLW\PPV
This to ensure a good performance, and a   
 
long lifetime, 100.000 running hours is not an 

exception. The right quality choice of hydraulic 


 
 
fluid is essential for a hydraulic installation. 
 


Main tasks of hydraulic oil 




   

Transfer force. The oil is transporting the

power by means of a volume flow under    

pressure.  : 

Lubrication. The oil needs to have excel-

lent lubricating properties to lubricate pump  

bearings, valves, and so on to prevent  
wear. 



Cooling. The heat is discharged by the oil  : 

to the tank, if necessary via an intermediate  : 


cooler.  
PRWRU WUDQVPLVVLRQ
Corrosion protection. The oil must protect RLO RLO

the metal parts in contact with the oil   

against corrosion. Corrosion can still occur  

due to the condensation water.
Cleanliness. The dirt particles generated in   

the installation (gasket scraps, corrosion  

particles, and so on) are discharged by the  

oil and separated from the oil by means of a  


filter.  
Create oil film. The oil film maintains a
good sealing between two moving parts  

with a tight tolerance.   

 

Main features of hydraulic oil

Correct viscosity. The viscosity of oil is given Figure 59 Comparison between the ISO classifi-
in an ISO viscosity number with a unit in mm/ cation and the SAE reference
S or cSt (centi Stokes) at 40 C. Viscosity is
also referred to as fluidity or the thickness of The choice of viscosity is mainly depending
the oil. The viscosity of hydraulic oil is grouped on:
in 18 viscosity grades from 2 to 1500 cSt. In
the table of Figure 59 most of the applied oils Plant temperature
are ranked in viscosity in relation to the tempe- Application, e.g., mobile, industry, mari-
rature. It becomes clear from Figure 60that time industry, and so on
viscosity is highly depending on temperature. Load conditions, e.g., continuous or inter-
A higher temperature gives a lower viscosity mittent
(thinner oil). When the oil is too thin the lubri- Applied components, e.g., pumps, cylin-
cating film is not optimum, which results into ders, valves
increasing leakages. When oil is too thick the
risk of cavitation is increasing and the reaction
times of control and switching components is
decreasing.

49
 Assignments 107. Write down the viscosity of VG100 oil at a
temperature of 50C.
A new crane installation in a factory will be
equipped with a hydraulic loop drive and a 108. Write down at which temperature VG32
hydraulic winch. To load trucks the crane must oil has a viscosity of 100 cSt.
be able to drive both on the shop floor and
109. The applied pump and components
outside. For the ambient temperature extreme
operate optimum at a viscosity between
values should be considered: in winter -10C
10-300 cSt. Which oil do you choose?
and in summer +40C.
9LVFRVLW\LQPPV
Explain your answer.

 

9LVFRVLW\LQPPV
 
9*
 
 9* 
 
9*
 
9*
 
 9* 
 

 9* 

 
 
 
 
 

 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 

 

 

 

               

7HPSHUDWXUH R&

Figure 60 Viscosity/ temperature

50
Viscosity Index when the temperature is increasing or
decreasing. The change of viscosity at
(VI) changing temperatures is depicted in Figure
61.

Assignment
In the graph of Figure 61 a number of different
oils (A through and, including H) with different
VI are depicted.
110. Which oil has the highest VI, and for
The viscosity index depicts the change of which application is this oil suitable?
viscosity by changing oil temperatures. A high
viscosity index of oil indicates that relative
limited viscosity changes relatively limited

9LVFRVLW\LQPP V
9LVFRVLW\LQPP V

 
 
9*
 
 9* 
 
9*
 
9*
 $ 
 9* 
 
%
 9* 
&

 ' 

 
 ( 
 
 

 

 
)
 
 
 

* 
 
 
 + 
 

 

 

 

 

               

7HPSHUDWXUH R&

Figure 61 Viscosity/Temperature

Oil with a high VI index is mainly applied for

installations that deal with large temperature
changes for instance excavators, cranes, and
airplanes.

51
 Viscosity according to ISO VG gases whereby the compressibility of oil is off-
and SAE course much, much lower than gases. To
compensate the influence of the compressi-
Besides the ISI VG (Viscosity grade) classifi-
bility in certain hydraulic installations accumu-
cation there is also the SAE indication of
lators are applied.
motor oil. Motor oil is applied as hydraulic oil in
certain (mobile) applications.
Good de-airing
The main characteristic of the ISO VG classifi-
Air in oil can occur in different shapes:
cation is, that the entire range from low to high
viscosities is measured in mm/s (=Centi-
As dissolved air
stokes) at 40C and is divided in 18 strips with
As foam on the surface (foam consists of
clearly determined limit values. These
90% air)
viscosity areas are not connecting. However
As undissolved air
in practice this is not a problem. The table also
provides a comparison with the the SAE group
classification. This table clearly depicts that Dissolved air
classification of oil according to SAE only Oil in the reservoir consists approximately 9%
provides a rough subdivision. of dissolved air. When the pressure is
increasing, an increasing amount of air can be
Viscosity change dissolved in oil. As rule of thumb, the amount
of liters air that can be dissolved is equal to
The viscosity can change. This occurs predo-
0.09 multiplied with the amount of liters of
minantly because of temperature and
existing oil multiplied with the pressure
pressure changes. Oil generally becomes
increase in bar. When the pressure is
thinner when the temperature is increasing.
dropping the amount of air that can be
This implicates that the viscosity is reducing.
dissolved is also dropping. The non-
At high oil temperatures there is a risk of a too
dissolvable air is than appearing in the form of
thin lubricating film (bad lubrication). Because
air bubbles. When these bubbles in the tank
of this the maximum operating temperature is
can rise to the oil surface and disappear via
limited. However warm oil is thinner than cold
the tank air vent, air in a hydraulic system is
oil, which allows improved flow through pipes
no problem.
and valves. The normal operating tempe-
ratures for hydraulic oil are: Foam
Foam on the oil only appears in the tank and
For factory machines 15C to 40C above the
will, provided that the applied oil has good air
ambient temperature;
separation abilities, quickly disappear.
For machines working outside 45C to 75C
Regular foam in the tank can indicate there is
above the ambient temperature.
an air intake somewhere in the system or the
return oil is causing too much agitation in the
Cloud point and solidifying tank. Have a look at the amount of air that is
point entering the water when a bucket is filled
When the cloud point is reached paraffin under the tap.
flakes or crystals appear in the oil. These
have a large impact on the viscosity (this will
increase). When the temperature becomes
even lower the solidifying point can be
reached. The oil will become solid and cannot
be pumped anymore. In case of an emergency
the oil can be mixed with oil of a lower
viscosity (thinner oil).

Limited compressibility
Compressibility of oil is the volume reduction
by pressure increase, approximately 1% at
130 bar pressure difference. This compressi-
bility determines the stiffness or accuracy and
the reactive power of a hydraulic system.
Hydraulic oils can be compressed just like

52
Undissolved air increased compressibility
Than we have to face undissolved air or air irregular operation
emulsions. In this case a lot of small air negative influence on control systems
bubbles are present in the oil, which allows the pump cavitation
oil to have a cloudy appearance. It normally more quickly ageing of the oil
takes some time before these air bubbles are
forced out because they are so small. The Air can enter the system through:
rising of air bubbles in the oil is, depending on
the temperature and the diameter of the too low oil level
bubbles (the bigger the bubble more quickly it too thick oil
will rise). Temperature increase will lead to cutting valves and extreme changes in
thinner oil; it is easier for an air bubble to travel direction, in e.g., couplings
through thin as opposed to thick oil.
The consequences of undissolved air in a
hydraulic system are:

Figure 62 Hydraulic power pack

Good water separation clogging

Water is caused by: corrosion

condensation in the tank The other oil characteristics are:

leaking cooler
good lubricating characteristics
penetration via seals in components
anti aging
non-corrosive
The separation of water will improve when the
low solidifying point
oil is in rest and will therefore predominantly
occur in the tank.
The influence of water on oil is:

more quickly ageing of oil

loss of wear protection

53
 Types of hydraulic fluids
mineral oil
water
organic biodegradable oil
flame retardant fluids

Mineral oil
Mineral oil is based on oil with added dopes.
For oil with a high pressure application HLP is
advised, which stand for an oil with anti
ageing, anti corrosion, and an anti wear dope
in case of tough applications.

Water
Currently the application of water as hydraulic
fluid is limited to specific applications in steel
factories, mining machines and so on. This
can be explained because water has many
disadvantages:
Disadvantages of water

highly corrosive
freezing
alga and bacteria
bad lubrication
danger of pump cavitation

Advantages of water

low viscosity and low compressibility

clean and cheap
no fire hazard
less environmental problems

Figure 63 Oil

54
Organic biodegradable hydrau-
lic fluid
The organic biodegradability of oil is an indi-
cation of what will happen with the oil when
this oil is released in the environment. Micro
organisms are eating the oil so that almost
nothing of the oil will remain. . For instance
colza oil derived from the seeds of the rape
plant will be biodegraded for 80 to 100% while
for mineral oil this is limited to 20 to 40%.
Advantages of rape oil:

good biodegradable
good lubricating characteristics
good compatibility with paints and synthetic
materials
High viscosity index

Disadvantages of rape oil:

only suitable for temperatures between -

10C and 80C
ages relatively quick
non-regeneration
must be discharged in a similar way as
mineral oil

Figure 64 Coleseed rape oil

Application
Rape oil is applied in installations that are
used in nature reserves to limit environmental
damage in case of leakages.

55
 Flame retardant fluids machines. These fluids are not fully non-
retardant however difficult to ignite. The
These fluids are applied in hydraulic systems
characteristics of these fluids are limited to
are at risk because of high temperatures.
special cases see the table in Figure 65.
Examples are hydraulic installations for
furnaces, foundries, theatres, and casting

Medium Price Water Viscosi Lubri- Combu- Avoida Corrosi Special

content ty index cation stible ble on sealing
in% metals dura- s
bility
Mineral low none 90/100 very yes none very no
oil good good
Rape oil high none 200/220 good yes none good no
Water high 45/50 180/210 average difficult zink average on
glycol cadmiu occasio
m n
water in low 60/90 100 average average zinc good on
oil cadmiu occasio
emulsio m n
n
fosfate very none 155 reasona difficult aluminu average yes
esther high ble m
Chloride very none 90 very difficult aluminu average yes
carbon high good m
dioxides

Figure 65 Characteristics of hydraulic fluids

56
Additives
The characteristics of hydraulic fluids can be
improved by means of additives or dopes. The
main dopes are:

V.I. improvers.
Detergent dope, to maintain small foreign
particles floating in the fluid.
Anti foam dope (foam is 90% air). The anti
foam dope is hindering air intake.
Pour pint depressant.
Anti corrosion dope, whereby the materials
are less affected.
Anti wear dope, whereby the boundary film
lubrication is improved.
Anti oxidation dope to delay the ageing of
the fluid.
Anti emulsifying dope to allow a good water
separation ability.

Mixing hydraulic fluids

All of the above additives are balanced.
Never mix two different kinds of oils or
hydraulic fluids with each other as it is
unpredictable what will happen with the
characteristics. Once you mix two fluids
you cannot predict what will happen to the
oil. In most cases the noticeable result of
such mixing is oil thinning. Such mixing
can also lead to corrosion phenomena.

57
58
 Chapter 5

Hydraulic Components
Introduction Hydraulic components are classified in 3 main b. Pressure control valves
groups: c. Flow control valves

a. Directional valves

Figure 66 Directional valves

61
 Directional Directional valves are applied for of the oil flow
to cylinders and motors, and control starting,
valves stopping, and movement direction. Directional
valves have a minimum of two switching
positions and can be operated in different
ways.

62
2/2 valve Figure 68 is a hydraulic controlled 2/2 valve.
The control pressure can be lower than the $
pressure of the main flow when the spring /
FRQWUROSUHVVXUH

pressure is not too high. The pilot lines are

also thinner so that with larges valves there is 3

a clear distinction between main lines and pilot

lines. In Figure 67 the symbol is depicted
Figure 67 Symbol direct operated 2/2 valve

$ SLORWSUHVVXUH
UXEEHU2ULQJ PDLQSOXQJHU

UXEEHU2ULQJ
OHDNRLO 3

Figure 68 Direct operated 2/2 valve normally closed

63
 Pilot operated 2/2 valve
Figure 69 is a drawing of a hydraulic 2/2 valve
with pilot control and electro magnetic control.

FRLO
PDLQSOXQJHU
SLORWSUHVVXUH
VSULQJ
$ 6

3 7 VXSSRUWRUSLORWSOXQJHU
OHDNRLO

Figure 69 Electro magnetic indirect operated 2/2 valve normally closed

In large hydraulic installations the pilot

pressure is often delivered by a separate pilot $
pressure pump. In this case the pilot pressure
is approximately 20 bar the system pressure
can for instance be 200 bar. In smaller instal- 3

lations the system pressure and the pilot

pressure are often the same. For this situation
a small 3/2 valve is applied to control the main Figure 71 Simplified symbol electro-magnetic
plunger. When the solenoid in Figure 69 is indirect operated 2/2 valve
powered the pilot plunger is moved, which
allows pilot pressure behind the the main
plunger. Because of this the main plunger
moves against the spring pressure. The main
valve is controlled indirectly. The component
of Figure 69 is also referred to an electro-
magnetic indirectly operated 2/2 valve.

Figure 70 Extended symbol electro-magnetic

indirect operated 2/2 valve

64
4/3 valve The 4/3 valve has 4 connections and can
switch in three positions. The valve in Figure   
73 is a direct operated electro-magnetic valve.
$ %
Operation: When the left solenoid is powered
the anchor will be pushed in. A pin connected
to the anchor will push the valve completely to
the right against the spring pressure. The 3 7
valve is switched in position 2 (see symbol in
Figure 72).
Figure 72 Symbol 4/3 valve
When the current to the electromagnet is inter-
rupted the plunger will be pushed back into the
mid-position 1 because of the spring pressure.

Figure 73 Directional valve Bosch Rexroth NG9

Figure 74 4/3 valve

65
 Figure 75 Directional valve Bosch Rexroth NG10

66
Pilot operated 4/3 valve ground plate. (see Figure 77) All pipe
connections are mounted in a ground plate.
The pilot operated 4/3 valve in Figure 76
The valve is mounted to the ground plate by
consist of two parts:
means of hexagon bolts, which allows quick
exchange in case of a breakdown while the
a. a.hydraulic operated 4/3 valve
pipes do not have to be disconnected. Ground
b. b.Electro magnetic operated pilot valve
plates are often normalized, which means that
valves with a similar norm though another
The plunger of the main valve requires too
producer can be mounted on the same ground
much force to operate directly, which is why a
plate.
pilot valve with a small plunger is applied
because this can be operated directly. Many
indirect operated valves are equipped with a

%9 $9
39 79

; 7 $ 3 % 7 <

Figure 76 Directional valve Bosch Rexroth NG25

Figure 77 Ground plate

67
 Figure 78 Electric pilot operated 4/3 valve NG32

$ %

3 7

Figure 79 Simplified symbol electric pilot operated 4/3 valve

$ %

3 7

Figure 80 Extended symbol electric pilot operated 4/3 valve

68
Spool-coding Two distinct methods exist to name solenoids European norm, which assumes that
on hydraulic valves: solenoid A is situated next to the A-port and
solenoid B next to the B-port.
American ANSI norm, the powering of
solenoid A will create a P-A connection
whereas the powering of solenoid B creates
a P-B connection.

VROHQRLG$ SRUW$ SRUW3 VROHQRLG%

SRUW7 SRUW%

Figure 81 European method

69
Non-return valve The non-return valve is making the oil to pass
in one flow direction only.
VSULQJ
The most common non-return valves are EDOO

spring loaded. Examples of executions are

depicted in the figures 82, 83 en Figure 84.
both with valve as well as ball sealing.

Figure 84 Non-return valve

Figure 85 Symbol non-return valve

Figure 82 Non-return valve The opening pressure of such a spring loaded

non-return valve is 0,5 to approximately 4
bar. The spring pressure must keep the valve
in position so that the valve can be mounted in
any position. Sometimes the spring pressure
of the non-return valve needs to be higher. For
example in Figure 87.

Figure 83 Non-return valve

E\SDVV
YDOYH

VXFWLRQYDOYH
EDU

Figure 86 Application of suction valve and bypass valve

70
 EDU

Figure 87 Drive for a ram of a pile driver

In Figure 86 the bypass valve of the filter

should not open under a pressure of 3 bar.
Figure 87 depicts the hydraulic motor of a ram
(for piles) suspended at a height of approxi-
mately 20 meters in a pile driver. It is important
to maintain the hydraulic motor full with oil
(this is done because of the lubrication). The
non-return valve in the return line must be
spring loaded to prevent discharging. This is
referred to as a pre-tension valve.. An
openings pressure higher than 4 bar is not
preferable.
There are also non-return valves with very low
opening pressures. These non-return valves
are for instance applied as after suction valve
in pump suction lines to prevent draining of the
suction line when the pump is not running (see
Figure 86). Suction valves in suction lines are
always applied without a spring and are as
such unloaded. When the suction pressure
drops the valve will close under its own
weight. It is clear that these type of valves
need to be mounted vertically. To minimize the
pressure difference over the valve a suction
valve requires a large throughput capacity

71
 Pilot operated The blocked flow direction of a pilot operated
non-return valve can be opened by means of
non-return valve an external pilot pressure and a pilot piston.
Discharge of the oil is then possible again.
Such a non-return valve is applied for leak free
closing of hydraulic cylinders. The leakages in
the closed position of the directional valve
YHHU NOHS
would allow slow movement of the piston rod.
The pilot pressure on the pilot piston must be
large enough to open the valve or the ball
against the line pressure.
SHQ VWXXU]XLJHU

% $ / 6

Figure 88 Pilot operated non-return valve

via a small channel. Because of this the

6 pressure in the spring chamber is practically
discharged. The non-return valve can even be
% $
opened with very low pilot pressure whereas
/ the opening pressure wave is almost gone.
The pilot operated non-return valve is applied
Figure 89 Symbol pilot operated non-return for instance when a large cylinder is loaded
valve with a high pressure.

Pilot operated non-return valves with pre-

discharge are also applied often. A basic
drawing is given in Figure 90. Such a non-
return valve allows initial discharge of the oil
YHHU NRJHO NOHS SHQ VWXXU]XLJHU

; % < $ / 6

Figure 90 Pilot operated non-return valve with pre-discharge

Assignment
111. Why is hole x smaller than the hole y?

72
 Excess flow Excess flow valves have to prevent that the
piston or the plunger is dropping down in case
valve/Blocking of a broken line to prevent accidents or other
problems. In Figure 91 a basic drawing is
valve given
The excess flow valve reacts on the increased
flow speed of the oil. When a pipe or a hose
bursts the oil will flow very quickly because the
oil does not have a discharge pressure
anymore. Because of the high oil flow the
pressure difference over the line breaking
valve will increase causing a higher force on
the ball. The ball is closing against the spring.
These valves operate based on the speed of
the oil flow and consequently the increased
pressure difference. Excess flow valves
always have to be attached to the cylinder
directly. An excess flow valve is also referred
to as blocking valve or hose burst check
valve.

VSULQJ

EDOO

FRQQHFWLRQ
F\OLQGHU

Figure 91 Hose burst check valve

Figure 92 Symbol hose burst check valve

73
 Damped closing excess flow cylinder side and will push the valve to the
valve closed position. The speed of closing is
adjusted by means of the speed wherewith the
Figure 93 is a damped closing excess flow
oil is discharged from space C. This can be
valve. This is an extended version of Figure
influenced with control needle 2.
91. Also with this valve the oil can flow back
and forth between the power unit and the Adjustment bolt 1 determines the openings
cylinder. size of the valve and with that the pressure
difference and the activation of the valve. The
In normal operation the spring will hold the
valve can be opened from a closed position by
valve in the open position. There is an oil
means of adjustment bolt 3. This allows the
pressure on both sides of the valve. The
load to be lowered. Sometimes this bolt is
pressure of the power unit is apparent in
adjusted as such that the valve does not fully
space A and C whereas the cylinder pressure
close. The load can be lowered slowly and
is apparent in space B. When the pressure on
controlled because of the small valve opening.
the power unit side is lost because of a rupture
this space is discharged. However space B
will maintain under pressure because of the

F\OLQGHUVLGH

 

 &

SRZHUXQLWVLGH

Figure 93 Damped closing excess flow valve

Figure 94 Symbol damped closing excess flow

valve

Assignment
112. Does an excess flow valve have to close
quickly or slowly in the event of a
rupture?

74
Pressure control All pressure control valves switch (adjust) with
a certain pressure. This pressure is usually
valves adjustable. The pressure control valve is a
collective term.

Figure 95 Pressure limiting valve

75
Pressure limiting A pressure limiting valve prevents that the
pressure in a system can become too
valve excessive. There are many different names for
the pressure limiting valve such as: safety
valve, discharge valve, pressure control valve
or maximum valve. A pressure limiting valve
opens when the pressure to which the
pressure limiting valve has been set is
reached. This prevents that the pressure in the
systems becomes too excessive. The setting
should be between 1,1 and 1,4 times the
working pressure.
An application of the pressure limiting valve for
instance is the safety of the pump against
excessive pressures. As long as the pressure
in the system is higher than the set value of
the pressure limiting valve, the valve will
discharge the oil to the tank. In such a case
the pressure limiting valve will be referred to
as safety valve. Basically speaking a pressure
limiting valve is nothing more than a spring
loaded non-return valve from which the spring
is adjustable. Figure 96 an example of this is
given.

/RDG

DGMXVWPHQWVFUHZ

Figure 96 Application pressure limiting valve

Operation 113. On what does the pressure in the system

depend during the outgoing stroke in the
The pressure on the pressure side of the
system? What is the value of the
pump is also present on the ball of the
pressure when the cylinder has reached
pressure limiting valve. The spring can be
its end position?
adjusted to a certain tension by means of the
adjustment screw. We refer to that pressure
as the maximum working pressure. When the
maximum working pressure is reached the ball
will be about to open. When the maximum
working pressure is exceeded the ball is lifted
from its seat, and the oil is discharged to the
tank. This will continue as long as the
pressure in the system has the tendency to
exceed the maximum working pressure. The
discharging of the oil is accompanied by a
considerable amount of loss of power. The
discharged oil volume is increasing in tempe-
rature because the power is transferred into
heat.

