Copyright

C Blackwell Publishing 2005
Scandinavian Journal of Metallurgy 2005; 34: 340352
Printed in Singapore. All rights reserved
Physical modeling simulations of refining processes
in Brazilian Steel Industry
Varadarajan Seshadri1 , Carlos Antonio Silva2 and Itavahn Alves Da Silva2
1 Department of Metallurgical Engg. and Materials, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil; and 2 Department of Metallurgical
Engineering, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Brazil
In this work, the techniques of physical modeling for op-
timization, control and improvement of metallurgical pro-
cesses, such as RH degassing, continuous casting, IR-UT,
etc with special reference to Brazilian steel plants such as
Usiminas, CST, Belgo-Mineira etc. are discussed. Many of
these have been industry-sponsored projects, involving de-
velopment of physical models of laboratory scale, consid-
ering similarity principles and carrying over the results of
experiments to the industrial unit, for optimizing the pro-
During the last 25 years there has been increasing ten-
dency with respect to application of quantitative meth-
ods of modeling for the solution of the problems of de-
sign, operation and control of the industrial processes.
As the processes become more complex, models have
to be developed for each stage of the process for effec-
tive control of the operation or automation for obtain-
ing better productivity and quality of products as well
as decreasing the production costs. The techniques of
physical and mathematical modeling of processes are
useful in the development of new processes and tech-
nologies besides improving the control and efficiency of
the existing processes.
The mathematical modeling of a process may involve
a system of algebraic or differential equations or appli-
cation of statistics that represent quantitatively several
stages of the process and involves, in addition to un-
derstanding of the basic principles of the actual pro-
cess, several knowledge areas such as thermodynamics,
kinetics, transport phenomena, mathematics and com-
puter science. The degree of sophistication of a model
for simulation of an industrial process depends on tak-
ing into consideration fundamental principles of mass,
heat and momentum transfer and other related phenom-
ena, formulation of the model, practical verification and
improvement of the same. For simulation of a process
through a mathematical model involving transport phe-
340
SCANDINAVIAN
JOURNAL OF METALLURGY
cesses or suggesting alternative techniques for improved
efficiency.
Key words: continuous casting, IRUT process, physical
modelling, RH degassing.


C Blackwell Publishing, 2005
Accepted for publication 1 February 2005
nomena principles, there are basically two difficulties,
the analysis of the problem and the solution of the differ-
ential equations with defined boundary conditions. Be-
fore the advent of computers there was great difficulty
in this respect and hence models were simplified to get
analytical solutions. However, in the last 1015 years the
developments in the field of computers have been phe-
nomenal and this problem does not exist any more [1,
2]. Now there are also available several software based
on the several techniques of numerical analysis for the
resolution of models of transport phenomena in 2 or 3
dimensions. With the use of powerful computers, it has
become possible to decrease the time of computation
facilitating the use of very precise and complex models
for control of processes. This situation should be favored
now by the fall of the hardware prices and availability of
sophisticated software in the market for complex math-
ematical models. Artificial intelligence is another field
where significant developments have taken place. De-
velopment of software on this basis has been used for
process control. Computer control has been successfully
applied in the fields of agglomeration, iron making, steel
making, rolling, foundry etc using such soft wares.
The physical modeling of a process consists essen-
tially of its representation in a reduced scale in the lab-
oratory using the similarity principles and materials
at low temperatures in order to analyze the effect of

several variables of the process, facilitating the visual-
ization and measurement of specific aspects in a con-
venient way and low cost. It is important to point out
that a modern research methodology and development
of new processes as well as improvement of the exis-
tent processes, require the use of techniques of both
mathematical and physical modeling first in the labo-
ratory and then in experiments in pilot plants or pro-
totypes or a combination of both using the knowhow
obtained in the first stage to achieve the defined ob-
jectives. For accomplishing the simulation of industrial
processes through these techniques a good technical col-
laboration between those specialized in fundamentals
and experts with practical knowledge of the process is
very essential. This collaboration would greatly influ-
ence the successful development of a realistic model of
the process.
The key point of the physical modeling is the realis-
tic representation of the process to be analyzed in terms
of the important variables that influence the same and
develop a correlation between the dimensionless num-
bers constituted by these variables derived by apply-
ing similarity principles such as Buckhingham theorem,
Rayleighs method of indices etc. and carrying out ex-
periments with the model at ambient temperature vary-
ing different parameters of the process. The correlations
developed in this way are valid for the model as well as
the prototype. Similarity between model and prototype
is not only with respect to geometry, but also dynamic
parameters such as velocity, force, density, concentra-
tion, temperature and thermal aspects [3]. Through anal-
ysis of general equations of momentum, heat and mass
balance, such as the NavierStokes equation one can
arrive at the dimensionless numbers important in the
process. The experimental results of the physical model
itself can be verified by applying the above balance
and solving the differential equations, with simplifi-
cations for unidimensional, bidimensional or tridimen-
sional considerations and other aspects of the process.
Once the geometric and dynamic similarities between
the model and the prototype are established, in general
the model is constructed in acrylic material assuming
a geometric scale and dynamic similarity principles are
established between model and prototype using the di-
mensionless numbers. Hence, various parameters such
as liquid and gas fluxes, concentration gradients etc are
determined for use in the cold model experiments. Sub-
sequently, the influence of the variables of the process
on parameters determining the efficiency of the process
are determined for optimizing the process. Tracer tech-
niques are used extensively for concentrationtime (C
T) diagrams. Conductivity and other measurements are
made continuously for simulating the process with ap-
Physical modeling simulations
propriate tracers such as sodium chloride, potassium
chloride. Plug flow and other considerations can be
made depending on the process and RTD curves can
be obtained suiting well-known techniques adopted ex-
tensively in various investigations [4].
In Brazil, the departments of Metallurgical Engineer-
ing of UFMG and UFOP have maintained a strong inter-
action with several steel companies, such as USIMINAS,
ACESITA, CST, CSBM. This program not only imparted
continuing education to the several engineers in terms
of masters degree program in several areas of the met-
allurgy but also carried out research programs of inter-
est to the industry with the active cooperation of the
university. In this context several research projects have
been taken up with the sponsorship of the steel industry,
which were simultaneously masters or doctorate theses
also. This contribution gives details regarding some of
the projects completed successfully of this industry by
the authors under the university research program in the
field of physical modeling over the years. This program
covered several areas such as RH degassing, continuous
casting tundish and mold, blast furnace, agglomeration,
flux powder injection in melts etc [521].
Examples of application of physical
modelling of processes
Analysis of installation of process RH of usiminas
in function of several operational conditions [13]
It is well known that the productivity of the process
degasification with RH process depends on the rate of
circulation of the steel, which in turn is determined by
the number of