Assignment

76
In Figure 98 and 100 different executions of a
pressure limiting valve are depicted. The
working principle is the same the valve will
open when the oil pressure under the valve
exceeds the spring pressure above the valve.
Because of the increasing oil pressure at P to
the set openings pressure of the spring will
result that the force wherewith the valve is
pushed on the seat is decreasing. The valve
will start to swim or to float. The result is that
leak flow will occur at 90% of the preset
pressure. Off-course the moment at which the
leak flow will start is, depending on the type of
pressure limiting valve. The more the valve
Figure 97 Pressure limiting valve
7 limiting valve, this can be solved by applying
Figure 98 Pressure limiting valve
opens, the more the spring is squeezed in,
and the higher the spring pressure on the
valve will become. The closing pressure is
lower than the openings pressure because the
spring pressure needs to overcome friction
resistance and so forth as well forcing out the
oil film between the valve and the seat. When
ordering a non-adjustable pressure limiting
valve one always has to indicate whether the
specified pressure is the openings pressure or
the pressure at full oil flow throughput.
With al these valves the leakage oil flow has a
high speed because of the extreme small
opening, which will result in increased wear of
the valve. For this reason one prefers to use
an openings pressure of the safety valve,
which is 1,1 to 1,4 times the working pressure
so that the valve only opens when it is abso-
lutely necessary. In the event that pressure
surges in the system open the pressure
an accumulator.
77
 Assignments
114. Can we just set the pressure limiting
valve 1.1 to 1.4 times higher than the
indicated working pressure in a
schematic diagram? Motivate your
answer.
115. In Figure 98 a safety valve is depicted,
which type damped or non-damped is
this? Motivate your answer.
7

Figure 99 Pressure limiting valve l

78
Pilot operated pressure limiting
valve
Pilot operated pressure limiting valve works
much more accurate as opposed to an
ordinary pressure limiting valve and is applied
when large oil flow have to be limited. The pilot
operated pressure limiting valve consists of a
main valve and a pilot valve. The main valve is
controlled by the pilot valve. See Figure 100.

SLORWYDOYHEDU
DGMXVWLQJVFUHZ
YDOYHVHW
WREDU

EOLQGSOXJ

EOLQGSOXJ
VSULQJFKDPEHU
VSULQJEDU

PDLQYDOYH

RULILFH

V\VWHPSUHVVXUH UHWXUQ

Figure 100 Pilot operated pressure limiting valve

Working
The main valve contains an orifice, which
3 7 serves to maintain an even pressure under
and above the main valve. The main valve is
in equilibrium hydraulically and is closed by
means of a spring. This spring has a force of 3
bar. Assume that the pressure limiting valve is
adjusted to 80 bar. In that case the adjusting
Figure 101 Simplified symbol wheel will have to be set in such a way that the
pilot valve can withstand a maximum pressure
of 77 bar. That is 3 bar lower than the desired
pressure of 80 bar. As long as the system
pressure remains below 77 bar both the pilot
valve and the main valve are closed. When
3 7
the system pressure increases to 78 bar the
pressure above the main valve will still be 77
bar.
The reason for this is that the pilot valve does
not withstand a higher pressure than the set
pressure and will open slightly. The oil that
flows away through the pilot valve will be
replenished from the system via the orifice in
Figure 102 Extended symbol the main valve. However the orifice is so small
that the oil is discharged directly so that the
pressure above the main valve cannot exceed
the 77 bar. Now there is already a small
pressure difference over the main valve,

79
 however the pressure difference is too small to
open the main valve. In the event that the
system pressure increases to 80 bar, the
pressure difference over the main valve will
increase to 80 bar 77 bar = 3 bar because
there is still a pressure of 77 bar above the
main valve. Pressure difference and spring
pressure are in equilibrium. The main valve
will open at the slightest increase of the
system pressure as a result the system
pressure is limited at 80 bar. In practice we
only refer to one preset pressure; in this case
80 bar.

Figure 103 Pilot operated pressure limiting valve NG 10

Assignment
116. Will there be more, the same or less heat
be generated in a pilot operated pressure
limiting valve as opposed to a direct
operated pressure limiting valve?
Motivate your answer.

80
 Pilot operated The constructive execution of the sequence
valve in Figure 104 is almost equal to the
sequence valve execution of the safety valve. The difference is
that the return connection to the tank is
replaced by a work connection to a cylinder or
a hydraulic motor. The part of the installation
before the sequence valve requires a higher
working pressure as opposed to the part of the
installation after the sequence valve. Because
of the setting of the sequence valve the part
that requires the high working pressure will be
executed first. Without the sequence valve the
low pressure part would be executed first,
after all, oil will take the path of the lowest resi-
stance. Summarized this means the following.
After the operation with the part with the high
working pressure the pressure will increase.
This pressure will increase to the limit where
the sequence valve will open. Because of this
the part of the installation after the sequence
valve will be operated. This is the part with the
lowest working pressure.

ORDGLVFDXVLQJ
DSUHVVXUHRI
EDU
HQWLUHYDOYH
VHWDW
ORDGZLOOFDXVH EDU
DSUHVVXUHRI
EDU

(
)

0 0
EOLQGSOXJ
G

3 $

, ,, F

E
0

D
EDU

Figure 104 Application sequence valve

Important
One cannot just apply a pressure limiting valve
as a sequence valve because the return of a
sequence valve is pressurized on the moment
that the main valve opens. In Figure 104 the
return, which is now used as a working gate is
disconnected from the pilot chamber by
means of a blind plug. By means of a separate
leakage line the oil from the pilot chamber can
be discharged to the tank at zero pressure.

81
 3 $

Figure 105 Symbol sequence valve extended

Assignments
117. Provide the names for the components a
through and including d of Figure 104.
118. What will be the values of pressure
gauges M1, M2, and M3 in the mid-
position of the 4/3 valve when F is
loaded?
119. Component c is switched in position I.
Describe what happens, and provide the
pressures that the pressure gauges M1,
M2, and M3 will depict in the case that
the motor is running.
120. Component c is switched in position 1.
Assume that component d is not applied
and the connections P and A are
connected. Will the sequence of the
components (the movements) remain the
same? Explain your answer.
121. Explain what happens when valve c is
switched in position II.

82
 Pilot operated A pilot operated pressure limiting valve can be
switched on or off by releasing or maintaining
pressure limiting the pressure (Figure 106) in front of the 2/2
valve. The pressure difference over the main
valvel valve will increase to such an extent that the
main valve will be fully opened. Generally the
2/2valve is operated electrically. This remote
control can be encountered in case of power
units and installations that have to be able to
start up or continue to run at zero-load.

EDU

EDU

6

VSULQJEDU
G

3
6 6

0

Figure 106 Pilot operated pressure limiting valve

Figure 107 Simplified symbol pressure limiting

valve

Figure 108 Extended symbol pressure limiting

valve

83
 Assignments
122. The pump is delivering oil, the solenoids
S1, S2 and S3 are not energized. What is
de value on pressure gauge M1?
123. What happens with the hydraulic motor if
only S3 is energized?

84
Pilot operated The pilot valve of the pilot operated pressure
limiting valve in Figure 109 is extended with a
pressure relief piston, which is connected to the pilot valve by
means of a rod. Jointly these form an external
valve pressure relief. The valve will operate as
safety valve (overflow valve) as long as there
is no pilot pressure on the piston. If because of
the pressure on the external pressure
connection the force on the pilot valve
exceeds the pressure of the spring on the pilot
valve, the piston will fully open the pilot valve
and the pressure in the spring chamber is
relieved. There will be no heat generation at
the main valve because it fully opens and
there is almost no pressure drop over the
valve. This clearly depicts the function of this
pressure relief valve, which is discharging at
zero pressure.

SLVWRQ SLORWYDOYH

VHWWLQJ
6
H[WHUQDO
SUHVVXUH
FRQQHFWLRQ

VSULQJ
FKDPEHU

PDLQYDOYH

RULILFH

V\VWHPSUHVVXUH UHWXUQ

Figure 109 Pilot operated pressure relief valve

6H[WHUQDO

Figure 110 Symbol

The piston in the pressure relief valve can

have different diameters. At a large surface
the valve is opened with a low pilot pressure.
The ration pilot pressure to relief pressure is
expressed in the ratio number i. The indication
i=1 means that the required pilot pressure is
equal to the relief pressure. The indication i=2
means that the pilot pressure is half the relief
pressure.

85
 Pressure With pressure limiting valves the valve is
opened by the pressure before the valve
reducing valve (valve is normally closed). In contradiction with
a pressure reducing valve the valve is closed
when the pressure is too high after the valve.
In Figure 111 this is clearly depicted by the
pilot pressure line and the direction of the
arrow (normally opened).

SUHVVXUHOLPLWLQJ SUHVVXUHUHGXFLQJ
YDOYH YDOYH

Figure 113 Pressure reducing valve with

Figure 111 Symbol differences pressure gauge

Figure 112 is a simple pressure reducing Assignment

valve that is applied in the field of hydraulics.
124. Assume that there is no consumption of
Two forces act continually on the control
oil at B while the control plunger is
plunger, namely on the right the spring
leaking marginally. What will be the
pressure for instance 50 bar and left the
consequences? Think of a solution for
pressure in channel B. Assume that the
this problem.
pressure on the left side of the control plunger
exceeds 50 bar. The valve will then move to
the right against the spring pressure and will
throttle channel A-B. The control plunger will
move to the right until the pressure in channel
B is reduced to 50 bar so equal to the spring
pressure. The pressure after the control
plunger in channel B is always equal to the
spring pressure if the pump pressure is
sufficient. The control plunger is always in
equilibrium.

YDULDEOH DGMXVWDEOH
PHDVXULQJ % RULILFH VSULQJIRUFH
GXFW

FRQWUROSOXQJHU
$

Figure 112 Pressure reducing valve

86
Pilot operated pressure redu- be adjusted by means of pilot valve K. In order
cing valve to obtain a pressure of 50 bar the pilot valve
needs to be adjusted to 47 bar. The valve will
Figure 114 depicts a pilot operated pressure
seek the point of equilibrium wherewith the
reducing valve. The A-B connection is
pressure under the spool is equal to the
throttled when the balance spool is rising. The
pressure above the spool plus the spring
reduced pressure of B is under the spool. The
pressure.
fixed spring pressure of 3 bar and the
pressure in the spring chamber are above the
spool. The pressure in the spring chamber can

DGMXVWPHQWUHGXFLQJ
YDOYH
VSULQJFKDPEHU

VSULQJSUHVVXUH
EDU
;

SLORWYDOYH. EOLQGSOXJ

&

$
EDODQFHVSRRO

%
< 7

Figure 114 Hydraulic pilot operated reducing valve

Assignments
125. Will the pressure at port B increase or
decrease when the spring pressure on
valve K is reduced? Motivate your
answer.
126. Does this valve consume (adjusting) any
oil during normal operation?
127. What is the function of orifice c in Figure
114

Figure 115 Symbol hydraulic pilot operated

reducing valve

87
 EDU
E
D EDU

$ % $ %

3 7 3 7

0
EDU

Figure 116 Application pressure control valves

128. Provide the name for the components a,

b, c, and d of Figure 116

88
Flow control Flow control valves regulate the oil flow. This
is done by increasing or decreasing the
valves passage diameter of a valve. The most
common control in principle consists of a valve
or a tap. Valves or taps are referred to as
throttle valves when they are applied to

KLJKW
RLO
regulate the speed of operating devices.
Throttle valves provide the desired amount of
RLO

oil supply as required for various equipments.
Throttle valves are available in valve and
needle constructions. However they are also
available as rotary plugs with axial and radial
grooves. The throttle with the grooves is more
accurate and better adjustable as opposed to
the ones with valve constructions. The needle
throttle of van Figure 117 has the disad-
vantage that in case of strong throttling the
pressure under the needle is so large that a
large force is required to allow a small
movement of the needle.
KLJKW
SDVVDJHRSHQLQJPP
Figure 118 Oil tanks
Assignments
129. What effect will throttling always have on
the pressure and oil temperature?
130. Figure 118 illustrates two tanks filled with
oil. Both tanks have similar drainage
openings. Will the flow through both
openings be the same in the depicted
situation? Explain your answer (consider
height h1 and h2).
131. Figure 119 illustrates four throttles. They
all have the same passage opening. Is
the throughput the same in all four
cases? Explain your answer.

Figure 117 Needle throttling

3 EDU 3 EDU 3 EDU 3 EDU

$ % & '

3 EDU 3 EDU 3 EDU 3 EDU

Figure 119 Throttles

When the pressure drop over the throttle is

maintained the quantity of oil that is
passing the throttle is also maintained..

89
 Figure 120 Throttle valve throttle adjustable

90
Throttle control change. Therefore, the passage of a throttle
cannot be indicated with the amount of liter
The speed (rpm) of the hydraulic motor of
per minute. This throughput capacity is as
Figure 121is controlled by the throttle. The
mentioned entirely depending on the pressure
pressure behind throttle (M2) is required to
difference over the throttle. In systems with
move the load of the hydraulic motor.
changing loads (and therefore changing
Therefore, the pressure indicated on pressure
pressures) the throughput flow with the same
gauge M2 is also referred to as load pressure.
throttle will be different all the time. When the
When the pump flow is for instance 10 l/min
winch of Figure 121 has to deal with a heavier
while the throttle is restricted at 6 l/min the
load logically the pressure on pressure gauge
pressure on pressure gauge M1 will be 100
M2 will be higher. The pressure difference
bar (10 MPa). The additional 4 l/min of the
over the throttle will decrease. This mans that
pump will have to be discharged. The throttle
less oil through the throttle and a lower
has a certain throughput capacity because of
rotation speed of the hydraulic motor.
the pressure difference over the throttle. When
the pressure difference over the throttle is
changing the flow through the throttle will also

0

WKURWWOH

0

EDU

Figure 121 System with throttle control

A throttle valve can only serve as a flow 133. The throttle in Figure 121 is generating
control valve when the load does not change heat during the operation. What is the
or changes minimum. Non-adjustable (fixed) root cause, and does this have to do
throttles (orifices) can be found in situations something with the pressure difference?
where it is necessary to protect the pressure
134. What will happen with the load in Figure
gauge against pressure pulses, which are too
121 if the pump is stopped?
high. Fixed throttles are also applied in control
systems. 135. What determines the pressure difference
over the hydraulic motor?
Assignments
132. Will the hydraulic motor still run if on a
given moment both pressure gauges
depict 100 bar? Or phrased differently: Is
there an oil flow through the throttle? How
can this situation occur?

91
 Flow control A problem with throttles is that the amount of
the oil flowing through is determined by the
valves pressure difference. However in most cases
the amount of oil throughput requires to be
kept constant. Therefore, one has searched
for a solution with a constant flow throughput
at a certain setting. This solution requires that
the pressure difference over the specific
throttle is always the same. For this purpose
pressure compensated flow control valves
have been developed. A pressure
compensated throttle has a fixed throughput at
any pressure. The intention is that a pressure
compensated flow control valve always has a
fixed throughput of oil for instance 30 l/min.

Figure 122 Flow control valve

92
 Two-way The rotation speed of the hydraulic motor in difference over the fixed throttle A should
Figure 123 must be constant and should not maintain constant. Therefore, it is needed to
pressure be influenced by the load on the winch. measure the pressure before and after the
Therefore, the two-way pressure fixed throttle A. Herewith control plunger C is
compensated compensated flow control valve should operated.
flow control valve maintain the oil flow to the hydraulic motor at
changing loads. To establish this, the pressure

ORDGFDXVLQJDSUHVVXUH
RIEDU

0

0

IL[HGWKURWWOH$ZLWK
DQRSHQLQJRI
OPLQELM'S EDU PHDVXULQJFKDQQHO
DIWHUWKHWKURWWOH
DXWRPDWLF
UHJXODWLQJ
WKURWWOH%

0 0

PHDVXULQJ
FKDQQHOEHIRUH
WKHWKURWWOH

FRQWUROSOXQJHU& VSULQJEDU

0

EDU

SXPS
0 IORZ
OPLQ

Figure 123 Constant speed of a hydraulic motor

Operating principle increase to maximum 100 bar. The pressure

on M3 and M5 maintains 50 bar. This
The flow (Q) of the pump is 50 l/min. The
implicates that a total pressure of 50 bar
pressure before the fixed throttle is
working pressure plus bar spring pressure is
determined by the pump flow and the setting
developed on the right side of the control
of the pressure limitation while the pressure
plunger. Because of this the control plunger is
after the fixed throttle (M3) is determined by
pushed to the left. This situation will remain as
the load. In Figure 123 the load of the
long as the pressure on the left side of the
hydraulic motor results in a pressure of 50 bar.
plunger does not exceed 56 bar. However
Initially the pressure on the pressure gauges
pressure M2 will exceed 56 bar. Because of
M1, M2, M3, and M5 does not exceed 50 bar.
the pressure limiting valve the pressure tends
However, the pump capacity exceeds the
to increase to 100 bar (The pump is
throughput of the fixed throttle, which causes
discharging 20 l/min.).When the pressure on
the pressure before the fixed throttle to
M2 is exceeding 56 bar the control plunger is

93
 moved to the right. Because of this less oil will
flow through the control plunger. The control
plunger will ensure that the pressure of 56 bar
on M2 will be maintained. The pressure
difference (P) over the fixed throttle remains
6 bar because of the control plunger. This is
equal to the spring tension of the flow control
valve.

Figure 124 Symbol two-way pressure

compensated flow control valve (non-
adjustable)

Figure 125 Extended symbol

The control plunger will always take a position,

which means:
Pressure before the fixed throttle =
pressure after the fixed throttle + spring
pressure

Assignments
136. At what pressure will the 20 l/min excess
flow of the pump in Figure 123 be
discharged? Is this desirable? Explain
your answer.
137. Assume that the load in Figure 123 will
increase resulting in a load pressure of
94 bar. Will the flow control still work
properly? Explain your answer.

94
Two-way pressure compensa-
ted flow control valve (adjusta-
ble)
Figure 127 is depicting a two-way pressure
compensated flow control valve in an
adjustable execution. The two-way pressure
compensated flow control valve is often
referred to as series valve. . The reducing
Figure 126 Symbol two-way pressure
and the throttle in this valve are connected in compensated flow control valve
series. (adjustable)

ORDGFDXVLQJD
/RDG
SUHVVXUHRIEDU

PHDVXULQJFKDQQHO
OPLQ 0
DIWHUWKHWKURWWOH

0 0

PHDVXULQJ
FKDQQHO
EHIRUHWKHWKURWWOH
VSULQJEDU

FRQWUROSOXQJHU

,,

0

EDU

0 OPLQ

Figure 127 Application two-way pressure compensated flow control valve (series valve)

95
 Assignments
The 2/2 valve is switched in position II.
138. What will be the values on the pressure
gauges M1 through and including M4
during the lifting of the load?
139. To what value can the pressure increase
and when will this occur?
140. Now the load will change causing a
system pressure of 80 bar. What will be
the values on the pressure gauges M1
through including M4 during the lifting of
the load?
141. What can you say about the pressure
difference (M2-M3) over the adjustable
throttle at different loads?
142. The valve of Figure 127 has a capacity of
5 l/min while the pump flow is 10 l/min.
What happens with the remaining 5 l/
min? Is that desirable? At what pressure
will this occur?
143. Assume that somebody swapped the
pump connection with the connection to
the operating device. Will the two-way
pressure compensated flow control valve
still operate? If no, what will happen?
144. What is the disadvantage of every
throttle?
145. When the 2/2 valve is switched in position
1 the load will be lowered. What will be
the values on pressure gauges M1
through including M4 in this case?
146. Are you able to control the throughput
quantity with the tension of the pressure
spring? Explain your answer.

96
Three-way pressure compensa- spring pressure of the control plunger. That
ted flow control valve pressure is almost always lower than the
maximum allowed working pressure on which
The two-way and the three-way pressure
the safety is adjusted. This results into less
compensated flow control valve look very
energy loss. The efficiency of the installation
much alike. The characteristic difference
can be increased significantly because of the
between both valves is that with latter type of
three-way pressure compensated flow control
the excess oil flow is not discharged via the
valve.A common name for the three-way
pump safety but by the valve itself. This has a
pressure compensated flow control valve is
large advantage. Namely the pump pressure
parallel valve, the pressure limiting valve and
with a three-way pressure compensated flow
throttle in this valve are in parallel.
control valve is equal to the pressure
requested by the cylinder (or motor) plus the

ORDGFDXVLQJDSUHVVXUH
/RDG RIEDU

0

DGMXVWDEOHQHHGOHYDOYH
DGMXVWHGWROPLQ

PHDVXULQJFKDQQHO
DIWHUWKHWKURWWOH

0 0

PHDVXULQJ
FKDQQHOEHIRUH
WKHWKURWWOH VSULQJEDU

FRQWUROSOXQJHU

0 0

EDU

Figure 128 Application three-way pressure compensated flow control valve

Figure 129 Symbol

97
 Figure 130 Extended symbol

The following data is known for the hydraulic

installation of Figure 128 :

Pump flow Q = 80 l/min

Maximum working pressure p=200 bar
Flow control valve is adjusted to 20 l/min

Assignments
147. When the hydraulic motor is running the
load will result into a pressure of 80 bar
(8MPa). What is the value on pressure
gauge M4 in this situation?
148. The pump delivers 80 l/min. The flow
control valve allows a throughput of 20 l/
min. What is the value on M1 in this
situation?
149. Explain why the pressure on M2 does not
exceed 87 bar. Include the role of the
control plunger with the pressure spring
of 7 bar in your answer.
150. Assume that in Figure 128 a two-way
pressure compensated flow control valve
is applied as opposed to the three-way
pressure compensated flow control valve.
What would be the values on the
pressure gauges M2 and M1 in that
case?
151. Does the pressure limiting valve in
Figure 128 still have a function?
Both two-way and three-way pressure
compensated flow control valves only perform
there throttling function in one flow direction. A
non-return valve can be built in for the oil flow
in the other direction (see Figure 131).

Figure 131 Two-way pressure compensated flow

control valve with non-return valve

98
The influence of It is clear that the throughput quantity is
changing at changing oil temperatures and
viscosity on the consequently changing viscosities. The
viscosity sensitivity of the different throttles is
throttle highly, depending on the construction of the
passage.

YLVFRVLW\VHQVLWLYLW\ YLVFRVLW\XQVHQVLWLYLW\

V\PERRO

Figure 132 Viscosity influence

The construction on the right of Figure 132

will be less viscosity sensitive as opposed to
the one on the left because the oil has prac-
tically no surface to stick on. In existing instal-
lations a too high viscosity will only cause
problems during start up. This applies equally
to adjustable throttles as well as fixed throttles.

99
 Proportional Applications with proportional valves in
hydraulics are increasing. Proportional means
valves proportionate. In Figure 134 a proportional
valve in its most basic form is depicted
This does not differ from an adjustable
throttle, which is operated with a lever.

Figure 133 Symbol proportional valve

Figure 134 Basic proportional valve

The passage opening of this valve is, chamfered plunger is prerequisite that the
depending on the position of the plunger. The passage opening is proportional and
more the lever is moved, the larger the steplessly increasing with the movement of
passage opening of the plunger. The the plunger.

Figure 135 Cross section of electronic proportional 4/3 valve

100
 Proportional 3- The most occurring proportional valves are the hydraulic motor and a 3-way pressure
control valves, pressure limiting valves, compensated flow control valve in frame B is
way pressure adjustable throttles, and flow control valves. depicted. The passage opening of B is
In Figure 136 a hydraulic scheme with a adjusted with throttle S.
compensated
flow control valve
$

ZLQFK

7
%

6 EDU

9

9

7
0 7
EDU

Figure 136 Winch drive with 3-way pressure compensated flow control valve

Assignments
152. What is the purpose of valve A in Figure
136?
153. The pump unit is started. Is the pump unit
in Figure 136 and Figure 137 able to
pump at zero pressure?

101
 In Figure 137 a new situation is depicted. The
adjustable throttle of the flow control valve is
exchanged for a proportional controlled valve
S.

ZLQFK

7
%

6
5
EDU

9

9

7
0 7
EDU

Figure 137 Winch drive with proportional 3-way pressure compensated flow control valve

Assignments
154. Explain why the rest position of the
proportional valve in Figure 137 also is
referred to as the fail-safe-position.
155. What is the purpose of the valves T1, T2,
and T3?

102
 Electronic Proportional valves transfer incoming
mechanical or electrical signals to proportion
proportional in a plunger position. The plunger will follow
steplessly the incoming pilot signal. A weak
valves incoming signal will result in a small passage,
strong incoming signals will result in a large
passage opening. The more force applied on
the plunger, the more the spring is squeezed
in. The spring will ensure that the passage
opening will increase proportional and
steplessly. In Figure 138 you can take note of
how a proportional valve is operated by means
of a solenoid (coil). The movement of the
plunger is, depending on the force applied by
HOHNWURQLF
FRQWUROOHU
8LQ
8LQ HOHFWULFDOYROWDJH
RIWKHHQWUDQFHVLJQDO
Figure 138 Electrical operated proportional valve
The plunger is equipped with a position sensor
to allow accurate control of the plunger see
Figure 139. The position sensor is measuring
the exact position of the plunger and will
transfer the position to the electronic
controller. When the position is not in line with
SRVLWLRQVHQVRU
Figure 139 Cross-section proportional 4/3 valve Bosch Rexroth
the electro-magnet. The force of the electro-
magnet is proportional with the current
through the coil. By setting the voltage
difference over the coil on a certain value the
plunger will move into a certain position. The
larger the voltage difference over the coil, the
more current will flow through. Because of this
the electro-magnet will become more powerful
whereas the plunger will open further. The
movement of the plunger is direct proportional
(proportional) with the voltage difference.
8LQ
SDVVDJH
RSHQLQJ
the pilot signal Uin in the electronic controller
will adjust the plunger to the position
belonging to the pilot signal by means of the
electro-magnet.
$ 3 % 7
103
 Proportional pressure limiting
valve
In Figure 140 a proportional pressure limiting
valve is depicted

+LJKSUHVVXUH
/RZSUHVVXUH

Figure 140 Proportional pressure limiting valve Bosch Rexroth

104
 SRVLWLRQVHQVRU

Figure 141 Proportional pressure limiting valve Bosch Rexroth with position sensor

105
 Pressure switch A pressure switch also referred to as pres-
sostat is applied in both hydraulic and
pneumatic installations to switch an electric
contact. This can be necessary for instance to
deliver an optical or an acoustic signal or to
switch a pump motor, and so on. The pressure
switch is often applied to switch valves in for
instance the release circuit of an accumulator
or to operate the discharge valve for the rest
position of a hydraulic installation.

PLFURVZLWFK DGMXVWPHQW
VSULQJ
QXW


 RLO
SUHVVXUH

Figure 142 Pressure switch

The pressure that needs to be guarded is

working on plunger 2, which is pushing to the
spring disk 3. The spring tension can be
adjusted by means of adjustment nut 5 and if
the push force on the plunger exceeds the
spring tension the plunger and the spring disk
move to the right. Because of this micro switch
6 is operated.
In some cases a pressure switch consists of
two separate switches in one house, which is
why the feature is available to switch one
piece of equipment to switch both the
maximum as well as the minimum pressure.
There are also switches with just one contact
that can switch an electric circuit with an
adjustable or non-adjustable pressure
difference. Figure 144 Pressure switch

Figure 143 Symbol electrical pressure switch

106
Pressure transmitters
There are also semi-conductor-resistance-
pressure transmitters for the measurement of
static and dynamical pressure referred to as
pizo electrical instruments. These are
instruments of which the measurement
instrument itself consists of a pressure
sensitive silicon cell. The pressure is trans-
ferred to a current. The pressure can be read
on an electronic scale. The pressure that
needs to be measured is applied on a thin
steel membrane, which is transferring the
pressure by means of an oil buffer on the
measuring part being the silicon cell.

Figure 145 Pressure transmitters

J
Q

Figure 146 Symbol pressure transmitter

107
108
 Chapter 6

Hydraulic Seals
Introduction Seals can be divided in two groups:
De The static seals. These serve to seal
stationary parts. These are usually O-rings.
A prerequisite is that they always seal com-
pletely. Leakage is not allowed here.
De The dynamic seals. This means seals
of rotating and reciprocating parts. A seal
between two moving parts requires a lubri-
cating film. A small amount of leakage
would be useful to lubricate the sealing.
Choice of seals
The choice for a seal is determined by a
number of factors.
The most important are:
Figure 147 Static sealing
Static or dynamic load
Maximum working pressure
Work temperature range
Chemical resistance against the applied
hydraulic fluid
Available internal dimensions
In addition the surface roughness of the
sealing surface and the compression force of
the sealing are important because they have
an influence on the developed friction at
dynamic load and wear of the sealing.
When replacing, the choice of the ring is very
important.
111
 Figure 148 Dynamic sealing

112
O-ring seals O-rings are circular rings made from an elastic
material. They are made from rubber or
synthetic material.
Figure 149 No pressure
Figure 150 Under pressure
Figure 151 Maximum pressure
Figure 152 Extruding because
pressure
The sealing function of O-rings is based on
cross deformation when they are installed.
The deformation resistance provides the
required compression force for the sealing.
This force is amplified by the pressure of the
medium to be sealed (e.g. oil or air). See
Figure 149, Figure 150 and Figure 151.
It becomes clear from these figures that
rubber can be deformed. However, rubber is
not compressible. This means that the cross-
sections of the O-rings of Figure 149 through
and including Figure 152 are equal.
Static seals
For astatic seal of a shaft the tolerance
between the house, and the shaft may not be
too large. When the clearance to be sealed is
too large there is a danger that the pres-
surized O-ring is pushed into the clearance
and pinched or even completely pushed out
see Figure 152. The allowed pressure
depends on the hardness of the O-rings. The
use of backup rings of PTFE (Teflon) will allow
up to 400 bar and a clearance of 0,3 mm.
SUHVVXUH
Figure 153 The O-ring is squeezed radially
For stating sealings of bolts, covers, flanges,
and so on up to 1000 bar (100 MPa) the O-
ring is mounted in a rebate. The ring is fitted
tightly at the smallest diameter, and is
deformed radially (flattened toward the mid-
point) when the cover is tightened or fitted
(see Figure 153).
The deformation with normal flange and cover
sealings is usually axial. With an outside
pressure the inside diameter of the O-ring
should be equal or a bit smaller than the inside
diameter of the rebate (see Figure 154),
of too high
113
 With an inside pressure the outer diameter of
the O-ring needs to be equal or a bit larger
SUHVVXUHIURP SUHVVXUH than the size of the rebate. These measu-
WKH IURPWKH
RXWVLGH LQVLGH rements will prevent that the O-ring will slide
when the pressure is increased because of
which it would deform and wear and tear
would occur.

Figure 154 Axial deforming O-ring with outside

and inside pressure

Figure 155 Static and dynamic sealing in a hydraulic cylinder

114
Seal rings
The sealing effect created when the ring is
mounted between two parallel surfaces. The
trapezium shaped rubber ring (bonded seal
ring) is formed into a sealing with a concave
inner side, which is deformed to the pressure.
The pressure is squeezing the elastic seal lips
of the created sealing to the adjoining sealing
surfaces (see Figure 156).

QSFTTVSF

VHDOULQJ

Figure 156 Sealing bayonet coupling

Figure 157

115
 Dynamic sealing leakages are permitted. The deformation of
the O-ring is approximately 12% on average.
The O-rings for moving (dynamic) seals are
O-rings can be used for oscillating and rotating
set into rectangular rebates and deformed
movements. However the oil seal rings are
radially. This deformation needs to be much
preferred. It should be taken into account that
smaller than that for static seals. In this case
O-rings swell approximately 4% when they
friction should be prevented as much as
come in contact with liquid in this case
possible. In hydraulics (see Figure 158) O-
hydraulic oil.
rings are only applied for reciprocating
movements with small loads and in case small

2ULQJ SLVWRQ F\OLQGHU GLUWZLSHU

RLOVHDO

Figure 158 Cross-section hydraulic cylinder

Surface quality
The best results are obtained with surfaces
that are grinded, honed, hard-chromed,
lapped or polished. When the surfaces are too
smooth there is a danger that the lubricating
film will be scraped away in case of dynamic
sealings.

116
Mounting
O-rings should not be pulled over sharp
edges, threads, and so on during mounting.
Sharp edges or splinters will cut into the ring
providing of what will lead to breakage in the.
Remove sharp edges using emery cloth.
Verify if the O-ring is suitable for the applied
fluid. Lubricate the O-ring, the rebate, the shaft
or cylinder with oil from the hydraulic system.
This will reduce the risk of twisting or trapping
the O-ring.

Backup rings
Backup rings prevent the O-ring from being
pushed through the clearance. The use of
backup rings will reduce the amount of wear,
and it is possible to allow higher pressures. In
situations where the pressure is exerted on
one side only such as single-acting cylinders,
piston rod seals, and so on, only one backup
ring is required. However, usually a backup
ring is mounted on both sides to prevent
mistakes when mounting.

PHGLXP
SUHVVXUH

EDFNXSULQJV

Figure 159 Application of backup rings

Handmade rings
When the required rings for static sealings are
unavailable one can make O-rings from
stretches of round rubber cord, which can be
Figure 160 Handmade O-ring
purchased per meter. The required cord
length is cut with a knife and the ends are
glued together so that a seamless O-ring is
created (see Figure 160).

117
 Sliding O-rings Friction plays an important role in the sealing
of moving parts. This friction is determined by
factors like working pressure, surface finish,
applied medium, and so on. A method to
reduce this friction is to provide the sealing
rubber with a textile fabric. The best results
are obtained using Teflon. The slide O-ring is
in fact a combination of an O-ring with a Teflon
ring with a square section or a rectangular
section (see Figure 161).
VOLGHULQJRIWHIORQ
2ULQJ
the groove was originally only equipped with
an O-ring for sealing. There is no space for an
O-ring with a slide ring in that groove. In this
situation a combination is chosen as depicted
in Figure 162. The deformation in both the
radial and longitudinal direction is much bigger
with O-rings as opposed to rectangular rubber
rings. Differences in tolerance and lateral
movements can be handled better because of
these large deformations. Supporting rings
can be applied when the clearances to be
sealed are large. (see Figure 163).

UXEEHU
ULQJ

VOLGHULQJ

Figure 162 Slide ring with rectangular rubber ring

Figure 161 Slide O-ring

Slide O-rings are often applied in: VXSSRUWULQJ

2ULQJ
Valves for hydraulics
Cylinders for hydraulics
Accumulators VOLGHULQJ

Dampers
VXSSRUWULQJ
Braking systems
Control systems

In the pressure range up to 50 bar the Figure 163 Slide ring with support rings
advantages with regard to the slip-stick
effect are considerable. A disadvantage is that
slide O-rings do not seal as perfect as for
instance V-rings. For higher pressures up to
350 bar Teflon rings with added fibre are
applied. Carbon and bronze are also used as
additives.
The slide ring looks like a normal piston ring,
however, is endless and therefore does not
have a gap. The working principle - see
Figure 161 - is based on deformation of the O-
ring. An O-ring supports the slide ring. The O-
ring also provides the pre-tension to seal at
low pressures. When the slide ring is too thick
it will be too stiff and the O-ring will be unable
to compress the slide ring. When the slide ring
is too thin the ring will adopt the shape of the
O-ring with the result that it will be crooked
and leak. Rubber rings with a rectangular
cross-section can be fitted to replace O-rings
(see Figure 162). This is usually done when

118
Slide rings
To decrease the resistance in cylinders Slide
rings are mounted on the piston and the rod
support. These rings improve the guiding of
the piston and the piston rod which lowers the
resistance. Furthermore, the supports consist
of material that has extreme good sliding
characteristics like Teflon.

SLVWRQVHDOLQJZLWK
VOLGHULQJ SLVWRQVHDOLQJ

SLVWRQ
JXLGLQJ

2ULQJ

URGJXLGLQJ

URGVHDOLQJ
URGVFUDSHU

Figure 164 Several sealings in a hydraulic cylinder

119
 U-Rings U-rings are widely applied seals. The slack
version can be mounted in closed grooves see
Figure 165.

Figure 165 U-ring

U-rings are generally used for sealing piston

rods and the reciprocating pistons of cylinders.
U-rings are not suitable for rotary movements.
They consist of a full part known as the heel
and two specially-shaped lips.

SLVWRQURG F\OLQGHUOLQHU SLVWRQ 8ULQJ

Figure 166 U-ring

120
 VXSSRUWULQJ
Figure 167 Manchetring
8ULQJ

The lips are forced against the rebate wall and

against the rod by the liquid. See Figure 168.
Care must be taken during mounting to ensure
that the free height in Figure 168 - when
slack is approximately 1 mm smaller than the
width of the rebate.

8ULQJ Figure 169 Application U-ring

GLUWVFUDSHU

VXSSRUWULQJ

8ULQJ

Figure 168 U-ring Piston rod

Figure 169 and Figure 170depict U-rings with

support ring. This type is suitable to approxi-
mately 400 bar (40 MPa) and consists of a U-
ring, reinforced with fabric and provided with a Figure 170 Application U-ring
support ring. This support ring does not have
to be a complete ring however needs to be
completely rubber. The fabric construction
ensures that the lubricant is captured at the
running surface. This allows low friction. The
sets are usually mounted in pistons. These
rings can also be applied as static sealing
instead of O-rings.
Important: Never mount dry.

121
 V-rings
V-rings are suitable for medium to heavy indu-
strial conditions. They can be applied 
universally, they have a relatively low height
when installed and provide an effective

sealing against shock, vibration, and pressure
pulses. In Figure 171 A and B are the lower
supporting elements, C one or more sealing

elements and D the top element, which is also
the most active part. S depicts the rebate
width.Figure 172 shows different materials 
used together.


6

Figure 172 Complete set V-rings

'

&

Figure 171 V-rings

1 and 2 are canvas seals; 3, 5, and 6 are

pressure and support rings made from hard
fabric or plastic. Rubber seals are occasionally
used instead of canvas rings, this is often
found in adjustable stuffing boxes. When
washers are applied these will have to be
retightened regularly. This will increase the life
time.

Figure 173 V-rings mounted

122
Cylinder with block gasket
Figure 174 depicts a modern block gasket for
double acting pistons made out of one piece.

V\QWKHWLFZHDUULQJVRUOLQHUV

HQGOHVVVXSSRUWULQJ
RISODVWLF
UXEEHUVHDOLQJULQJZLWK
WKUHHOLSV

SLVWRQ
F\OLQGHU
SLVWRQURG

Figure 174 Cylinder with block gasket

123
 Dirt wipers
Dirt wipers are to prevent that dirt and water
do not penetrate the clean system via piston
rods or valve rods.

Figure 176 Dirt wiper with support ring

Special wipers are also available, such as the

scraper seal. This has an extra thin brass
scraper to remove the heaviest dirt, alongside
Figure 175 Dirt wiper without support ring
the normal wiper. This type is used to clear
heavy dirt, tar, ice, and so on. Figure 177
depicts a part of a cylinder (cross-section)
applied in a very dirty environment. This can
be seen from the layer on the piston rod.

GLUW\SLVWRQ FOHDQSLVWRQURG
URG

Figure 177 Dirt wiper in cylinder

124
Figure 178 Dirt wiper

Special seals 160. What is the purpose of an O-ring in a

Occasionally when pressures or temperatures
or sliding speeds are so high that rubber or
synthetics are likely to fail, we use:
White metal seals
Cast iron seals
Bronze seals
Sinter metal seals
Pure carbon seals
Ceramic seals
Some characteristics are:
Low friction, hard wearing, strong, good
thermal conductivity, good resistance to high
temperatures, and sliding speeds. Not suitable
for contaminated liquids or gases, very
expensive, require very accurate fitting.
sliding O-ring assembly?
161. Is there a connection between the cross-
section of the rubber O-ring and the
dimensions of the groove?
162. Can a U-ring be fixed in a rebate in the
longitudinal direction?
163. What are the consequences when the V-
ring assembly is too tightly compressed?
164. Is it a problem when the piston rod of a
hydraulic cylinder is slightly damped?
165. Why should gaskets never be mounted
dry?

Assignments
156. What is the purpose of backup rings?
157. On which side of the O-ring is a backup
ring fitted?
158. Is a backup ring fitted with a static O-
ring? Explain your answer.
159. What is the purpose of a dirt wiper?

125
126
 Chapter 7

Hydraulic Controls
Speed control of The speed of a hydraulic cylinder is,
depending on the amount of liters of oil that
hydraulic need to be moved. This can be explained by ORDG
means of Figure 179. The pressure limiting
cylinders valve is set at 200 bar. The cylinder must
convert a load, so a pressure is build up on the
0
left side of the cylinder. The pressure on
pressure gauge M1 can vary between 2-200
bar, depending on the load. Anyway the piston OPLQ
is moving with an equal speed because the
pump has a constant flow. In order to reduce
the piston speed the amount of oil per unit of
time needs to be reduced. How can we
manage this? 0

This can be achieved when a part of the pomp

EDU
output flows to the tank instead of the cylinder.
In Figure 180 the pressure in front of the
pressure limiting valve will increase to 200 bar OPLQ
by tightening the throttle valve in Figure 180. 0
A part of the pump flow is discharged to the
OPLQ
tank via the pressure limitation. Such a throttle
can be positioned in the inlet line of the
cylinder as depicted in Figure 180, however
occasionally in the return line of the cylinder.
In the last case this is referred to as discharge Figure 180 Speed control by means of a throttle
throttling or outlet throttling.

ORDG

OPLQ

0

EDU

OPLQ

Figure 179 No speed control

129
 Outlet Throttle Figure 181 is a double acting cylinder with
outlet throttling. The cylinder is unloaded..
2%
2$
0"
Y0$
0#

0$
0"


Y
0#
0
3 4
, ,,
0
OPLQ
Figure 181 Speed control by means of outlet throttling
Assignments
166. What happens with the return pressure
M3, when the flow control valves are
adjusted causing the piston to move
slower noticeable?
167. When the 4/3 valve is switched in position
III, and the piston is retracted (depicted
position) the system pressure will
increase to 200 bar. Why does the
pressure increase to such a high level?
168. What is the direction of the oil flow?
Assume that the piston is moved out
completely. The retraction stroke will occur by
switching the directional valve in position III.
The pressure of 200 bar will work on surface
OBB of the cylinder. However, the pressure on
surface OA A will be much lower than the
pressure on OB,Bbecause surface OA A is
much bigger. With regard to the latter flow
control valve P will not cause any problem
even when the valve is completely closed.
130
2&
0
,,,
EDU
Assignments
169. Surface OC C =OBB (Surface OC C is half
of surface OA) A) whereas throttle valve P
is closed. What is the pressure on OA A
when the piston is moving in?
The pressure of 200 bar will be on the large
surface OA when the 4/3 valve is switched in
position I. Surface OB is much smaller.
Therefore, the pressure on the rod side is
much higher because the forces on surface
OA and OB are almost equal. When the
pressure on piston side remains 200 bar, and
surface OA is two times the size of surface OB
a pressure of 400 bar will be created on the
piston side. This specifically happens when
the piston is unloaded, and throttle valve Q is
almost closed. The pressure on the rod side
will decrease considerably when the cylinder
is loaded with a push force.
Assignment
170. How is it possible that the pressure on the
rod side is increasing further when the
cylinder is loaded with a pull force? Will
the piston speed change because of this?
When adjusting the pressure relief valve it
is important to consider the maximum
allowed pressure on the rod side of the
piston in case of outlet throttling.
171. Piston rods can be thick or thin with
reference to the piston diameter. This has
influence on the outlet pressure when
outlet throttle is applied. In Figure 182
you see a piston with a thick piston rod. Is
the outlet pressure in this case with
extending piston movement higher or
lower compared to a thinner piston rod?

Assignment

SLVWRQURG F\OLQGHUZDOO SLVWRQ VHDO

Figure 182 Piston seal of a cylinder

Disadvantages of outlet throttles are:

The pressure on the rod side of the cylinder

can exceed the set pressure of the pres-
sure relief valve multiple times.
The effective force of the cylinder is much
smaller because of the opposing force on
the piston when the throttle is restricted.

Despite of the disadvantages outlet throttling

is applied very often. The system is stable and
easy to adjust. For example when a heavy
object is tilted, the object will initially exert a
force on the cylinder that is pushing the piston
down, and eventually exert a force on the
cylinder that will pull the piston out (think about
tilting a large box or cradle). An outlet throttle
allows a smooth and seamless movement
during the entire stroke. This is referred to as
negative load (see Figure 183).

131
 7KHZHLJKWRIWKHORDG 7KHZHLJKWRIWKHORDG
H[HUWVDIRUFH) H[HUWVDIRUFH)
RQWKHF\OLQGHUWKDWWULHVWR RQWKHF\OLQGHUWKDWWULHV
SXOOWKHSLVWRQ WRSXVKWKHSLVWRQ
XSZDUGV GRZQZDUGV

) )

0 0

)ORZFRQWUROWR
FRQWUROVSHHGDQG
WRSUHYHQW &RQWUROWRFRQWUROVSHHGRIWKHSLVWRQ
RYHUUXQQLQJGXULQJ GXULQJWKHUHWUDFWLRQVWURNHDQGWR
WKHH[WHQVLRQRI SUHYHQWRYHUUXQQLQJRIWKHSLVWRQ
WKHSLVWRQ

0

Figure 183 Speed control by means of outlet throttling

132
Inlet throttling Slipstick
2$ The application of inlet throttling allows
occurrence of what is referred to as the
slipstick-effect. This phenomenon often
2% occurs in pneumatic systems however can
also occur in hydraulic systems. Oil, unlike air
0 0
is hardly compressible therefore the effect of
inlet throttling, the jerkily movement of a
hydraulic cylinder is not really visible. However
it can sometimes be observed by the vibrating
3 4 outward and inward movement of the cylinder,
which is audible in some cases.

, ,, ,,,

0

0
EDU
OPLQ

Figure 184 Speed control by means of inlet

throttling

Assignments
172. The piston in the diagram of Figure 184
is moving outwards. Which speed control
valve can be used to control the
extension speed?
173. Can pressures higher than the working
pressure occur during the extension or
retraction movement of the piston in
Figure 184 ? Motivate your answer.
174. What are the advantages of an inlet
throttle compared with an outlet throttle?
175. Area OA A : ring area OB B = 2 : 1 (see
Figure 184). What is the maximum
possible liquid flow through the control
valve?

133
 Speed control by In Figure 185 the speed of the inward and flow control valve is maintenance of a constant
outward piston stroke of the cylinder is flow under different loads. Meaning the valve
of means two- adjusted by means of pressure compensated will maintain a constant pressure different over
flow control valve F. This valve is also the needle valve in contrast to a similar
way pressure referred to as pressure independent two-way situation with a regular adjustable throttle.
compensated flow control valve or series valve. A specific
characteristic of the pressure independent
flow control valve
(series valve)

0

7
)

0

0

0
EDU

OPLQ

Figure 185 Speed control by means of a series valve

The piston in Figure 185 has a constant Assignments

speed during the outward stroke, which is
independent from the piston load. When valve
Ffor instance is adjusted on 8 l/min the
pressure under valve F will increase to 60 bar
whereas 2 l/min will be discharged to the tank.
Two-way flow control valve F can only be
applied in one flow direction. To also allow
speed control of the inward piston stroke,
valve F in Figure 185 is included in the so
called Graetz diagram. The openings
pressure and the pressure losses over valve F
can be disregarded.
176. Valve F in Figure 185 is replaced by an
adjustable throttle valve. Will the speed of
the piston be constant during the outward
stroke of the piston, and a constant load?
177. What is meant with: The pressure above
valve F is, depending on the load of the
cylinder?
178. Valve F F is set at 6 l/min. How many l/
min are discharged via the safety valve
and what is the discharge pressure? The
pump flow is 10 l/min.
179. What are the consequences when non-
return valve T remains open?

134
Parallel circuit Two-way flow
control valve
In Figure 186 two equal motors are supplied
by one pump. To allow separate speed control
independent from the loads both motors are
equipped with a two-way pressure
compensated flow control valve.

0

$ %

0 0

OPLQ 3 OPLQ 4

0

OPLQ

EDU

Figure 186 Two two -way pressure compensated flow control valves parallel

Assignments 184. What will be the consequences for the

control of the rotation speed of both
The load on motor A allows a pressure of 100
motors (the two motors are identical)? .
bar above valve P. The load of motor B allows
a pressure of 160 bar above valve Q. 185. What are the consequences for the
speed control of these motors when both
180. What is pressure reading on pressure
motors are subject to internal leakages?
gauge M1?
181. With regard to this situation, would it be
useful to adjust the safety valve to a
higher or a lower value?
182. How much oil, and against what pressure
will the safety valve discharge at full load
(the leakage of the pump at full load is 1 l/
min)?
183. What will be the consequences for the
pump flow when the leakage in the pump
will increase to 5 l/min because of for
instance wear?

135
Speed control by The special feature of the three-way flow
control valve G is the discharge function to
means of three- the tank in the valve in case of an excess
amount of oil (tank connection). The discharge
way flow control pressure is slightly higher (approximately 7
valve bar) than the load pressure. This 7 bar is the
constant pressure difference over the throttle.

0

OPLQ

0

0

EDU %
0 OPLQ

Figure 187 Speed control by means of a three-way pressure compensated flow control valve

Assignments 191. Explain the difference in heat generation

in a series valve as opposed to a parallel
186. The load on the cylinder in Figure 187
valve.
requires a working pressure of 120 bar
during the outward movement. What is
the pressure before and after the parallel
valve?
187. During the outward movement, how
much of the pump flow of 20 l/min is
supplied to the cylinder, and what
happens with the excess oil?
188. When will the safety valve of the pump be
operated?
189. What will happen to the oil flow if the
cylinder requires a working pressure of
150 bar?
190. What is the purpose of valve B? What
could happen is valve B is not equipped
with a spring?

136
Parallel circuit three-way flow control valve Q is set at 9 l/min. Hydraulic
control valve motor A will receive 8 l/min however the
remaining 12 l/min is discharged via valve P
In Figure 188 the two hydraulic motors A and
against approximately 27 bar. Motor B cannot
B are switched in parallel however have
run because the motor requires a pressure
different loads. Hydraulic motor A requires a
difference of 40 bar whereas the oil is
pressure difference of 20 bar, flow control
discharged at 27 bar through valve P.
valve P is set at 8 l/min. Hydraulic motor B
requires a pressure difference of 40 bar, flow

)287,(9(6&+$.(/,1*

EDU $ EDU %

0 0

OPLQ OPLQ
3 4

0

OPLQ EDU

Figure 188 Two three-way pressure compensated flow control valves in parallel

Conclusion
Never apply three-way pressure
compensated flow control valves in parallel
(as depicted in Figure 188).

Assignment
192. Is it possible to apply two-way pressure
compensated flow control valves in this
situation? Explain you answer.

137
 Three-way flow control valve
applied as discharge speed con-
trol
The application of the three-way pressure
compensated flow control valve in Figure 189
is useless. The discharge flow on the rod side
of the cylinder will never be limited to the set
value of 5 l/min. Although the controlled flow is
limited at 5 l/min the discharge function in the
flow control valve will remove the remainder of
the oil flow. The inlet of the flow control valve
will allow a through put of 10 l/min.

)287,(9(6&+$.(/,1*

GLVFKDUJHOPLQ

VXSSO\
OPLQ

VHWWLQJOPLQ

Figure 189 Three-way pressure compensated

flow control valve applied as
discharge speed control

Assignment
193. Would a two-way pressure compensated
flow control valve solve the problem as
depicted in the latter? Motivate your
answer.

138
Pump safety and The high pressure and low pressure supply pressure has exceeded 30 bar the LD pump
unit as depicted in Figure 190 is equipped will be disconnected from the main system
discharge control with different controls. The oil flow of the LD and will discharge to the tank at minimum to
pump and the HD pump is to the tank at zero zero pressure.
HD and LD pump pressure when valve A and B are not
This has two advantages:
activated. The low pressure pump and the
high pressure pump can be utilized effectively
Minimum heat generation during dischar-
by operating valve A and B. When the system
ging of the low pressure oil
pressure exceeds the safety pressure of the
The circulation function of the low pressure
system the high pressure pump can discharge
pump (at zero pressure) requires minimum
its oil via safety valve D. Valve C is also a
power from the electromotor. The available
safety valve. This valve is applied as safety
power of the electromotor can be utilized
valve for the LD pump. Valve C will be opened
for the HP pump.
when the system pressure has reached a
value of 30 bar or higher. The system
pressure will be fed back to valve C by means
of the (dotted) pilot line. When the system

0

( )
&
0
%

EDU '

0
$

EDU

0 /' +'
OPLQ OPLQ

Figure 190 Hydraulic press with HD and LD pump

Assignments 199. Is it possible to exclude valve A? Explain

your answer.
194. Define the through put capacity of the
components A, B, C, D, E, and F.
195. What is the purpose of the non-return
valves E and F?
196. Is valve F necessary? Explain your
answer.
197. What is the advantage of pressure relief
valve C in this system?
198. Is it possible to place safety valve D after
valve F instead of in front of valve F?
Explain your answer.

139
 Electrical pressure relief system

0 0

&

VDIHW\

% '

7 3 , ,, ,,,

0

6
0
EDU
5

Figure 191 Electrical pressure relief system

Assignments
200. When is it possible to develop a pressure
in the motor circuit?
201. Explain, the purpose of the pilot operated
non-return valves.
202. How does the safety on the hydraulic
motor work?
203. When should this safety be activated?
204. Why is 2/2 valve R included?
205. What should be the adjustment value of
valve C? Explain the chosen value.
206. The designer choose for an ABT
connection combined with pilot operated
non-return valves instead of a closed
mid-position for the 4/3 valve. Explain the
choice of the designer.

140
Assignments The valves A and B (both are electro-
magnetic operated vales with an
207. Complete the diagram of Figure 192
automatic mid-position). The maximum
using the following information:
allowed working pressure of the cylinder
is 100 bar. The working pressure of the
hydraulic motor cannot exceed 40 bar.

0

0

%
5
&

0

' 0

Figure 192

208. Design a solution to prevent the hydraulic

motor from draining when the installation
has stopped.

141
 Load Safety Non-return valve applied as load speed. Safety valve G has a fixed setting of 30
safety device bar. The pressure at the bottom side of the
Devices In Figure 193 non-return valve D is depicted.
cylinder cannot exceed the half of 30 bar (rod-
piston ration is 1:2) when unloaded. During the
This valve should prevent that an extended,
extension of the cylinder the maximum
and loaded cylinder C will lower because of
available working pressure is limited by valve
leakage through valve F. The non-return valve
K. The apparent working pressure is
is opened by switching valve F in position III,
determined by the weight of the load and the
because of this the oil at the bottom side of the
piston surface.
cylinder can be discharged to the tank. The
two-way pressure compensated flow control
valve B is applied to control the lowering

ORDG

&

'

0 *

, ,, ,,, )

0

$
.

Figure 193 Diagram with pilot operated non-return valve and leakage connection

Assignments 210. Assume that the cylinder C is exchanged

for a cylinder with a smaller piston
209. What is the function of the components G
surface. Is it possible to move heavier or
and A in the diagram of Figure 193?
smaller loads with the new cylinder when
the adjustment of component K is main-
tained?

142
211. What will occur during lowering when the
through put capacity of the series valve is
set at a value that exceeds twice the
pump flow (rod-piston ratio is 1:2)?
Remark
Outriggers are applied to stabilize hydraulic
cranes and similar installations. Non-return
valves are always part of these outriggers.
These non-return valves have to be connected
directly to the cylinder. This is a rule of the
labour inspection.

143
 Pilot operated non-return valve The outward movement of the cylinder
and negative load (position 1 of the main valve in Figure 194) is
seamless. The speed of the outward
Figure 194 depicts the working principle of a
movement is, depending on the pump flow
hydraulic truck crane. The downward force on
and the volume of the cylinder. The pressure
the cylinder created by the load can be excep-
in the pressure line during the outward
tionally large. The pilot operated non-return
movement is, depending on the load. A higher
valve is mounted in the line to prevent that the
load will require a higher working pressure
load will lower slowly because of leakages in
with a maximum of 300 bar.
the main valve or somewhere else.

/
2
$
' 6

%
$

F\OLQGHU ,  ,,

EDU

OPLQ

Figure 194 Pilot operated non-return valve in a hydraulic crane.

When the main valve is switched in position II cylinder will overrun the pump flow. . This
the pressure on the rod side of the cylinder will means that the created pressure on the rod
increase. The pressure will open the pilot side to open the valve is almost gone. This
operated non-return valve via the (dotted) pilot will allow the closing of the non-return valve.
line. However when the valve is pushed from
This uncontrolled movement can cause life
its seat the piston and the load will move
threatening situations.
downwards in an uncontrolled mode because
the load is creating a force in the moving
direction of the piston (negative load). The

144
In Figure 195 a bascule bridge is depicted.
The phenomenon as described in the latter
can occur during closing of the bridge. The
application of a braking valve can prevent this
problem.

Figure 195 Bascule bridge

145
 Braking valve The working principle of the braking valve is
based on the same principle as the pilot
operated non-return valve however with a
distinct different construction a proportional
plunger instead of a valve construction. The
main plunger of the braking valve in (Figure
196) can take any position between fully
opened and fully closed in the flow direction B
to A to control the oil flow per second. The
extended symbol of this braking valve is
PDJQLILHGSLFWXUHRI
VSHHGFRQWUROYDOYH5
$
VSHHGFRQWUROYDOYHV
5 6
; $
Figure 196 braking valve
146
depicted in Figure 197A whereas simplified
versions are depicted in figure B or C.
Hydraulic applications are also often equipped
with the braking function as depicted in
Figure 197D. The working principle of this
braking valve is based on the principle of a
safety valve. This valve is often referred to as
counter balance valve.
QRQUHWXUQYDOYH
PDLQSOXQJHU DGMXVWPHQW
EROW
% /
 $

5 6 $

% % '
;
% &
$ $

Figure 197 Symbols of a braking valve A, B, C, and a counter balance valve D

147
 Opening the braking valve
Figure 198 is a schematic diagram with a
braking valve. When the cylinder is lowered
the load pressure will open the braking valve
at 1/3 of the load pressure. The pilot oil for
opening will be supplied through inlet throttle
S. The braking valve is construed in such a
way that a large displacement of the main
valve is required to create a small opening
from B to A. The movement of the plunger is
seamless because of the supply throttle S.
The freefall movement that would occur when
a pilot operated safety valve would be applied
is prevented by means of a braking valve.
)ORDG
RSHQLQJVSUHVVXUH[ RIWKHORDGSUHVVXUH
Closing the braking valve
The movement of the piston rod should not
stop abrupt when the cylinder is overrunning
the pump and the pressure on the rod side of
the cylinder is dropping. The braking valve will
start closing when the pressure on the rod
side will lower to 1/3 of the load pressure. The
return throttle R allows a controlled closing
motion. A relative large amount of pilot oil will
have to be discharged prior to closing the
opening from B to A completely. A correct
setting of the throttles S and R is essential for
the correct operation of the braking valve,
which should stable also with intermitting and
changing loads.
F\OLQGHU
EUDNLQJYDOYH RSHQLQJSUHVVXUH[ RIWKHORDGSUHVVXUHPRWRU

6 5
$

0
EDU

Figure 198 Diagram with braking valve

148
Safety not leak free. The application of a mechanical
brake is a safety prerequisite. A combination
By law both the braking valve, as well as the
with a pilot operated non-return valve is often
counter balance valve are accepted as load
applied as well.
holding valve. Both can be applied as excess
flow valve (blocking valve). Both valves are

Figure 199 Braking valve Bucher-Hydraulics

149
 Pump controls The flow of certain type of pumps for instance
the axial piston pump can be controlled
mechanically. However more control options
are possible when the adjustment mechanism
is changed to a mechanical-hydraulic layout.
Regular applied control systems are: :

Constant flow (limiting of the maximum

flow)
Constant pressure (limiting of the maximum
pressure)
Constant power (limiting of the maximum
supplied pump power)

FRQWUROF\OLQGHU
VZDVKSODWH

SOXQJHU

Figure 200 Working principle of the adjustment of

an axial piston pump

150
Constant Flow In Figure 201 the working principle of a
constant flow system is depicted
System

( ORDG

0

' OPLQ

0

)
& EDU

EDU
OPLQ  %
PD[
$
FRQWUROF\OLQGHU
0
VSULQJ

Figure 201 Control of a constant flow system

The spring of control cylinder B allows the

swash plate to return automatically to the
position in, which the pump delivers its
maximum flow. The position of the pilot
cylinder that controls the flow of the pump is
adjusted by means of proportional valve C.
The pump pressure M1 (the pressure before
the adjustable throttle) is connected with the
left side of the proportional valve the load
pressure is connected with the right side of
valve (the pressure after the throttle). In this
situation the pressure difference is 14 bar. The
pressure on M2 will increase when the load is
increasing. Consequently the pressure
difference over the adjustable throttle will
decrease. The increased pressure M2 will
move the plunger of the proportional valve to
the left. The swash plate is adjusted, the pump
flow will increase. The pressure at M1 will
increase to maintain a constant pressure over
the throttle and consequently a constant flow
through the throttle.
Summarized:
A constant flow control will maintain a constant
pressure difference over the throttle and
consequently maintain the set flow.
Assignments
Assume that the load of the hydraulic motor
requires a pressure difference of 30 bar. The
throttle valve D is set at 10 l/min.
212. What is the value on pressure gauge M1
and M2?
213. Assume that the required pressure
difference over the hydraulic motor
increases to 130 bar, what is the value on
the pressure gauges M1 and M2?
214. Explain what will happen when the
throttle D is adjusted to 15 l/min?
215. What is the pressure difference over the
throttle D during operation?

151
 Constant In Figure 202 the working principle of a
constant pressure system is depicted. Propor-
Pressure System tional valve C is applied to control the position
of the pilot cylinder and consequently limit the
pressure that can be developed by the pump.
The pump pressure M1 is connected with the
left side of the proportional valve, the right side
of the proportional valve is equipped with a
spring, which in this diagram has a value of 80
bar. The plunger will move to the right in case
the pressure at M1 is increasing to exceed 80
bar. The swash plate will be adjusted to
decrease the flow of the pump to ensure that
the maximum set pressure is maintained.
Summarized: :
The constant pressure system ensures that:
the set pressure is maintained by adjusting
the flow in case the pressure is increasing.
the flow will increase in case the pressure is
decreasing under the set value.

( ORDG

0

EDU
)
&

EDU
OPLQ  %
PD[
$
FRQWUROF\OLQGHU
0
VSULQJ

Figure 202 Control for constant pressure

Assignments 218. What are the functions of the safety valve

in this situation? Consider the adjustment
216. What is the pressure on pressure gauge
speed of the pump control.
M1 in the depicted situation of Figure
202? 219. What is the impact of the adjustment of
the spring pressure of valve C?
217. The load on the hydraulic motor requires
a pressure that exceeds 80 bar. What will
happen with the pump flow?

152
Constant Power In Figure 203 the working principle of a
constant power control is depicted. When the
Control set power value is reached (the spring
pressure of the pilot cylinder) the constant
power control will adjust and decrease the
pump flow when the pressure is increasing
because power is the product of pressure and
flow. The system pressure is connected with
the pilot cylinder B by means of the pilot line.
When the system pressure is exceeding the
spring pressure, the pilot cylinder will
decrease the pomp flow against the spring. A
constant power control requires a fixed ration
between pressure and flow.

( ORDG

&

EDU

PD[
%
$

Figure 203 Control for Constant Power

Throttle valve C is absorbing pressure pulses

caused by the load to prevent instability, and
to ensure a smooth control. The pressure of
the spring dictates the point where the pump
flow will be decreased. The mechanical limi-
tation of the stroke of the pilot cylinder
determines if the flow is maintained at a
minimum value or controlled back to zero.
Summarized:
Constant Power Control ensures that:

The flow will decrease when the pressure is

increasing to prevent that the maximum
power is exceeded.
The flow will increase when the pressure is
decreasing to utilize maximum available
power.

153
154
 Chapter 8

Hydraulic Pumps
Introduction The linear in-and out movement of cylinders
as well as the rotation of hydraulic motors
requires an oil flow. Pumps are applied to
deliver an oil flow. Any desired movement of a
cylinder or a motor requires a certain amount
of oil. A pump driven by an electric motor or an
internal combustion motor sucks oil from a
tank and pumps this oil to lines and
components. A pump can deliver oil but a
pump does not deliver a pressure , when
the oil flow does not encounter resistance. A
pump can only develop a pressure in case of
resistance. Back pressure (resistance) is
prerequisite for pressure. Pressure is
created by the load on a cylinder or a hydraulic
motor. The pump only supplies the oil to the
cylinder or hydraulic motor.

157
 Hydraulic hand Hand pumps used for hydraulic operations are 204). Our hand force is limited and is usually
usually plunger pumps. These pumps are accounted for 250 to 300 N while usually a
Pumps capable off working with high pressures. higher pressure is required. Therefore, the
These pumps are applied in garage jacks, flow is very low.
small bend, and straightening presses, test
pumps (to test systems on leakages), fixtures
in the metal industry, pallet trucks (see Figure

Figure 204 Hydraulic Jack in pallet truck

158
In Figure 206 a schematic drawing of a
plunger pump is depicted
The working principle is as follows. The
upward movement of the piston is causing a
lower pressure under the plunger than the
pressure in the suction line, consequently the
pump housing is filled via the suction valve
until the plunger is in the top position. During
the downward pressure stroke a higher
pressure as opposed to the pressure in the
pressure line will be developed under the
plunger, the oil is delivered to the components
via the pressure valve in the pressure line.
Assignments
220. Why will the pressure valve close and the
suction valve open during the upward
movement of the plunger?
221. Mention two factors that determine the
flow of a hand pump.
222. The number of strokes per minute of a
hand pump is increased. What happens
with the flow?
223. Is it possible to adjust the safety valve to
the value, which is much lower than the
maximum working pressure of the pump?
224. How should one determine the scale of
leakages of a pump in a hydraulic instal-
lation?

Figure 205 Symbol Hand Pump

SUHVVXUH
VWURNH
SOXQJHU

VWURNH
YROXPH
VWURNH

SUHVVXUH VXFWLRQ
YDOYH YDOYH

Figure 206 Manual operated plunger pump

159
 Pump Concepts Displacement/Stroke Volume
The displacement (or stroke volume) is the
amount of oil per stroke that is transferred by
the pump. The displacement is expressed in
cm3 output per revolution (cc/rev) for rotating
pumps and cm3 output per double acting
stroke in case of plunger pumps.
Revolutions per Minute (RPM)
The RPM is the amount of revolutions of a
pump per minute.
Pump Outlet Flow
The amount of oil that can be transferred by a
pump per minute is referred to as the pump
outlet flow (l/min, or occasionally m3/s)
Maximum Working Pressure
The maximum working pressure is the highest
pressure for which the pump is designed for
continuous load.
Peak Pressure
The maximum allowed peak pressure is often
depicted on the type plate of a pump.
Temporary extreme high pressure can occur
when different components in the installation
are switched or when a cylinder has reached
its end position. These temporary extreme
pressures are referred to as peak pressures.
because of mechanical causes the
mechanical efficiency is (mech.) 90%. The lost
mechanical power is converted into heat
energy.
Hydraulic Efficiency
The molecules of the flowing liquid are subject
to friction. Because of this part of the supplied
power is lost. Friction between the molecules
is also converted into heat energy. The
hydraulic efficiency will decrease when the
liquid is subject to a higher pressure. The
viscosity and the compressibility also have an
impact on the efficiency. In practice
mechanical and hydraulic efficiency are often
referred as one mech. hyd.
Total Efficiency
Part of the total supplied power to a pump is
lost because of mechanical losses, en volu-
metric losses, and hydraulic losses. When
20% of the supplied power (100%) is lost, the
total efficiency is (tot) 80%.
For this course the phenomenon efficiency is
only interesting to determine if an existing
pump needs to be refurbished. The amount of
leakages is a pump is an excellent measuring
tool for that purpose.

Power
The power of a pump is determined by the
pump outlet flow and the pump pressure. The
delivered power will increase when the pump
outlet flow and/or the pump pressure increase.

Volumetric Efficiency
During the operation any pump is subject to
leakages. These leakages occur along the
plunger and via the suction and pressure
valve. Logically these leakages increase at
higher pressures. The energy lost because of
these leakages in converted into (undesirable)
heat energy.

Mechanical Efficiency
A certain amount of the supplied power is lost
because of friction between the different
mechanical components, plungers, suction,
and pressure valves, bearings, and so on.
When 10% of the supplied power is lost

160
General Points of Cavitation Filtering
There should always be sufficient supply of oil The pump manufacturer will usually specify
Attention on the suction side of the pump. A clogged the type of filter and the required filter
suction filter or a valve that not sufficiently fineness. A filter element should always be
opened will cause problems. A pump will replaced with exactly the same element. Appli-
create under pressure or vacuum when the cation of a coarser filter element can cause
pump is unable to draw in sufficient amount of damage to the pump whereas a finer filter can
oil. The phenomenon that occurs in the pump cause cavitation.
is referred to as cavitation. Cavitation is one
of the most common causes of pump wear. Pressure Side and Safety
The term cavitation (formation of holes) Measures
means that there is is insufficient supply of
A pump needs to be able to discharge oil at a
liquid into the inlet chamber.. The pump will
lower pressure that the maximum pump
continue to suck, which will allow the pressure
pressure. A pressure relief valve is therefore
of the pump to lower under the maximum
a prerequisite.
vapour pressure of the oil. This will cause an
oil vapour filled with bubbles. in another part of Important is that:
the pump that is subject to a higher pressure
(pressure side), these vapour bubbles are The setting is equal or lower than the
squeezed with great force, and high speed maximum allowed pump pressure
(implosion). These implosions that occur at The flow capacity should be equal or lar-
the wall on the pump house cause consi- ger than the maximum pump capacity
derable damage to that part of the wall, which
eventually will be worn out. Cavitation is
causing an auditable cracking sound. This
phenomenon is sometimes amplified when the
oil film is broken because of vapour deve-
lopment and moving parts come into direct
contact generating even more noise and wear
(washboard effect).

To summarize cavitation is:

The formation of bubbles that develop in a
pump on spots where the pressure is lower
that the vapour pressure of the applied oil.
Cavitation will lead to serious pump wear.
.

Oils
Each pump requires definition of the required
oil. The viscosity (oil thickness) and dopes are
important for the construction and the material
of the pump. Application of a wrong type of oil
can lead to pump failure within one hour. The
lubrication properties of an oil are decreasing
as the oil isaging Therefore, it is important to
adhere to the prescribed replacement times.

161
 Gear Pumps The gear pump is a common applied relative
cheap solution in hydraulic systems. A gear
pump operates well at pressures until approxi-
mately 250 bar. Problems can occur at higher
pressures. A gear pump is durable, operates
smoothly, and does not have a lot of moving
parts. A gear pump with external gear has two
tightly fitting gear wheels that are locked in a
sturdy housing. Usually only one of the wheels
is driven. This wheel is driving the other gear
wheel in the opposite direction. The oil is
transferred from the spaces between the teeth
on the suction side to the pressure side and
discharged from these spaces as these
spaces mesh. As the gear wheels turn and Figure 208 Simple Gear Pump
mesh at the outlet small quantities of fluid are
locked between the teeth under high pressure.
This locked oil is causing addition bearing load
(disadvantage) however ensures a good
sealing at that particular spot (advantage). SUHVVXUH
Such a sealing is referred to as a hydraulic
lock.
In practice is referred to the stroke volume of a
pump however this is not correct. A pump
does not make a stroke. One intends to refer
to:
to the output of a pump per revolution
(cm3/revolution).

VXFWLRQ

Figure 209 Cross section of a gear pump

Figure 207 Symbols of Hydraulic Pumps
The general characteristics of a gear pump
Assignments are:

225. What are the determining factors of the

pump outlet flow in case of a gear pump?
226. Elaborate on the pumps that are depicted
by the symbols of Figure 207.
-usual pressures up to approximately 250
bar
usual rpm 1500 to 3000 however mini-
mum 800 rpm
total efficiency approximately 75%
long life expectancy because of limited
moving parts and robust construction
flow can only be adjusted by means of
rpm variations
most suitable viscosity 40-80 cSt or ISO-
VG 40 to 68

The pump of Figure 208 has one disad-

vantage. The pressure on the pressure side
(in contradiction to the suction side) acts one-
sidedly on the shafts of the gear wheels, which
means that the bearings on one side are
loaded with a radial force.

162
A technique referred to as axial leakage
pressure compensation can be applied to
improve the efficiency of the gear pump. In
this case the side plates are moveable and
referred to as spectacle bearing plates. These
plates are pressed (sometimes by small
springs) against the gear wheels so that the
Figure 210 Gear Pump Bosch Rexroth
Assignment
227. Provide the names for the components of
the pump in Figure 210.
A point of attention is the oil located between
the two teeth (Figure 211). Because of the
shape of the teeth oil is trapped between the
tooth of one wheel and the gap of the other
when they mesh. The volume of this of oil
ORFNHGXSRLO
Figure 211 Relief Grooves External Gear Pump
inevitable lateral wear is compensated. A so-
called exploded view of this pump is depicted
in Figure 210. Radial bearing loads can be
compensated by means of radial channels in
the gear wheels.
varies because of the rotating gear wheels.
When this problem would not be addressed
enormous pressure would occur as well as
noise. The relief grooves in thespectacle
bearing plates, prevent the situation as
described in the latter. In Figure 211 these
relief grooves are depicted as dotted square
UHOLHIJURRYHV
163
 UHOLHIJURRYHV

Figure 212 Relief Grooves External Gear Pump

164
 Gear-Ring Gear-Ring pumps are gear pumps with
internal gear also referred to as orbit. Their
Pumps (also construction, including a longer suction and
pressure are allows a quieter operation as
referred to as opposed to the external gear pump. In Figure
Internal Gear 213 a gear-ring pump is depicted . The gear-
ring pump is often applied for pressure lubri-
Pump) cation systems in machines, and combustion
engines when the pump is driven by the
machine or motor shaft. Beside these low
pressure pumps for lubrication systems, with
work pressures between 6 to 10 bar, there are
also gear-ring pumps as part of hydraulic
steering systems with a 5 to 10 times higher
working pressure. These can be found, for
example, on vehicles.

SUHVVXUHJDWHV

VXFWLRQJDWHV

Figure 213 Opened Gear-Ring Pump

This pump is often combined with a high

pressure pump such as a radial piston pump.
This allows a compact construction. The rotors
can be built directly into the housing of the
high-pressure pump. Such small double
pumps are applied in presses and large
pressure installations

Figure 214 Symbol Gear-Ring Pump

165
 Figure 215 Gear-Ring Pump

166
Vane Pumps The vane pump produces limited pulsation
compared with a gear pump. This means that
the pump delivers a continuous and smooth oil
flow. Pulsation refers to pressure waves. This
allows the vane pump to produce less noise
while maintaining a high RPM. The delivery
pressure can go up to 200 to 300 bar. The
normal executions normally do not exceed
175 bar. . This pump is applied in pressure
molding machines, plastic presses, agriculture
and road construction machines, and power
steering for vehicles and airplanes. The
working principle is based on increasing and
decreasing of the size of the pump chambers.
pump chambers.

SUHVVXUHVLGH

KRXVLQJ URWRU

YDQHV

VXFWLRQVLGH

Figure 216 Vane Pump

Figure 217 Vane Pump Parker Denison

167
 Suction and pressure side are generated
because the rotor is mounted eccentric with
respect to the housing. Consequently when
the rotor turns the pump chambers become
alternately larger and smaller see Figure 216.
At the suction side the chambers become
increasingly larger whereas the chambers on
the pressure side become increasingly
smaller. The oil is transported between the
vanes. The pressure, which is on one side of
the rotor, is creating a considerable one-sided
bearing load. Because of this the bearings
need a special execution, which is disad-
vantage of this pump.
The vanes of a vane pump are only pressed
against the pump housing when the pump is
rotating. The centrifugal forces are causing
this phenomenon. The minimum required
RPM to deliver an oil flow is determined during
the construction of a vane pump. In some
cases vane pumps are equipped with springs
behind the vanes to allow an oil flow at
extremely low RPM. This execution is
depicted in Figure 218.

Figure 218 Spring loaded vanes

Assignments
228. Point out in Figure 216 in which direction
the force acts upon the shaft, and in
which direction the bearing load occurs.
229. Is this an axial or a radial bearing load?

168
Balanced Vane Pump other). A balanced vane pump can be viewed
as two pumps in one pump housing, the
In a balanced vane pump the rotor is placed in
section of the inner surface of the housing at A
the same center-line as the stator, so not
and B is cylindrical, which means that there is
eccentric. In Figure 219 this is depicted The
no displacement of the vanes.
radial forces on the rotor are balancing each
other out (Two pressure sides facing each

SUHVVXUHVLGH

VXFWLRQVLGH $ '

VXFWLRQVLGH

%
&
SUHVVXUHVLGH

Figure 219 Balanced Vane Pump

The vanes at section C and D do slide in.

However, besides the friction forces there are
less lateral forces on the vanes because the
pressure on both sides of the rotor is equal. In
the center of the rotor of Figure 219 small
channels have been added to allow that the
pump pressure can pass under the vanes and
that the oil can escape when the space is
reduced. Pumps referred to as two-step
pumps are applied for pressures up to 200
bar. These two-step pumps consist of two
vane pumps in series. The advantage of this
setup is a smooth and quiet operation as well
as long technical life time.

169
 Adjustable Vane Pump The pump output flow can be adjusted mecha-
nically however the adjustment of pump output
The size of the pump chambers can be
flow can also be linked to the working
changed by moving the stator (pressure ring)
pressure or flow by means of a hydraulic
to the left or to the right. The created
control device.
chambers are equal when the rotor is in its
mid- position and the pump output flow is zero.

Figure 220 Adjustable Vane Pump

SUHVVXUHEORFN
VSULQJSUHVVXUH
VHWWLQJ SUHVVXUHULQJ

RXWSXW
VHWWLQJ

Figure 221 Adjustable Vane Pump

Figure 222 Symbol Adjustable Pump

170
 Piston Pumps/ Pumps applied for pressure exceeding 200
bar are usually piston pumps although
Plunger Pumps specially designed gear pumps and vane
pumps can also perform in that range. The
reciprocating piston in a piston pump fits
tightly in the cylinder, which ensures an
effective sealing. These pumps have a high
volumetric efficiency. The plungers can be
equipped with valves or with openings for
suction and pressure similar to vane pumps.
Pumps with suction and pressure valves are
generally more suitable for the higher
pressures because of the better sealing.
Piston Pumps/Plunger pumps can be divided
in three main groups:

a.Linear piston pumps; the pistons are pla-

ced in a row in same way as in a car
engine, in which the cylinders with their
pistons are placed one behind the other;
b.Radial piston pumps; the pistons are alig-
ned in a star shape around the driving
shaft.
c.Axial piston pumps; the pistons are posi-
tioned around the drive shaft with the cen-
ter line of each piston parallel to the drive
shaft.

171
 Radial Piston Pumps pressure up to approximately 350 bar. Suction
and pressure valves have been exchanged for
The adjustable radial piston pump depicted in
ports. The displacement volume of the pump
Figure 223 is equipped with a floating ring to
can be adjusted by displacing the motor shaft
reduce the wear of the piston heads (rolls).
(eccentricity). The radial piston pumps are
The biggest advantage of this floating ring is
specifically designed for high pressure up to
the reduced lateral load on the pistons/
600 bar and peak pressures up to 1000 bar.
plungers. This prevents different wear
problems. The pump in figure 224 can run with

IORDWLQJULQJ

SUHVVXUHSRUW
URWRUVKDIW

VXFWLRQSRUW

Figure 223 Radial Piston Pump

172
Axial Piston Pumps
There are three distinct different types of axial
piston pumps:
A slanting swash plate that is driven and
turns against a stationary cylinder block.
See Figure 224.
A driven and hence rotating cylinder
block against a stationary swash plate. See
Figure 225.
A driven swash plate and a rotating plun-
ger block. See Figure 226.
VZDVKSODWH
SOXQJHU SOXQJHUEORFN
Figure 224 Axial Piston Pump
Assignment
230. What is the purpose of the springs behind
the plungers?
Axial piston pump with stationary
plunger block
During the pressure stroke the plungers of the
pump in Figure 224 are pressed into the
stationary plunger block by the rotating swash
plate. The pressure and suction valves are
required because the block is stationary. This
pump type is not suitable for high RPMS
because the plungers are pressed against the
swash plate continuously.
VXFWLRQ SUHVVXUH
YDOYHV YDOYHV
VXFWLRQ SUHVVXUH
173
 Axial Piston Pump with Rotating Plun-
ger Block
Figure 225 depicts a pump with a stationary
swash plate and a rotating plunger block.
Compression springs behind the plungers are
prerequisite for the suction stroke. These
compression springs maintain a certain
pressure of the plungers/pistons against the
swash plate. Pressure and suction valves are
absent in this situation. This is possible
because the pressure and suction flow
through the grooves (channels) in the mirror
plate are kept separated. As with the previous
pump the shaft bearings need to be of a
special type because they are highly loaded.
The reason for this is the bending load. The
plungers/pistons of Figure 225 are not in line
with the driving shaft. This is constructed in
this way to limit the lateral load on the
plungers.

URWDWLQJ
VZDVKSODWH SOXQJHU
SOXQJHUEORFN VWDWLRQDU\
PLUURUSODWH

F\OLQGHUSRUW

GULYHVKDIW

VXFWLRQ]RQH SUHVVXUH
]RQH

Figure 225 Plunger Pump with Stationary Swash Plate

174
Axial Plunger/Piston Pump with Rota-
ting Swash Plate and Plunger Block
Figure 226 depicts an execution in which both
parts are rotating, the drive shaft with the
swash plate and the plungers/pistons with the
plunger block/piston block. To eliminate the
high RPM problem there are no springs fitted
to hold the plungers against the swash plate.
The pistons are connected to the swash plate
by means of ball joints. (See Figure 226 and
Figure 228). Off-course the plunger rods will
also have to be connected by means of
hinges.

Figure 226 Working Principle Diagram of Rotating Swash Plate and Rotating Plunger Block

Figure 227 Example Plunger

175
 Figure 228 Axial Piston Pump with Rotating Swash Plate and Rotating Plunger Block

Adjustable Axial Piston Pump

Figure 229 Adjustable Axial Piston pump Linde

176
 PHFKDQLFDOFRQWURO

GULYHVKDIW

K\GUDXOLF

FRQWUROF\OLQGHU DGMXVWDEOHVZDVKSODWH

SOXQJHUV

SOXQJHUEORFN

Figure 230 Working Principle Mechanical and Hydraulic Adjustable Plunger Pump Linde

Figure 231 Hydraulic Control Mechanical Hydraulic Adjustable Axial Piston Pump Linde

177
 Figure 232 Axial Piston Pump Parker

Figure 233 Symbol Adjustable Hydraulic Pump

with Two Flow Directions

178
Screw Pumps Screw pumps are applied in hydraulic instal-
lations for hydraulic lifts, lift bridges, and
production machines. However the main appli-
cation for this pump is for transport of oil and
oil related fluids from for instance one tank to
another tank. These pumps have a consistent
flow and are reasonably silent in operation.
The required drive speed is between 1500 to
3000 rotations per minute, which is reasonably

high. Screw pumps require a higher viscosity
than other pumps. A disadvantage is the high
purchase price. The screw pumps consist of a
drive shaft and one or two sealing shafts. The
pressure space is sealed off from the suction
space by the tops of the screw shafts, which
are enclosed by the housing.

 












 









Figure 234 Screw Pump AMW Marine

Figure 235 Screw Pump

179
 Figure 236 Example Screw Spindles

The working pressures and the outputs of the

screw pumps for different application vary
considerably:

Low pressure pumps with pressures bet-

ween 10-25 bar and flow outputs of
approximately 2500 l/min and poor effi-
ciency.
Medium pressure pumps with pressure
between 30-60 bar and flow outputs of
maximum 180 l/min
High pressure pumps with pressures bet-
ween 80-180 bar and flow outputs of
approximately 50 l/min.

180






 


























   


     


 


   
 




   
  


   

   


    


   


 


     


    


 

Figure 237 Screw Pump with Pump and Electric Motor under in the Tank

181
 Assignments
231. What is the function of a pump in a
hydraulic system?
232. What is the maximum setting of a
pressure safety valve, and what do you
know about the through put of this valve?
233. What should be done to improve the
technical life of a pump in an existing
system?
234. What is the simplest method of testing
the condition of a pump?
235. What is cavitation?
236. What can be the root causes of cavitation
in a pump?
237. How can a pressure and a suction port be
recognized in practice?
238. Assume, that the pressure and the
suction port of a pump are equal. How
should one determine the flow direction?
239. What is the difference between rotation
direction and flow direction with a pump
(also for motors)?
240. Is it possible for a pump with one rotation
direction to have two flow directions?
241. Explain the following phenomena: volu-
metric efficiency, mechanical efficiency,
and total efficiency.
242. Which of the pumps as described in the
latter qualify for the definition of a positive
displacement pump?
243. Why are pumps in some cases mounted
under the oil level in a tank?

182
 Chapter 9

Cylinders
Introduction Hydraulic cylinders can be regarded as
hydraulic motors because they both perform
work. Hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders are
transferring hydraulic or pneumatic energy into
mechanical energy just like motors. To distinct
the cylinder from the rotating motor a cylinder
is also referred to as a linear motor. The force
of a cylinder is determined by the piston
surface and the pressure of the air or oil
delivered to the cylinder. At equal pressures a
cylinder with a larger piston surface will deliver
more force than a cylinder with a smaller
piston surface. The force delivered by the
piston will increase when the pressure of the
oil or air is increased.

Assignments
244. When does a cylinder exert a force?
245. When does a cylinder deliver work?
246. What are the factors that determine the
force delivered by a cylinder?
247. Can an unloaded cylinder deliver a force?
Explain your answer.

185
 Single-acting The single-acting cylinder in hydraulic systems
is often a plunger execution. The effective
Hydraulic area of the cylinder is the piston surface. Slide
rings and support rings for sealing are applied
Cylinder in the middle and under the plunger, (see
Figure 238).

SOXQJHU

VOLGHDQGVXSSRUWULQJV

F\OLQGHUKRXVLQJ

FRQQHFWLRQ$

Figure 238 Single-acting Hydraulic Cylinder

Figure 239 Symbol Single-acting Cylinder Spring

Loaded

The purpose of the slide and support rings as

described in the latter is to improve the
guidance of the plunger. The construction is
cheap because the inside of the cylinder does
not require strict machining. Plunger cylinders
are applied in presses in which the lifting table
is supposed to move upwards or lifting
equipment. In these applications in most
cases the plunger returns because of its own
weight. When the own weight in insufficient a
return spring is applied. These springs are
usually only applied for small cylinders
because of the limited spring force and limited
stroke length.

186
Double-acting The applied pressures in hydraulic systems
are much higher than the pressures in
Hydraulic pneumatic systems. A hydraulic cylinder can
be distinguished from a pneumatic cylinder
Cylinder easily because:
The piston rod is thicker because of the
larger forces
The cylinder wall is thicker because of the
high pressures in the cylinder
The ratio between the cylinder diameter
and the piston rod diameter
The cushioning, which is a different execu-
tion (no packings).
In Figure 241 a hydraulic cylinder is depicted.
In some cases in low pressure hydraulic
systems pneumatic cylinders with oil resistant
seals are applied.

F\OLQGHUKRXVLQJ SLVWRQVHDODQG URGVXSSRUW URGVFUDSHUULQJ

ERWWRP SLVWRQ VXSSRUW 2ULQJ  FRYHU

URGVHDO
SLVWRQURG

Figure 240 Hydraulic Double-acting Cylinder

Figure 241 Hydraulic Double-acting Cylinder

187
 Hydraulic In Figure 242 a hydraulic adjustable
cushioning is depicted The round cushioning
Cushioning plunger on the piston is grinded conical. When
the end of the cushioning plunger is closing
the cushioning space the piston speed will be
reduced further. The cushioning hole will be
closed completely when the cushioning
plunger has reached its end position. During
the final part of the stroke all the remaining oil
will be discharged through the circulation
channel and the adjustable throttle to the
return. This is an adjustable throttle valve.

DGMXVWPHQWVFUHZIRU
FXVKLRQLQJVSHHG

WRDQGIURP
YDOYH

QRQUHWXUQYDOYH

FXVKLRQLQJSOXQJHUHQWHUVWKH
QDUURZRSHQLQJDQG
VORZO\FORVHVLW

Figure 242 Working principle Hydraulic Cushioning

FXVKLRQLQJSOXQJHU
ZLWKJURYHV

FXVKLRQLQJVFUHZ

Figure 243 Hydraulic Cylinder with Cushioning

Assignments
248. What is the function of the non-return
valve in Figure 242?
249. What is the function of the grooves in the
cushioning plunger of Figure 243?

188
Figure 244 Openwork Hydraulic Pull Rod Cylinder Atos

Figure 245 Detail of the Cushioning

189
 Telescopic Telescopic cylinders (see Figure 248), are
applied when there is no space for a long
Cylinders cylinder while a large lifting height is required.
This requirement is necessary in tower SLVWRQURG
wagons, lifts, and dump trucks. In case of
single-acting cylinders the parts with the
largest cross section will move first. In case of
extreme large working lengths the telescopic
cylinders are sensitive to lateral forces.
Because of this telescopic cylinders are
usually only applied vertically. There are
special executions in which all sections are
pushed out equally and with the same speed. F\OLQGHU
This cylinder is referred to as constant
extension telescopic cylinder . F\OLQGHU

F\OLQGHU

SLVWRQ

SLVWRQ

SLVWRQ

Figure 248 Single-acting Telescopic Cylinder

Figure 246 Single-acting Telescopic Cylinder

Figure 247 Symbol Single-acting Telescopic

Cylinder

190
Special Cylinders Pilot Cylinder
Figure 250 depicts the working principle of the
cylinder of a ships steering machine. In this
execution the piston rod is fixed and the
cylinder moves back and forth, turning the
rudder stock and the rudder.

Figure 249 Pilot Cylinder

F\OLQGHU SLVWRQ

FXVKLRQLQJ

Figure 250 Pilot Cylinder Ships Rudder

Differential Cylinder with

Moving Cylinder Housing
In the special differential cylinder of Figure
251 the cylinder is moved in-and out by the oil,
the piston with piston rod are fixed.

F\OLQGHU
SLVWRQ

Figure 251 Differential Cylinder with Moving Cylinder Housing

191
192
 Chapter 10

Hydraulic Motors
Introduction Electric motors are transferring electrical Assignments
energy to mechanical energy resulting in a
250. What is hydraulic energy?
rotating shaft. A hydraulic motor is transferring
a hydraulic energy into a mechanical energy 251. What kind of energy is transferred by the
also resulting in a rotating shaft. Hydraulic hydraulic motor and which other energy
motors and hydraulic pumps are constructed form results from that transfer?
in the same way. There are hydraulic pumps
that can be applied as motor whereas the
opposite is also possible. However, in practice
small amendments to the motor of pump are
required. In some cases the seals have to be
changed.

Figure 252 Hydraulic Motor

195
 Gear Motors Gear motors have a minimum threshold of
approximately 300 rpm. The maximum rpm
runs up to 2500 to 4000 rpm. Gear motors are
high speed motors. The cost price of a gear
motor is favourable. The working pressure is
generally low between 100 to 150 bar. Modern
gear motors can handle working pressures up
to 200 bar. A gear reducer is often applied in
case of low power output. Because of this the
output shaft has a lower than normal rpm.
Gear motors are noisy. There are limited
construction differences between gear motors
with one rotation direction and gear pumps.
Radial pressure compensation and pressure
relief grooves are also applied. Gear motors
with one rotation direction usually do not have
a leakage oil connection. The efficiency of
gear motors is relatively low because of consi-
derable leakages.
Assignment
252. Why does a gear motor with one rotation
direction usually does not have a leakage
oil connection?

Figure 253 Openwork gear motor

Figure 254 Symbol gear motor

196
 UHWXUQ

SUHVVXUH

Figure 255 Working Principle Gear Motor

Figure 256 Gear Motor

197
 Geroler Motor The geroler motor or orbitmotor has simila-
rities with the gear motor however in contra-
diction with this motor the orbit motor is
subject to limited leakages.
This motor can deliver a high torque at
extremely low rpm (approximately 5 rpm).
The maximum rpm is 1200 and the maximum
working pressure is 200 bar.

      

  

   

Figure 257 Geroler Motor Bosch

1. stator A gear or rotor (3) with six teeth is running in

2. Cylindrical rolls the stator. Locked chambers are formed
3. Gear or rotor because of the difference in the amount of
4. Motor shaft teeth. The chambers are pressurized when oil
5. Drive shaft is distributed via the rotating distribution valve
6. Distribution valve (6), which creates a torque on the eccentric
7. Connection pin rotor that will allow a rotary movement of the
rotor. The oil is discharged on the other side of
Working Principle the motor. During the rotating movement the
shaft of the motor (4) makes a circular
The hart of the geroler motor in Figure 257
movement that is opposite to the rotation
consists of a stator (1) with seven rolls (2),
direction of the rotor.
which jointly form the inner gear.

198
At a gear ratio of 7:6 there is a transmission Execution
ratio of 6:1, which means that for one revo-
There are two distinct different versions of the
lution of the shaft the rotor has passed each
geroler motor; the geroler motor with the rotor
chamber of the stator six times. When the
execution as depicted in Figure 258. and the
displacement volume/stroke volume of one
geroler motor in the roll execution as depicted
chamber equals 1 cm3 the displacement
in Figure 257. This one has cylindrical rolls in
volume/stroke volume of this motor would be:
the gear set.
7 chambers x 1 cm3 x 6 = 42 cm3 per revo-
The rotor execution is the most applied one.
lution!
The geroler motor in a roll execution is applied
The oscillating movement of the shaft (4) is only for special cases (high efficiency, high
transferred to the drive shaft (5) by means of a pressures or required long technical life).
ball key gear. A pin (7) is applied to connect
the shaft and the distribution valve.

  

     

     

     

  
  
  

  
  

  
  

Figure 258 Geroler Motor Rotor Execution

199
 Vane Motors Vane motors have less internal leakages
compared with gear motors, which makes
IODWVSULQJ VWDWRU
them better suitable for low rpm. The minimum
required rpm is approximately 100. The
maximum working pressure is between 100
and 140 bar. Vane motors are applied in
hydraulic as well as pneumatic systems. The
vanes will have to be pressed against the
motor wall continuously to ensure correct
operation. This is arranged by means of spiral
or flat springs and in some cases by small
rods. The applications as described in the URWRU

latter are to prevent that the vanes disappear YDQH

SRUW
in the sleeves so that the oil would flow over
the vanes instead of against the vanes.
Review Figure 259 and Figure 260. The rotor Figure 259 Vanes pushed by flat springs
is often hollow, which allows mounting on a
key shaft or a spline shaft.
Assignment
253. Why are vane motors always equipped
with springs?

VKDIWZLWKVSOLQHGJHDU

PRWRUKRXVLQJVWDWRU

RXWOHW

SUHVVXUH
VSULQJ
YDQH

LQOHW

URWRU

Figure 260 Balanced vane motor

200
Figure 261 Symbol vane motor

Figure 262 Vane motor

201
 Radial Plunger Radial piston motors are capable to generate
an extremely low rpm. RPMS of 1 to 5 are
Motor/Radial achievable. Radial piston motors are often
referred to as low speed motors, which should
Piston Motor not surprise you. These motors are applied in
track drives of drag lines, cranes, winches,
and earth drilling equipment. The plungers (in
some cases pistons) of radial piston motors
are fitted in a star position perpendicular to the
shaft. See Figure 263 and Figure 264. The
linear movement of the plunger has to be
transferred to a rotary movement of the shaft.
With piston compressors this is achieved by
means of a crank connecting rod mechanism.
With a radial plunger motor the linear
movement is transferred to a rotary movement
by means of an eccentric.

Figure 263 Radial Plunger (piston) Motor Denison

Figure 264 Radial Plunger (piston) Motor Denison

202
Working Principle allow the shaft to rotate in the direction of the
arrow clockwise. The radial plunger motor is
In Figure 265 A shaft with an eccentric disk is
operating based on this working principle.
depicted in figure 266. The disk is moving up
Each plunger is pushing the eccentric during a
and down when the shaft is rotating. This also
part of the stroke, which allows a rotary
applied the other way. When the eccentric is
movement of the shaft.
placed in the depicted position (Figure 265)
and when the plunger is pushed straight
downwards, the eccentric will rotate, which will

F\OLQGHU

SOXQJHU

VKDIW HFFHQWULF

Figure 265 Working principle of a Radial Plunger Motor

Key is to apply the oil pressure on the plunger

on the right moment. In Figure 268 this is
arranged by means of control valves, which
are activated from the shaft. They are
connecting the cylinders with the pressure
connection (during the work stroke) and the
return connection (during the return
movement). The plunger motor in Figure 263
is equipped with a mirror plate. This plate is
equipped with a pressure zone and a return
zone, which makes valves redundant. Radial
plunger motors are also referred to as high
torque motors, which means that they can
develop large driving forces (at high load) with
high working pressures. Consequently much
attention has been given to the bearings of
these motors, a heavy duty execution. Pairs of
double thrust bearings are often applied.

Figure 266 267 Symbol Hydraulic Motor with Two

Rotation Directions

203
 Figure 267 Radial Plunger Motor Staffa

Figure 268 Radial Plunger Motor

204
The Axial Piston Axial piston motors are similar in design to
pumps. The adjustable types are often applied
Motor as pump whereas the non-adjustable types
are often applied as motor. There are limited
constructive differences. A plunger motor with
a rotating plunger block is depicted in Figure
269 . When the plunger block is rotating the
plunger block is connected to the motor shaft
by means of a key. So when the plunger block
rotates the motor shaft will also rotate. The
swash plate is fixed and connected to the
motor housing by means of bolts. The motor
has 11 plungers in the plunger block. The
Figure 269 Axial Piston Motor
Figure 270 Symbol Axial Piston Motor
plunger heads are fitted with sliding shoes.
These are pressed against the swash plate by
means of a locking ring. The sliding shoes
have grooves, which provide the lubrication
between the plunger block and the swash
plate. Pressure and return ports that are
located on the left side of the motor are
connected to the mirror plate/valve plate. The
mirror plate/valve plate has a pressure port
and a return port.
205
 Working Principle

VZDVKSODWH SOXQJHU SOXQJHUEORFN OHDNDJH PLUURUSODWH

RLO

GLUHFWLRQ
SFUVSO

GULYHVKDIW
QSFTTVSF

UHWXUQ]RQH SUHVVXUH
]RQH

Figure 271 Axial Piston Motor

A schematic diagram of the motor of Figure
271 is depicted in Figure 269. The working
principle is simple. When the oil pressure is
exerted upon the lowest piston, the piston will
slide up upwards along the swash plate. The
plunger block has a fixed connection with the
shaft. The plunger/piston will cause a rotating
movement of the plunger block as well as the
shaft. When the plunger is in the top position,
the pressure port in the valve plate/mirror
plate, which is connected to the plunger is
closed while the return port is opened. Other
plungers are pushing the plunger against the
mountain (swash plate) downwards.
Because of this the oil is pushed into the
return. When the plunger is reaching the top
the plunger is switching from the return to the
pressure port, and it begins its work stroke
once again.
and fills the entire pressure groove. All plunger
ports in front of the pressure groove are
supplied with oil causing all the associated
pistons to extend.
Figure 275 an adjustable motor is depicted.
The angle of the swash plate is adjustable,
which allows adjustment of the rotating speed.
The drive shaft, slide shoes, the plungers,
and the plunger block will rotate. As long as
the plungers are able to extend during the
rotation of the cylinder block, they will be
connected to the pressure groove. When the
cylinder block rotates further the same plunger
port will be connected to the return.

Assignments
254. Is the rotation direction of the motor in
Figure 271 reversible? Explain your
answer.
255. To what extent is the motor in Figure
271 adjustable?
The motors depicted in Figure 273 and 276
are suitable for two rotation directions. These
are fixed displacement motors. This means Figure 272 Plunger
that the motor is not adjustable. The pres-
surized oil enters through the pressure inlet

206
 PLUURUSODWH

UHWXUQFRQQHFWLRQ

UHWXUQJURRYH

SOXQJHU
SRUWV

SUHVVXUH
JURRYH
SUHVVXUH
FRQQHFWLRQ

SOXQJHUEORFN

PLUURUSODWH

SOXQJHUSRUW

SOXQJHU

OHDNDJHRLO
FRQQHFWLRQ SOXQJHUURG
ZLWKEDOOKHDG

VOLGHVKRH

SUHVVXUHULQJ

GULYHVKDIW

Figure 273 Axial Piston Motor

Figure 274 Motor with two Rotation Directions

207
 Figure 275 Axial Plunger Motor Linde, Adjustable Stroke Volume

Figure 276 Axial Plunger Motor Linde, Fixed Displacement Volume

208
 Oscillating Oscillating motors (see Figure 277) allow a
shaft to rotate to the left and to the right over
Motors approximately 300. They usually operate with
low working pressures up to approximately 70
(Hydraulic bar. They deliver the desired motion directly to
Motors with a the shaft. Oscillating motors are often applied
for opening and closing of butterfly valves,
Limited Angle of bunker valves, and for push, pull, lift as well as
mixing activities. Oscillating motors are signifi-
Rotation)
URWDU\EODGH
KRXVLQJ
cantly smaller than cylinders, do not have
external moving parts, and are of a very
simple construction. There are also executions
with two blades on the shaft and two internal
vanes. This construction is decreasing the
rotation angle to 120 however doubles the
torque (see Figure 277).
URWDU\EODGH
KRXVLQJ

OHDNDJH

% %

$ $

Figure 277 Oscillating Motors

Figure 278 Symbol Oscillating Motor

A few bars are sufficient to overcome the

static packing pressure and to get the shaft
moving when it is unloaded. The internal
vanes are not designed to withstand large
shocks. The rotary blade should not be
stopped under a heavy load. External stops
should be fitted. A small leakage via the blade
should be taken into account. The oscillating
motor must be permanently pressurized
during operation.

Figure 279 Oscillating Motor

209
210
 Chapter 11

Accumulators, Oil Filters, Coolers,

reservoirs
Accumulators Accumulators are devices that are able to
collect pressurised liquids, and release these
liquids when required. They can be referred to
as energy reservoirs that can be used for
multiple purposes. For example accumulators
can be applied in installations that require a
large amount of oil in a relative short time
frame. The accumulator will release its oil
when required, and will be refilled between
two actions. This setup allows an installation
with limited installed power because the pump
and drive motor can be smaller. However an
accumulator can be applied for other purposes
for instance:

Compensation of leakages as well as

absorbing differences caused by tempera-
ture fluctuations.
Providing emergency store of energy for
instance when a pump is deactivated
because of electrical malfunctions. The
energy from the accumulator is used to
move the machine (cylinders or hydraulic
motors) to a safe position.
For absorbing of peak pressures, which are
for instance caused by sudden switching of
valves.
Application as vibration damper; to level out
the pulsations in the pump output and to
reduce noise generation.
Providing the energy to move a cylinder.

Prior to including accumulators in a schematic

diagram it should be noted that accumulators
are subject to the safety legislation of
pressure vessels .

213
 Membrane A membrane accumulator consists of two
spherical vessels and a rubber plate or
Accumulator membrane as partition between the two
vessels. The space above the membrane is
filled with nitrogen. The bottom side is
connected with the oil system. Membrane
accumulators are applicable for situations that
do not require large oil quantities. (See
Figure 280 and Figure 281).

Figure 282 Filling Valve Accumulator

PHPEUDQH

YDOYH

VXSSO\

Figure 280 Membrane Accumulator

Figure 281

214
 Bellow The bellow accumulator is widely applied. This process as described in the latter is the speed
accumulator consists of a steel bottle, a rubber of the process of bending open, which is far
Accumulator bellow, a filling valve and a spring loaded slower than an explosion. The bellow is filled
valve (see Figure 283 and Figure 284). with nitrogen to prevent the risk of an
explosion in case of leakages. The bellow
accumulator is applied in cases that require
VDIHW\FDS large power consumption. A defective bellow
ILOOLQJYDOYH
can be replaced when the systems is de-pres-
surised.

EHOORZ

YDOYHD
VSULQJ
VHDO
QXW

VXSSO\

Figure 283 Accumulator with bellow

Figure 284

A filling valve is fitted on top of the steel bottle.

The purpose of the filling valve is to provide
apre-pressure by means of gas. A spring
loaded valve a valve is fitted to prevent the
bellow from being squeezed through the
opening of the accumulator when the bellow is
pre-pressurised at 90% of the working
pressure there is no oil pressure in the
system. The bottom side of bottle is designed
to bend open if the pressure in the bottle is
exceeding the design pressure to prevent the
bottle from exploding. The safety in the

215
 Piston The accumulators as described in the latter
are applied for specific purposes in specific
Accumulator situations. Piston accumulators are based on
the same principle however the partition
between the gas the fluid is provided by
means of a piston (see Figure 285). One side
is connected to the system whereas the other
side is filled with gas. A negative aspect of the
construction of this accumulator is that the
friction of the piston can have a negative
impact on the reaction speed of the accu-
mulator. This accumulator is often applied in
situations with high pressures and/or required
high fluid storage capacity.

ILOOLQJYDOYH

Figure 285 Piston Accumulator

Assignment
256. Assume that the pre-pressure of an accu-
mulator is 60% of the maximum working
pressure. The safety valve is set as 150
bar. What will be the pressure in the
nitrogen part of the accumulator:
a. When the system pressure is 100 bar?
b. When there is no pressure in the
system?

216
Pre-pressure Accumulator b. Approximately 90% of the minimum wor-
king pressure when the accumulator serves
Figure 286 depicts an example of an accu-
as energy reservoir.
mulator while there is no hydraulic pressure on
c. Approximately 60% of the average working
the system. The pre-pressure of 80 bar
pressure when the accumulator is used as
(8MPa) is causing that all oil is forced out of
pressure equalizer.
the accumulator.
d. Approximately 50% of the working pressure
when the accumulator is applied as expan-
sion buffer.

QLWURJHQILOOLQJ
EDUOLWHU

QLWURJHQILOOLQJ
EDUOLWHU

RLOILOOLQJ
EDUOLWHU

%
Figure 286 Accumulator unpressurised

Assignment
Figure 287 Accumulator maximum filled
257. What would be the gas pressure of the
accumulator depicted in Figure 286
when the system pressure would
increase to 160 bar (16 MPa)?
In Figure 287 the nitrogen space of the accu-
QLWURJHQILOOLQJ
mulator is reduced from 6 liter to 2 liter
EDUOLWHU
because 4 liters of oil is squeezed into the
accumulator. The nitrogen space has reduced
three times, which is causing the pressure to
be three times higher: 3 x 80 bar = 240 bar (3
x 8 = 24 MPa).
Logically the oil pressure will decrease as the
oil consumption out of the accumulator is
increasing. For instance Figure 288 the
pressure of the accumulator depicted in figure
289 is decreased to 160 bar (16 MPa). The
accumulator is only half filled with oil. The pre- RLOILOOLQJ
EDUOLWHU
pressure of the accumulator is, depending on
the purpose and circumstances. The pre-
pressure is::
&

a. Approximately 95% of the set working pres-

sure when the accumulator is used to pre-
Figure 288 Accumulator partly filled
vent knocking of the pipes.

217
 Accumulator Accumulator against Vibrations
The accumulator in Figure 289 is applied to
Systems compensate peak pressures and vibrations in
the system. The accumulator is pre-filled with
nitrogen that has a pre-pressure of 95% of the
maximum working pressure. This accumulator
is applied as damper.

'

0
$
&

0

EDU

Figure 289 Accumulator against Vibration

The accumulator is often applied on places

that subject to a load with shocks. These
shocks can translate into knocking pipes. For
this application the pre-pressure of the accu-
mulator is 95% of the maximum working
pressure to prevent the accumulator from
working as an oil buffer.

Assignments
258. What should be the pre-pressure of an
accumulator?
259. What is the purpose of the valve?
260. What is the purpose of the non-return
valve?
261. The operator observes that slowly but
surely the pipes start knocking. What
could be the root cause of this
phenomenon?

218
Accumulator for Leak Oil Com- running mode or can be stopped when the
pensation accumulator is filled (Figure 290). The accu-
mulator will compensate leakage losses and
The press in Figure 290 is set to press to
maintains the pressure on the piston during
work pieces together that need to be glued
the drying time. The nitrogen pre-pressure of
and clamp them together for a period of 30
the accumulator is approximately 85% of the
minutes. To maintain the clamp pressure the
maximum working pressure so that the piston
pump should keep running as long as the glue
maintains its clamping function up to 85% of
is drying however this will costs a lot of energy
the maximum working pressure.
and heat. A widely applied solution is an accu-
mulator. The pump can be switched in a free-

G
H I

0 D
EDU

Figure 290 Hydraulic press

Assignments 268. What is the purpose of the valve that is

placed in front of the pressure gauge?
262. Provide the names for the components a
through and including i. 269. What is the function of component e?
Why is this component applied in this
263. What is nitrogen pre-pressure of the
specific situation and what will the value
accumulator?
of the openings pressure?
264. Is the accumulator in Figure 289 able to
take more or less oil as opposed to the
accumulator in Figure 290? (assuming
both accumulators have the same size).
265. Describe the additional functionality of a
pilot operated non-return valve as
opposed to the function of a normal non-
return valve.
266. Explain why the system as depicted in
figure 291 is equipped with a pilot
operated non-return valve as opposed to
a normal non-return valve?
267. What is the purpose of component h?

219
 Accumulator for Intermediate nality while a small pump and electric motor
Operation are sufficient to charge the accumulator. The
accumulator is filled when the cylinder is not
Intermediate means with pauses. The cylinder
activated (10 minutes). The piston stroke is
in Figure 291 is only supposed to make a
mainly, depending on the charge from the
stroke every so often (for example 10
accumulator a limited small part is delivered
minutes). An example of such an application is
by the pump. The main purpose of the pump is
for instance a shearing machine. The cutting
to charge the accumulator. In this case the
stroke should take place in a relative short
nitrogen pressure is 60% of the minimum
time frame. This means that the output flow at
working pressure.
time of the stroke needs to be large.
Applying an accumulator allows this functio-

EDU

H I 0
K

0

F J L

0 NQLIH

0 D

Figure 291 Hydraulic Cutting Machine

Assignments 275. Can the system also function without

component d?
270. Provide the names for the components a
through and including i. 276. Does component j have an influence on
the safety aspects of the system?
271. When should component c be activated,
and which part of the installation is 277. What is the minimum required volume of
arranging this? the accumulator if the assumed accu-
mulator volume is 2 liter?
272. What will happen to the pump output flow
and what will be the values on the
pressure gauges M1, M2 and M3 when
the maximum working pressure of 90
bars is reached?
273. At which pressure will the 2/2 valve c be
reactivated?
274. What is the function of component g and
what is the reason for applying this type
of throttle valve instead of a normal
throttle valve?

220
Safety Aspects Accumulators because these accumulators are often still
charged. Just imagine the accidents that could
Unfortunately accumulators are still causing
happen. Somebody is working in between the
serious accidents. Usually certain safety
machine parts that are moved by a cylinder. A
measures are taken, the pump is normally
colleague is touching the handle of the control
switched off and the fuses of the pump-electric
valve by accident. The pressurised accu-
motor are removed from the fuse holder.
mulator will activate the cylinder motion. The
When the pump is driven by a diesel engine
situation as described in the latter can result
the starting installation is blocked. However
into a disaster.
all these measures are not sufficient when
accumulators are included in the system

%
&

Figure 292 Accumulator System

221
 The following safety measures are Lifting gear of a crane; lower the jib before
designed to prevent accidents commencing repair work.
Lifting platform; move the platform in its
a. a.A good safety measure is to fit an elec- lowest position prior to repair activities
tro-magnetic operated pressure relief Hydraulic press; lower the stamp on the
valve, directly on the accumulator pres- bed prior to any repair activities
sure line. One should apply a normally
opened 2/2 valve (see A Figure 292) The Always consider your own safety and the
activation of this valve should be simultane- safety of others. Think carefully before
ously with the starting of the electric motor acting!
or the ignition key of the diesel engine. The
accumulator will be automatically
discharged when the engine is shut off.
However there remains a risk that the accu-
mulator will not be discharged in case of a
malfunction.
b. b.When the first measure is not applicable
a pressure relief valve B should be fitted.
This method is less favourable as opposed
to the option as described in a. When this
method is applied is should be combined
with a warning sign, which mentions the fol-
lowing:Accumulators under pressure
discharge by means of relief valves prior
to inspections or repairs. The amount of
accumulators and the location of the relief
valves should be mentioned. The first
measure as described under a should also
be supported by a clear warning sign. The
accumulator should be directly connected
with a pressure safety valve. An effective
measure to indicate the pressure in an
accumulator system is to use a pressure to
light up a statement :

Accumulators under Pressure.

Be Careful!!!

Beware! Accumulator filling with nitrogen

should be done by specialists!

Assignment
278. ) Describe where in Figure 292 you
would fit a pressure switch to switch valve
A.
Do not underestimate this type of safety
measures. The large amount of accidents with
accumulators (in some cases fatal accidents)
has proven that these measures are
prerequisites. However dangerous situations
can also occur in systems that do not have
accumulators, specifically in case of weight
loaded cylinders and/or hydraulic motors.
For instance:

222
 Filters for Oil Pollution and Wear
Dirt particles in a hydraulic system are trans-
Hydraulic ported and transferred by the oil. Every minute
Installations approximately one million dirt particles bigger
than 0,001 mm or 1 m are generated. The oil
pollutes very quickly because all the dirt is
collected in the oil. This is the main reason
why oil needs to be filtered. The level of wear
of components correlates with the level of
pollution of the oil. The amount of wear will
increase with the level of pollution. Wear and
pollution are catalyzing each other. The
pollution in the oil can be removed by means
of a filter.

Filters
A filter contains an exchangeable filter
element that collects and contains dirt
particles. The amount of small particles that
will be collected will be increased as the effi-
ciency of the filter increases. However dirt
particles in a hydraulic system will always
cause damage even when they are collected
in a filter. The presence of metal particles in
the oil (specifically iron and copper are strong
catalysts) is catalyzing the ageing of the oil.
This is why the filter elements need to be
exchanged regularly. Different filter types are
applied in hydraulic systems. The most
efficient filter determines the cleanliness
of the system. That filter is referred to as the
system filter. Other filters are for instance the
filling filter and the safety filter. The filling filter
is used when the reservoir is topped up. The
safety filter is applied in the pressure line to
protect vulnerable equipment such as the
pump control system. Servo valves are most
sensitive to dirt. This is why they often have a
build in safety filter.

Three filters qualify as system filter:g

A return filter just before the reservoir

A pressure filter in de pressure line straight
after the pump
A bypass filter

223
 Return Filter
Return filters are widely applied. This type of
filter is often designed to directly fit to the lid of
the reservoir, which allows easy replacement
of the filter element.
Return filters are usually equipped with a
bypass valve. This bypass valve allows the oil
to bypass the filter element when the element
is clogged. This prevents the filter element
from damage when the filter is polluted.

A filter element can consist of:

Stainless steel mesh, filter fineness 40-90

m for safety filtration paper, fineness
10m
Glass fiber filter, filter fineness 10 to 25 m
for system filters

The bypass valve usually opens at 2 bar.

Figure 294 Return filter

Figure 293 Return filter

224
Pressure Filterr
The pressure filter also referred to as high
pressure filter is widely applied. There are
different types of filter elements available:

filter mesh, often stainless steel however

other materials are also applied from 25 to
60 m for safety filters
Paper, glass fiber and polyester with a fil-
ter fineness between and 20 m for system
filters

Just like a return filter a pressure filter is often

equipped with a bypass valve that opens at a
pressure difference of usually 7 bars.

Figure 295 Pressure filter

225
 Bypass Filter filters are usually applied in a bypass circu-
lation using a separate pump (see Figure
In modern hydraulic systems bypass filters are
296). This setup allows a smooth flow through
applied as system filters. Bypass filters have
the filter free from pressure pulses, which
an increased filter fineness as opposed to
improves the filter efficiency.
main flow filters and are also more effective for
dirt particles smaller than 0,5 m. Bypass

OPLQ

Figure 296 Bypass filter system with separate pump

Bypass filters are also applied in mobile

systems. In this case the bypass filter is
connected to the high pressure side of the
system, a small flow control valve is ensuring
a continuous, and smooth flow through the
filter (see Figure 297). The system pressure
and the oil flow should not be too high to
prevent excessive heat generation in the flow
control valve. Any dissolved air in the oil is a
fire hazard.

226
 0

Figure 297

Bypass filters are able to remove even the

smallest dirt particles also referred to as silt.
Hydraulic oil also includes dopes that have
been added to form a protective layer on the
running surfaces in the system. This layer is
essential to prevent excessive wear caused by
silt particles because silt particles are small
enough to enter tight internal clearances and
have a polishing effect.

The application of bypass filters allows

reduction of wear caused by silt to almost zero
whereas the filter capacity can be relatively
small to get a perfectly clean system because
the consequential wear is almost stopped. The
flow of the bypass system is designed to allow
filtration of the total volume of the system in 10
hours, which normally means that the oil flow
is approximately 1% of the main flow.

Figure 298 Bypass filter with Differential Pressure

Indication

227
 Suction Filter Air filter
The suction filter is designed to protect the
pump from metal parts. The suction filter is
mounted in the suction line of the pump, which
makes it often invisible because it is mounted
in the oil reservoir. Suction filters are often
applied for pumps in the mobile sector.
Usually this is a reservoir mounted filter
connected to the pump by means of a hose.
The filter element can be exchanged without
draining the reservoir because this filter is
always mounted below the oil level. The filter
housing is fitted with a valve that is kept open
by means of the filter element. This valve will
close when the filter element is removed to
prevent the system from draining. Suction
filters are usually provided with a bypass
valve. The function of this bypass valve is to
prevent cavitation of the pump when the filter
is clogged.

Figure 300 Air filter

The air filter on the tank prevents pollution of

the oil by dust from the environment as well
prevents over and under pressure in the
reservoir when the oil level in the reservoir is
changing.

Assignment
279. When will the oil level in the reservoir
change?

Figure 299 Suction Filter

The filter element can consist of:

Stainless steel mesh, filter fineness 25-90

m for safety filters
Paper, fineness 10m of glass fiber,
fineness 10 to 25 m for system filters

228
 Filter Filter Fineness
Filters can be divided in two main groups: :
Characteristics
a. Surface filters (see Figure 301 and 302)
which collect the dirt on the surface of the
filter element. These filters are usually con-
structed from interwoven wires, however
when the openings are small these filters
pollute quickly. Very often the surface filter
is nothing more than a strainer. Surface fil-
ters are sometimes applied in the suction
line of a pump.
b. Depth filters (see Figure 303 and 304) are
designed differently, the oil will pass a layer
of filter material. The filter material can be
made of fibers of paper, textile, glass and /
or synthetic materials.

Figure 303 Depth filter (HITMA group)

Figure 301 Surface filter

Figure 304 Depth filter

An important selection criterion to select a

filter element is the efficiency with regard to its
capability of removing dirt particles. The effi-
ciency of a filter is expressed by means of the
Bta value.
A higher Bta value for specific particle sizes
means a higher efficiency.

Figure 302 Surface filter

229
 Level of Cleanliness
The ISO and NAS class are widely applied
measures to indicate the cleanliness of oil.
The ISO and NAS refer and indicate the sizes
and the amount of dirt particles in hydraulic oil.
The ISO 4406 indicates the amount of dirt
particles that are bigger than 4 m, 6m, and
14m in one ml of hydraulic oil.
In the table of Figure 305 the results of
different samples are depicted.
A: Clean oil from a drum (22/20/18)
B: New system that just in operation (23/22/
20)
C: Extremely clean system after intense
filtration (16/14/12)
Higher numbers indicate more pollution and
more wear of parts such as pumps, and
valves.
A test laboratory is used to determine the
amount of dirt particles of an oil sample. This
is a measure for the quality of the oil. The test
as described in the latter can be used to
determine if the filters are working properly as
well check if the oil needs to be replaced.

,62FRGH

 



%
 
 
 
$
DPRXQWRISDUWLFOHVSHUPLOOLOLWHURIRLO

 
 
 

 








 

 

 
& 

 
 



 
 
 
 
 

 
 


 





 

  
,62SDUWLFOHVVL]HLQXP

Figure 305 Graph ISO 4406

230
The NAS refers to five classes to differentiate
with regard to the size of the dirt particles. See
Figure 306.

NAS 1638 max. number of particles per 100 ml between indicated sizes in m
cleanliness >5/<15 >15/<25 >25/<50 >50/<100 >100
codes
4 4000 712 126 22 4
5 8000 1425 253 45 8
6 16000 2850 506 90 16

Figure 306 Fragment out of cleanliness codes according to NAS 1638

Filter Capacity
The filter capacity is always indicated in liters
per minute (l/min). It is assumed that a clean
pressure filter element is causing a pressure
drop of 3 bar, and a clean return filter element
a pressure drop of 2 bar. Some manufacturers
are referring to the openings pressure of the
bypass valve as measure. The maximum
pressure difference of a suction filter is 0,2 bar
in order prevent cavitation.

231
 Pollution Indicator pressure when the pressure difference
between inlet and outlet will increase to a
Filter housings are fitted with a dirt indicator to
certain level. When the oil is flowing through
indicate the level of pollution of the filter
the bypass valve the oil will not be filtered. The
element. The dirt indicator is reacting on the
depicted visual pressure gauge can be
pressure difference over the filter. The
replaced by an ordinary pressure gauge,
pressure difference will increase as the filter is
vacuum gauge or a pressure switch.
clogging up. Figure 307 clearly depicts that
the bypass valve will open against the spring

URWDWLQJ JUHHQ  FOHDQ

LQGLFDWRU \HOORZ  E\SDVVSDUWO\RSHQHG
E\SDVV
YDOYH
LQ
RXW
Figure 307 308 Return Filter with Bypass valve and Dirt Indicator
The cleanliness grade of the oil is also
assessed to determine if the filter will have to
be exchanged. When the cleanliness grade is
increasing (increased pollution) the system
filter will have to be exchanged. There are
specialised companies that are able to assess
the cleanliness grade of oil.
Openings pressures of bypass for:
Return filters approximately 2 bar
Pressure filters approximately 7 bar
Suction filters 0,25 bar (maximum to pre-
vent cavitation)
Maintenance of Filters
Exchange of filter elements of filters not
equipped with a dirt indicator should be in line
with the procedures as provided by the manu-
facturer.
232
UHG  E\SDVVIXOO\RSHQHG
WKURWOH
ILOWHUHOHPHQW
DLUHVFDSHFKDQQHO
Filters equipped with a dirt indicator should be
regularly checked if the dirt indicator is still in
the safe zone. The filter element will have to
be exchanged as soon as the openings
pressure of the bypass valve is reached.
Despite of a good indication with regard to the
status of a filter element every filter element
will have to be exchanged after approximately
1000 running hours because the dirst indicator
does not always register the grade of pollution
of the filter element. Extremely small particles
can cover the fibers of the depth filter
completely without causing a considerable
pressure drop. In that case the filter element
has lost its capacity to collect dirt long before
the maximum pressure drop is reached.
Coolers Water and air are widely applied coolants. The
choice for a coolant is determined by the
operating costs. When cooling is necessary it
is usually applied on a permanent basis.
However in general insufficient attention is
paid to the importance as well as the
advantages of cooling. The advantages of
cooling are:
suitable for tropic environments. The air
temperature is relatively high whereas it is
already difficult to reduce the temperature of
the oil to 10C above the air temperature. Both
the water cooler and the air cooler can also
used as a heater by supplying hot water or hot
air.

The ageing of the oil is slowed down, which

will increase the lifetime of the oil
The total efficiency of the installation will
improve considerably

Water Cooling
The simplest solution is to have a copper
coolant water pipe through the reservoir.
However this is the least effective way of
cooling because the oil does not flow along
the cooling spiral fast enough. Highly loaded
installations require a proper cooler, where the
coolant flows through and the oil around a
group of pipes. In this situation the required
amount of cooling water per hour determines
the operating costs. The cleanliness of the
cooler is essential to maintain efficient heat
transfer therefore maintenance (cleaning) of
the cooler is essential. In case of operation the
Figure 309 Air Cooling (Hydac)
cooler will have to be cleaned once a year.

Figure 308 Water Cooling

Air Cooling
The surface of the installation will distribute
heat to the environment by means of radiation
and flow. This is a basic approach of air
cooling however this setup often does not
provide sufficient heat transfer. In many cases
radiator cooling (like a car) will have to be
applied, in this application the fluid is flowing
through the radiator. The cooling air is
supplied by a ventilator, which for instance is
driven by an electric motor. This system is less

233
 Reservoir The total quantity of oil that can be pumped in
and out of the system must off-course fit in the
reservoir (see Figure 310). The suction mouth
of the pump should be placed sufficiently
under the minimum oil level. The maximum oil
level should still allow sufficient space for air.
That minimum air cushion should be approxi-
mately 10 to 15% of the total volume of the
reservoir. This space is required to allow
enough space for returning oil in case of foam
development as well as to allow air bubbles to
leave the oil. The oil temperature in the tank
should be maintained within reasonable boun-
daries. Average maximum values are approxi-
mately 70C for fork lifts, building machines,
and vehicles. The average working tempe-
rature for tools and other machines is between
40 to 60C. The turnaround time of the oil
needs to be taken into account. The
turnaround time is expressed in the amount of
times that the effective tank volume is trans-
ferred per hour.

OHDNDJHOLQH HOHFWURPRWRU

ILOOHURSHQLQJZLWKILOOHUILOWHUDOVR
SXPS DLUILOWHU
SLSHIODQJHVZLWK
JURPPHW

SUHVVXUH
JDXJH
RLOJDXJH
ZLWK
WKHUPRPHWHU
UHWXUQILOWHUZLWKSUHVVXUH
LQGLFDWRU

GUDLQ

IURPDQGWRV\VWHPXVHU

VWUDLQHU

Figure 310 Oil Reservoir with Accessories

Cover and Inspection Holes

Reservoirs need to be accessible for different
purposes. Small reservoirs can often be
accessed because the cover or part of the
cover can be removed large reservoirs are
usually equipped with manholes.

Figure 311 Reservoir Hydro pack

234
Air Inlet/Air Outlet
The air in the tank can be subject to
compression or expansion as the oil level in
the tank is increasing or decreasing. This can
result in suction problems or return flow
problems. In some cases it is not possible to fit
the tank with an air filter for instance because
the tank is under the water level or moveable.
The examples mentioned in the latter require a
sufficient air cushion in the tank to prevent the
air from dropping below atmospheric pressure
at minimum liquid level to prevent suction
problems. Finally the reservoir needs to be
pressure tight.
Filler Opening
The filler opening should be easy accessible
and fitted with a sieve.
Dip Stick
The reservoir should be fitted with a dip stick
or an oil gauge with minimum and maximum
level marking to ensure that the oil level can
be assessed and maintained.
Figure 312 Oil gauges with thermometer
Coating
The inside surface of the reservoir needs to be
cleaned and degreased prior to coating the
reservoir to prevent the paint from flaking. The
paint/coating need to be resistant to hydraulic
oil. Coating is a proven approach to remove
contaminants from pores in castings. Additi-
onally coating is useful to prevent steel parts
from entering the oil. A reservoir should
never be galvanized because the zinc can
enter the oil and affect the copper parts.
Drainage Tap
The drainage tap should be easy accessible to
allow spill free collection of the drained oil
flow.
Return and Suction Line
The return and suction line should be situated
as far as possible from each other. The return
line needs to be fitted with an outlet bend to
limit the speed of the return flow as well as
maintain a distance from the bottom of the
reservoir at least two times the diameter of the
pipe. The suction line can be fitted with a filter
or a strainer and should be located at least 10
cm above the bottom of the reservoir.
Water in the Tank
Water in the reservoir can indicate a leak in a
cooler however in most cases water in
reservoir is caused by condensed water
therefore a periodic check on condensed
water is essential to ensure the required
conditions. Water allows development of rust,
which can cause freezing of control valves.
235
 Assignments
280. What is the general meaning of the word
accumulator?
281. What functions can be fulfilled by an
accumulator? Consult this chapter if
necessary.
282. SAssume that the bellow of an accu-
mulator is leaking. What would indicate
that the accumulator is malfunctioning
referring to the theory of this chapter?
283. What gas is used to charge an accu-
mulator bellow, and why is this gas
applied instead of another gas?
284. Make a list of the different accumulators
known to you.
285. What is the main risk of a clogged or an
undersized suction filter?
286. What is the approximately filter fineness
of a suction filter?
287. What is the maximum pressure difference
over a suction filter?
288. What negative effect will occur if a return
filter is clogged or undersized?
289. Provide the names for different types of
filters.
290. Provide a brief description of different
techniques for cooling hydraulic oil
291. What should be the size of an oil
reservoir and why?
292. At what height are the suction mouth and
the return line located from the bottom of
the reservoir? Can you explain that
layout?
293. What can be reason for water in the oil
reservoir? What can be done to provide
water from entering the reservoir?
294. How is it possible that the oil level in the
reservoir is rising when all cylinders on an
installation are pulled back?

236
 Chapter 12

Line Materials and Mounting

Introduction Different hoses, pipes, lines, couplings, and
miscellaneous other equipment is applied to
transport hydraulic oil and pneumatic
compressed air. The execution and size
depends on the system pressure, tempe-
rature, and flows. Different materials are
applied.

Figure 313 Hydraulic Installation

239
 Hydraulic Pipes Pipes
Hydraulic pipes are usually made of steel and
and Lines are applied in standard lengths of two or five
meters. The pressure range is high whereas
there are almost no diameter limitations. In
hydraulic engineering seamless steel
precision piping according to DIN 2391C is
widely applied. These pipes can be bent easily
and are suitable for applications with
couplings. Couplings are applied to connect
the pipes.
Figure 314 Seamless Steel Precision Pipe
240
Lines
Lines have smaller diameters and are
delivered on a roll. Lines are made from
copper, aluminum, synthetic material or steel
and are easy to bend. Lines are widely applied
in low pressure hydraulic systems.
The material of the pipe or line is mainly
determined by the type of oil. The diameter of
the pipe or line is determined by the amount of
liters per minute, the flow through the pipe.
The wall thickness is determined by the
working pressure, pressure pulses, and the
level of corrosion.
Hydraulic Hoses Hoses
Hoses are for instance applied in installations
with moving parts such as hinging cylinders of
excavators and shovels. Hoses are also
applied to damp the pulsations caused by
pumps. Although hoses have a number of
important advantages they also have a
number of disadvantages: In relation to pipes
hoses are relatively costly, they are moving
caused by pressure pulses, need larger
bends, the cannot be bend in any direction,
and sometimes they will crack. Hoses have a
higher flow resistance that pipes of the same
inside diameter.
nylon are widely applied liner materials, both
are oil and weather resistant. Teflon is used
for special applications as the temperature
resistance is better.
The Reinforcement
The reinforcement is the fabric, the cord
layers or the metal elements, which incor-
porated in the hose. The reinforcement is
designed to allow the hose to withstand higher
internal pressures as well as protect the hose
against external damages. Textiles and
synthetic materials such as cotton, nylon, and
glass fiber are widely applied however fabric
of thread, steel wire, and steel strap is also
suitable.

The Sleeve
The function of the sleeve is to protect the
reinforcement from external influences. Nylon,
neoprene, and polyurethane are widely
applied.

Figure 315 Application with Hydraulic Hoses

Hose Construction
Hoses consist of three basic elements:

- the lining
- the reinforcement
- the sleeve

SFJOGPSDFNFOU
MJOJOH

TMFFWF

Figure 316 Hose Construction

The Lining
The lining or inside of the hose provides a
seal for the fluids and gases flowing through
the hose. The lining needs to be resistant
against temperature differences and should
have the right size to fit connectors and hose
couplings. Synthetic rubber (neoprene) and

241
 Types of Hoses type of hose is applied in situations that are
subject to regular pressure pulses. In Figure
Low Pressure Hose are equipped with one or
317d a high pressure hose with two woven
two textile layers (see Figure 317a). This type
steel gauze reinforcement layers is depicted.
of hose can be applied as: leakage oil line,
This type of hose is applied in situations that
overflow line, and low pressure line.Medium
are subject to continuous pressure pulses. A
Pressure Hoses normally have one woven
high pressure hose with four thread spiral
textile layer (see Figure 317b). This type of
layers is depicted in Figure 317e. This type of
hose is applied in situations that not subject to
hose is applied in places that are subject to
pressure pulses. In Figure 317c a medium
extreme high pressure pulses. The strength of
pressure hose with two woven textile layers is
hoses is determined by the material of the
depicted. This hose can be applied for higher
reinforcement layers and the amount of layers.
pressure pulses as opposed to a hose with
one layer. High Pressure Hoses have one
woven steel gauze reinforcement layer. This

ZRYHQWH[WLOH ZRYHQWH[
WH[WLOHUHLQ UHLQIRUFHPHQW WLOHUHLQIRUFH
IRUFHPHQWOD\HU OD\HU PHQWOD\HUV

D E F

ZRYHQVWHHO VSLUDOWKUHDG
JDX]HUHLQIRUFH OD\HUV
PHQWOD\HUV

G H
Figure 317

242
 Hydraulic Pipe The Ferrule Coupling The Wedge Ring Coupling
The ferrule coupling is a widely applied The wedge ring coupling is a coupling based
And Line Joints coupling. . This coupling is designed for on a clamping/squeezing principle (see
medium heavy and heavy pipes and consists Figure 319). The wedge ring is squeezed into
of three parts: the nipple, the cutting ferrule the pipe like a wedge and fixed over a wide
and the nut. The cutting ferrule is pressed in area when the nut is tightened. This type of
by the nut. As the nipple has an angled coupling is considerably less sensitive to
entrance, the cutting ferrule is pressed into the changing loads and vibrations. The function of
pipe, which allows formation of a visible collar. the circular ribs on the inside of the wedging
This collar prevents the pipe from being pulled ring is to create a sealing function. Because of
from the nut. The angled entrance of the this the pipe does not have to be forced
nipple and the tightening of the nut allow the against the nipple stop, which prevents axial
cutting ferrule to provide a sealing function. line tensions during fitting.
Ferrule couplings should not be applied on
free cutting steel because the surface
hardness is almost equivalent to that of the QXW
cutting ferrule, which implicates that a collar
will not be formed and the pipe can be pulled
from the coupling in case of a pressure pulse.
Ferrule couplings are less suitable for instal-
lations subject to strong vibrations and/or
pressure pulses. In high pressure hydraulic
applications the pipe is curved prior to ensure
a better grip. The latest types of ferrule
couplings have double cutting edges. The
front cutting edge will cut first followed by the
second. The stopping edge prevents from
shifting (see Figure 318).

/JQQMF /VU
QXW
WKUHDGHGSLHFHGRXEOHZHGJLQJULQJ

Figure 319 Double Wedge Ring Coupling

$VUUJOH
'FSSVMF

Figure 318 Ferrule Coupling

243
 Accessories - the series S, 30 to 38 mm and 250 bar wor-
king pressure
Ferrule couplings have many accessories like
adaptor nipples, bulkhead couplings, knees
The pipe must have sufficient resistance
and banjos. The couplings are available in
against deformation by the cutting ferrule. This
steel, brass, stainless steel, and aluminum
is why a wall thickness of minimum 1mm is
bronze. Ferrule couplings are fabricated in
applied for pipe with an outside diameter of 6
three different pressure groups:
to 12 mm. A wall thickness of at least 1,5 mm
is used for pipes with an outside diameter of
- the series LL, 6 to 8 mm and 100 bar wor-
14 to 22mm and minimum 2 mm for pipes with
king pressure
an outside diameter of 25 to 42 mm. In Figure
- the series L, 6 to 15 mm and 250 bar wor-
320 an overview of ferrule couplings is
king pressure
depicted. Do not apply too many elbows use
- the series L, 18 to 22 mm and 160 bar wor-
pipe bends instead because elbows have too
king pressure
much resistance and therefore create too
- the series S, 6 to 14 mm and 640 bar wor-
much pressure loss (energy loss).
king pressure
- the series S, 16 to 25 mm and 400 bar wor-
king pressure

6WUDLJKW8QLRQ 0DOH6WXG )HPDOH&RQQHFWRU :HOGLQJ&RQQHFWRU :HOGLQJ%XONKHDG %XONKHDG&RQQHFWRU 3LSHFRQQHFWRU

7\SH &RQQHFWRU 7\SH 7\SH &RQQHFWRU 7\SH 7\SH
7\SH 7\SH

8QLRQ(OERZ (OERZ&RQQHFWRU (OERZZLWK (OERZ%XONKHDG 8QLRQ7 7FRQQHFWRU 8QLRQ7ZLWK

7\SH 7\SH SLSHFRQQHFWLRQ FRQQHFWRU 7\SH 7\SH SLSHFRQQHFWLRQ
7\SH 7\SH 7\SH

/FRQQHFWRU /FRQQHFWRUZLWK 8QLRQ&URVV %DQMRFRQQHFWRU 3UHVVXUHJDXJH 1XW )HUUXOH

7\SH SLSHFRQQHFWLRQ 7\SH 7\SH $GDSWRU 7\SH 7\SH
7\SH 7\SH

Figure 320 Overview of different ferrules

244
The Quick Coupling quick couplings in hydraulic systems are
usually fitted with valves that close in both
Quick couplings as depicted in Figure 321
directions. This type of couplings is widely
are produced in brass, aluminum, steel, and
applied in the mobile and agricultural industry.
stainless steel. To prevent from spilling oil
during disconnection of the couplings the

EJTDPOOFDUFE DPOOFDUFE

TIVUPGG
WBMWF

TZNCPM TZNCPM

CBMM
MPDL

EJTDPOOFDUFE EJTDPOOFDUFE

QMVH

Figure 321 Quick Coupling

Figure 322 Quick Coupling Connected Figure 323 Quick Coupling Male

245
 Welding Flanges
Large diameters hydraulic pipe as well pipes
that are subject to working pressures
exceeding 300 bar are always fitted with
welding flanges. Large diameters hydraulic
pipe subject to lower pressures are also fitted
with screw flanges. Figure 324 depicts a
welding flange construction. Brazed fittings
are applied up to 400 bar (40 MPa). These
fittings are relatively cheap, look professional,
and are fabricated from St 35. Figure 325 and
Figure 326 depict a set of screw flanges with
O-ring sealing suitable for high pressure appli-
cations.

VSOLWIODQJHV

ZHOG

2ULQJ

Figure 326 327 Screw flanges with O-ring sealing

ZHOGLQJIODQJ
for high pressure applications

Figure 324 Welding flange construction

Figure 325 Screw flanges with O-ring sealing for

high pressure applications

246
 Assembly of Assembly of Pipe Couplings
Pipes and lines need to be fitted without
Pipes, Lines, and tension, and will have to be fixed properly (see
Hoses Figure 328). To prevent from leaking
connections one has to avoid vibrations
caused by pressure pulses as well make sure
to fit enough pipe clamps to avoid additional
tension which would occur if the pipes would
bend. Temperature changes can also cause
tensions and consequently increase the risk of
leakages therefore expansion should always
be possible specifically when it concerns long
pipe lines.
Figure 328 Pipe clamps
First pipes will have to be sawed or cut with a
straight end. (Figure 327) Thereafter remove
the burrs from the cut ends of the pipe. In
Figure 329 to and including Figure 335the
correct mounting procedure for a ferrule is
depicted Slide the nut and the ferrule over the
pipe. Make sure that the high end of the ferrule
is located on the side of the nut (Figure 330).
Small diameters of pipe can be fitted directly
when they are connected to components.
However larger diameters of pipe and free
positioned connections between pipes should
be tightened in a vice. A ferrule coupling can
be disconnected, and tightened without Figure 329 Make the inside and outside of the
pipe free of burrs, and properly clean
leakages occurring. Make sure that the bend the inside prior to mounting
is not too close to the pipe end. This is to
prevent that the nut can be shoved back and
forth.

JRRG

ZURQJ

Figure 330 Mounting of ferrule

Figure 327 Pipe cutters

247
 Figure 331 Tighten the nut until finger tight Figure 334 Finally turn the nut . The pipe is
deformed

Figure 335 Loosen the pipe and check if the

deformation took place

Figure 332 Push the pipe to the stop

Figure 333 Turn and tighten the nut for make

sure that the pipe does not rotate

248
Pipe Thread
The flanks (angled sides) of a normal pipe
thread like NPT are facing each other in such
a way that they allow a sealing function
however NPT threads will leak anyway, which
can be traced back to tops of the teeth (see
Figure 336). Without Teflon tape or liquid
gasket NPT thread will leak.

WRSRIJHDUWHHWK

QXW

SLSH

Figure 336 NPT Pipe Thread

Figure 337 Pipe Thread Sealing

249
 OVU

GJOHFS
UJHIU

QJQF

OVU

TQBOOFS
UJHIU

QJQF

Figure 338 NPTF Pipe thread

A tapered NPTF thread is applied when extra
sealing solutions are not permitted, for
instance in case of extreme high pressures
(see Figure 338). The F in NPTF thread refers
to fine thread. This system works perfectly for
the softer metals (aluminum, copper). The first
fitting for harder metals like cast iron, and
stainless steel works fine however it is not
possible to achieve a leak free connection
once the connection is disconnected. A
straight pipe thread like BSP is applied
instead. (Figure 339). This straight pipe
thread is sealed by means of a nut, and an O-
ring or a seal ring with a chamber because the
thread tops and gaps leave a channel free.
JIC, SAE threads, and metric threads are also
applied for pipes.

OVU

QJQF

Figure 339 BSP pipe thread

250
Bending or Fitting? - The change for leakages is limited because
of the smaller amount of couplings
A general rule applies that bending is better
- Cleaner. Fewer problems with metal splin-
than fitting because of the following reasons:
ters, bits of tape and so on.
- Rapid fitting and removal during repair.
- Stronger. Pipe thread is weakening the pipe
ends.
Fitting is not regularly applied anymore in
- More flexible. A bended pipe is lighter and
todays modern machine building.
because of that less rigid, which limits the
tendency of transferring vibrations.

Figure 340 BSP pipe thread

251
 Hose Fitting
During fitting of the hose the construction of
the hose needs to be taken into account to
prevent that the hose will be damaged or
defective, take note of the mounting examples
in Figure 341.

ZURQJ JRRG
7KHKRVHDVVHPEO\VKRXOGQRWEHWZLVWHG
ZKHQLWLVILWWHG7KHFRORXUHGSULQWLQWKH
ORQJLWXGLQDOGLUHFWLRQLVKHOSIXOWRFKHFN
DQGYHULI\WKLV

ZURQJ JRRG
1HYHUXVHDKRVHDVVHPEO\WKDWLVWRR
VKRUW,WLVHDVLHUWRILWWKHFRUUHFWOHQJWK
ZKHUHDVWKHFRUUHFWOHQJWKZLOODOVR
LPSURYHWKHGXUDELOLW\

ZURQJ JRRG

7KHDSSOLFDWLRQRIEHQGHGFRXSOLQJVDQG
DGDSWRUVZLOOUHGXFHWKHDPRXQWRI
EHQGVLQDKRVH

ZURQJ JRRG
7KHDSSOLFDWLRQRIEHQGHGFRXSOLQJV
DQGDGDSWRUVDOORZODUJHUEHQGVRIWKHKRVH
DVZHOODVGHFUHDVHWKHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQ
WKHPRXQWLQJSRLQWV

ZURQJ JRRG

$SSOLFDWLRQRIWKHULJKWFRXSOLQJVLPSURYH
WKHOLIHWLPHRIWKHKRVHDVZHOODVUHGXFH
WKHFRVWV

Figure 341

252
Hose Couplings couplings and couplings suitable for manual
fitting. The first step is to slide the housing
The part of a coupling that is connected to the
over the hose, note that hoses subject to
hose is referred to as a hose coupling. The
mechanical wear are designed with a thicker
hose nipple is pushed in the hose the barbed
coating, which needs to be pealed prior to
ribs on the nipple prevent the hose from being
fitting the hose coupling housing. Thereafter
pulled off. In case of higher pressures or when
the nipple is pushed or squeezed into the
there is a risk of leaking the hose depicted in
hose. Finally the sleeve is pressed so that
Figure 342 can be tightened by means of a
sleeve, hose and nipple are squeezed to form
hose clamp. This system is not suitable for
one whole (see Figure 343 and 344).
applications that exceed 10 bar. There are two
different types of couplings on the market for
applications that exceed 10 bar, pressed

OVU
IPTF
"

OJQQMF

Figure 342 Push- in coupling

/JQQMF 1SFTTFE
TMFFWF )PTF

Figure 343 Pressed coupling

Figure 344 Hydraulic couplings

253
 Figure 345 Application hydraulic hose

Figure 346 Hydraulic hose coupling

Figure 347 Hydraulic hose coupling

254
Ordering of new hoses - the angle of the connections (see Figure
348)
An order for new hoses needs to include the
following information::
And take note of:

- the type of the hose including working pres-

- the working temperature
sure, external, and internal diameter, mate-
- the type of gas or fluid applied
rial
- the amount of bends and the bending
- the nominal diameter in mm (this is always
radius
the inside diameter)
- the nominal length (see Figure 348)
- the type of connections

MFOHUI
BDSPTT
FYUFSOBM
UISFBET
BOE
TFBMJOH
DPOF

PWFSBMM
MFOHUI

MFOHUI
CFUXFFO
TFBMJOH
DPOFT
BOE
UIF
IBSU
PG
UIF
CFOE

SJHIUIBOEFE
CFOE
UVSOFE

EFHSFFT
UP
UIF
MFGUIBOE
CFOE

SJHIUIBOE
CFOE
UVSOFE

EFHSFFT
DMPDLXJTF
UP
UIF
MFGU
IBOE
CFOE

Figure 348

255
256
 Chapter 13

Inspection, Maintanance and Malfuncti-

ons
Introduction Regular maintenance and inspections can points as well as to execute maintenance acti-
prevent many malfunctions. Installations vities. This will limit the amount and the
should be checked periodically by means of a severity of malfunctions, which will improve
check list to inspect maintenance sensitive the productivity of the installation.

Figure 349 Data in a maintenance management system

259
 The results of the inspections are often prerequisite to be able to solve malfunctions
recorded in a maintenance management however additional information with regard to
system, which allows development of a main- the working principle of the installation is
tenance history. The maintenance history is required.
very useful to track, and reduce reoccurring
malfunctions quickly. The ability to understand
and read hydraulic schematic diagrams is a

Figure 350 Malfunctions in the machine

260
Inspection and Daily Inspection
Maintenance of - Check the oil level of the reservoirCheck
the filter indicator (pollution)
Hydraulic - Check the working pressure
Installations - Temperature
- External inspection of leakage and abnor-
mal sounds
- Maintain a record of important gauge
values
- Deviating sounds
- Mechanical connections

Figure 353 Temperature gauge

Weekly Inspection
- Clean (maintain dust free) of the oil cooler,
electric motor, and the reservoir
- Remove leakage oil
- Lubricate swivel points of cylinders and so
on

Figure 351 Filter indication

Figure 354 Oil cooler

Figure 352 Oil level

261
 Periodical Inspection and Main-
tenance
Oil reservoir and inspection
The condition of the oil must be guarded well
because polluted oil is a root cause for
malfunctions. Possible water in the reservoir
must be drained. In addition an oil sample
must be analyzed by an oil company regularly.
This company will assess the oil sample and
will issue a report with regard to the condition
of the oil and a possible advice to exchange
the oil. An indication of the age as well as the
level of pollution of the oil can be obtained by Figure 356 Filter
means of a test with rice or filtration paper. A
drop of oil on operating temperature will form a
spot in the rice paper. When the colour of the Gas pressure of the accumulators
spot is light the oil is in order however when Periodically check for deviations from the set
the centre of the spot is dark the oil is aged gas pressure and recharge if necessary.
and polluted and should be exchanged imme-
diately.

Figure 355 Oil reservoir

Cleaning filters
Filter elements should be exchanged or
cleaned periodically according to maintenance
procedures. In addition the pollution indicators
or pressure difference gauges should be Figure 357 Accumulator
observed during normal operation. This allows
the operator to determine when the filter
elements should be exchanged.

262
Pipes, lines, hoses, and couplings
Check for external leakage and wear.

Figure 358 Pipes, Lines, and Hoses

Cylinders
Check swivel points, running faces, and so on
for wear.

Figure 359 Cylinder swivel point

263
 Level control
Check if the possible level switches in the oil
reservoir are working properly. The level
switches in the reservoir will turn off the instal-
lation when the level in the reservoir is too low.

Figure 362 Setting of the thermostat

Figure 360 Level Indicators

Figure 363 Thermostat pocket and sensor

Figure 361 Level Switches

Temperature Control
Check if the oil cooler, and the thermostats are
working properly.

264
Pressure Limiting Valve
Operate the pressure limiting valve twice a
year and check the set value.
Figure 364 Pressure Limiting Valve
Pump and Drive Motor
Check if the pump and drive motor are
working properly; Check if the pump and drive
motor are fastened properly; check the noise
level; check the coupling between the drive
motor and the pump.
Figure 365 Electric motor and pump
265
 Measuring Introduction When the malfunctioning is not traced, or
when the malfunctioning consists of reduced
Usually malfunctions in the installation that
malfunctions in cause the installation to stop from operating
functioning of the cylinder further investigation
can be done by means of measuring. In
the hydraulic can be traced by means of the schematic
Figure 366 the hydraulic components are
diagram. In Figure 366A basic hydraulic
system diagram with four filters is depicted. A number
indicated with a capital letter. The possible
measuring points are indicated by the
of malfunction causes will have to be checked
numbers 1 through and including 13.
to find the malfunctioning:
In practice not all installations are fitted with
- Is the pump running? the extensive amount of measuring points as
- Does the pump have an output flow? depicted in figure 367.
- Are the valves D and F working properly?
- Does cylinder E function properly?

 

'

6 6



&

)







%
0




$ *




Figure 366 Hydraulic schematic drawing with four filters

266
Measuring Pressure
Test pressure gauges with different pressure
ranges are applied for measuring pressure:

- Pressure range between 0-25 bar (0-2,5

MPa) for pilot and return pressures
- Pressure range between 0-250 bar (0-25
MPa) for medium-high pressures
- Pressure range between 0-600 bar (0-60
MPa) for high pressures

Figure 367 Pressure gauge 0-250 bar

Figure 368 Pressure gauge 0-40 bar

A pressure gauge can be applied to test

different components such as:

- The (maximum) pump pressure

- The adjustment of the safety valve
- The gas pressure of an accumulator
- The pressure difference over a filter or
valve

267
 Measuring pressure in hydraulic 298. Is it possible to use measuring point 13
installations in Figure 366to check internal leakage of
Hydraulic installations are often equipped with the pump? Explain your answer
multiple pressure gauges. This allows 299. The force that cylinder E in Figure 366
checking of the installation functions properly can yield is determined by the pressure.
during operation (see Figure 370). Alterna- Is the pressure on measuring point 3
tively a separate pressure gauge, connector, equal to the pressure on measuring point
and hose can be applied to measure pressure 6? (S2 is operated). Answer this question
(see Figure 369). for the following situations:
A. during the movement of the cylinder
B in the end-position
300. Which factors determine the working
pressure during the movement of the
cylinder?
301. Which of the measuring points 1 through
and including 13 in Figure 366 are
important for pressure measurements?
302. Does cold or thick oil have consequences
for the pressure loss in the system?

Figure 369 Test with separate pressure gauge

Figure 370 Pressure gauges in operating panel

Assignments
295. Why should a pilot pressure not be
measured with an analog pressure gauge
with a range between 0-600 bar (0-60
MPa)?
296. Can a pressure gauge be applied to
measure if the filters in Figure 366 are
defective or polluted? If yes, indicate
which measuring points should be used,
and which values should be read on the
gauges.
297. Which measuring point in Figure 366
should be used to measure the maximum
working pressure? Explain how this
should be measured.

268
Flow measurement and cycle
time
Pumps, motors, cylinders, and switching equi-
pments are always subject to leakages.
Excessive wear or a defective sealing will
have a negative impact on the piston speed or
the rotation speed of a hydraulic motor. The
time to send the cylinder out or in will extend.
This is referred to as the cycle time is
increasing. It is relatively easy to determine
the increase of the cycle time by means of a
stopwatch when the cycle time of a new instal-
lation is known. To check if this is cause by
excessive leakages, a flow meter is applied to
determine in which component or components
the leakages (liters per second) occur.
Figure 371 Flowmeter
Figure 372 Digital flow meter
Assignments
303. How can one determine the leakages of
the pump depicted inFigure 366?
304. Should leakages be measured at limited
pressure or full pressure? Explain your
answer.
305. How can one determine the leakage over
a piston sealing? (Specifically in the
middle of the stroke).
The rotation speed of pump/
motor
The rotation speed and the displacement
volume of the pump determine the output flow.
The output flow of the pump determines the
rotation speed of the hydraulic motor. A
noticeable decrease of the output flow of the
pump cannot always be traced back to a
leakage. It is important to check and verify the
rotation speed of the drive.
Figure 373 Revolution counter digital
Figure 374 Revolution counter hand
Assignment
306. What can be the root cause when the
rotation speed of a hydraulic motor is
declining? Name at least three possible
causes that can be traced back to wear.
269
 Measuring Temperature
The oil temperature should be closely
monitored. The oil temperature can gradually
increase because of wear (leakages are
causing heat) through oil consumption
however also because the lubricating abilities
of the oil are decreasing. The cooling time of
the oil is shorter at minimum oil level
compared to maximum oil level. The oil
temperature can also rise when the
mechanical functioning of pumps, cylinders,
motors, and valves is decreasing.

Figure 375 Temperature gauge

Assignments
307. Component F depicted in Figure 366 is
producing excessive heat during
discharging. On which measuring points
can this be measured by means of a
temperature gauge?
308. Which problems can occur in Figure 366
when the installation is started up in
winter when the oil temperature is too
low?

270
 Measuring Pressure gauge
Bourdon tube pressure gauges are widely
Instruments applied. However there are also pressure
gauges that operate with pistons or
membranes. There are pressure gauges with
different normalised measuring ranges
whereas the accuracy of the gauges is divided
in classes. A smaller measuring deviation
means a more expensive gauge. Pressure
gauges filled with glycerin are widely applied
to prevent the indicator from vibrating and
knocking. Contact pressure gauges are fitted
with contacts, which are operated by the
indicator of the gauge. This setup is applied to
operate different equipment.

Figure 376 Bourdon pressure gauge

ZLWK ZLWKRXW
SUHVVXUH SUHVVXUH
6KDSHFURVVVHFWLRQ
RIWKHKROORZVSULQJ

KROORZVSULQJ
3UHVVXUHJDXJH
KRXVLQJ
3LQLRQZKHHO
7RRWKVHFWRU

,QGLFDWRU
&HQWHURI5RWDWLRQ
'UDZEDU

*DVNHW
3OXJ
0DUN
&RQWURO)ODQJH
3OXJ
3UHVVXUHJDXJH
7KUHHZD\YDOYH

Figure 377 Operating principle of the Bourdon

pressure gauge

271
 Application of pressure gauges
Pressure gauges are applied on spots that
require control. This means that gauge
connections will have to be fitted at those
locations. The connection of the gauges
should be designed to prevent vibrations as
much as possible, this can achieved by means
of throttles and capillary lines however the
disadvantage is that these will clog easily. The
measuring range of a pressure gauge should
be chosen in such a way that the working
pressure of the gauge does not exceed 70%
of the range. Pressure gauges that do not
require continuous reading are often applied
with a 3/2 valve. This prevents the indicator
from continuous vibrating and swinging on the
frequency of the pump. Extra care with regard
to damping should be taken in case of contact
pressure gauges.

Figure 379 Pressure gauge with valve

Figure 378 Contact pressure gauge

Figure 380 Differential pressure gauge

272
Temperature gauges
The mercury temperature gauge is a metal
tube is widely applied. Electrical temperature
gauges are often applied for panels, the
advantage of this meter is the possibility of
distance reading. This requires a special
sensor (Pt 100). There are also temperature
gauges that operate with bimetal. Thermostats
are applied for temperature control.

0HDVXULQJ
HOHPHQW

Figure 383 Sensor Pt-100

Figure 381 Temperature sensor

Figure 384 temperature indicator electrical (Pt-

100)
Figure 382 Bi-metal temperature gauge

273
 Flowmeters
Flow meters are applied to measure the flow
throughput. There are different types of flow
meters, which operate on different working
principles:

Flow meter with measuring flange

The measuring flange is a plate with a hole.
The construction is built in the line and acts
like a throttle. The pressure in front of the
flange and the pressure after the flange are
measured. The measured pressure difference
is a measure for the amount of oil flowing
through the hole (l/min).

Rotating (turbine) flow meter

The rotating (turbine) flow meter consists of a
blade wheel mounted in a housing, which is
rotated by means of the oil flow. The rotating
speed is transferred into an electrical signal.
This signal provides the display indication.
Another type of flow meter is designed with
two oval disks linked by gears fitted in a Figure 385 Flow meter with measuring disc
housing this is a purely volumetric measuring
device that allows the content of one
measuring chamber to flow through. The shaft
rotations are conveyed to a counter that
depicts the amount of liquid flown through
whereas additional electronics allows measu-
rement of the flow in m/hr or ltr/min.

Assignment
309. Does the difference between warm and
cold oil influence the flow measurement?
Motivate your answer.

Figure 386 Turbine flow meter

274
 Putting into Hydraulic installations - Check the filters immediately after commis-
sioning and check regulary for the first 24
operation, - The first to check before a hydraulic instal- hours. During the start-up phase check en
lation is put into operation is to check if all write down the temperatures of the oil, bea-
testing, and pipes, lines, and components are fitted pro- rings and devices.
control perly and according to the schematic dia-
gram.
- Check if the reservoir and the inside of the
pipes, lines, and hoses are clean.
- Check if the filter elements are placed in the
filter housings.
- Check if the supplied oil is of the correct
type.
- Fill the reservoir through a filter and take
note of the oil level. The filtration of the oil is
performed by means of a pressure filter and
a manually operated pump, which allows
impurities in the barrel to be separated from
the oil.
- Check the gas pressure when the system is
equipped with accumulators.
- Open the safety-valve, fit the pressure gau-
ges, and open the gauge valves.
- Check the currents of the electric motor and
solenoids.
- Check if the motor and pump are rotating in
the right direction by the switching the
motor shortly.
- Run the pump and allow the installation to
fill up (still with a limited over pressure
because the safety valve is still open). Ope-
rate the directional valves several times
during the filling process and close monitor
the oil level in the reservoir (fill up if neces-
sary).
- Open the venting screws and valves until
all air is released. Start at the highest point
of the installation. Double acting cylinders
often do not have bleeder points. These
cylinders are air free by allowing the con-
nections to leak slightly.
- Check the functionality of the electrical and
hydraulic circuits.
- Slowly adjust the pressure limiting valve to
the required value. Check the pipes, lines,
hoses, and connections for leakages. Tigh-
ten connections that are leaking (not while
under pressure).
- The pressure limiting valve is adjusted to
the designed pressure of the specific
system
- Now adjust valves, flow controlvalves, con-
trolvalves, cylinderbuffers, and after adjust-
ment check the complete workingcycle.
Resolve possible knocking of pipes by
changing the settings (if possible).

275
 The testing of a pump
Pump wear or defects to a pump can be
traced by assessing the performance of the
pump. For instance it can occur that the
cylinder movements are slower than normal
while the pump delivers less power. Both
phenomena are measured better when the oil
is heated to the operational temperature.
Prerequisite for testing is that the flow and
pressure of the pump can be measured. The
output flow of the pump is compared with the
values provided by the supplier of the pump.
Figure 387 Testing the internal leakages of a
pump
276
Wear
An unloaded worn out pump that takes in
enough oil will supply its nominal volume at
nominal however the output flow will reduce
considerably when the pump is loaded.
Malfunctioning in the suction line/take
in line
A pump that does not supply its nominal
volume while unloaded whereas this volume
maintains constant over the whole load area
usually has a problem in the suction line or
take in line. Often this can be noticed by sound
similar like a can of marbles being shaken; the
pump is subject to cavitation. Switch the
pump off immediately to prevent major
damage to the pump. Check if the suction
hose or the suction filter is blocked. Check if
the oil level, the oil temperature and the
viscosity of the oil are in accordance with the
system requirements. The pressure in the
suction line (a too low pressure) can easily be
verified by means of a pressure gauge.
Air in the system
Air in the system can lead to heavy vibrating
gauges. This air can have entered the system
via leaks in the suction line or defective
gaskets of the pump shaft. Another cause for
air in the system can be traced back to the oil
level in the reservoir, when the oil level in the
reservoir is too low the return line will
discharge the oil above the oil level, which will
cause foam and therefore air in the oil.
Defect
When the tests as described in the latter do
not lead to a root-cause most likely the pump
will be defect and will have to be changed. The
pump will have to be repaired or renewed prior
to performing additional tests. However when
the output flow of the pump is satisfactory the
root cause must be traced back to the other
components.
Checking of a pressure limiting Switch back in operation after
valve malfunctions
It is rather simple to verify if a pressure limiting
valve remains open because it is impossible to
build up a pressure in the system. The setting
of the pressure limiting valve can also be the
root cause when a hydraulic system operates
too slow the system operates with less power
than usual in this case the set value of the
pressure limiting valve is too low.
When a component in a hydraulic system has
broken down do not take the system back in
operation before it is cleaned. Pollution like
parts of the defective component can cause
additional problems. Drain the system,
discharge the oil to an authorized source, and
flush the system.

Checking the functioning of a pressure

limiting valve
Fit a pressure gauge in the line between the
pump and the valve. Switch the installation in
such a way that the pomp outflow flow can
only be discharged over the pressure limiting
valve (for instance maintain the directional
valve switched when the cylinder is in its end
position), and set the pressure of the pressure
limiting valve for instance 5 to 10 bar above
the maximum working pressure. When the
pressure in the measuring line is sufficient to
open the pressure limiting valve the pressure
on the pressure gauge should be equal to the
pressure value provided by the manufacturer.
Unqualified staff should never adjust a
pressure limiting valve because an incorrect
setting can cause a sudden and costly defect.
A better solution is to fit the pressure limiting
valve with distance rings to prevent that the
valve can be adjusted to a pressure that
exceeds the for the system designed Figure 388 Pressure limiting valve
pressure.

$GMXVWPHQW
VFUHZYDOYH
VHWDWEDU

6SULQJEDU

3 7

Figure 389 Pressure limiting valve with pre-control

277
278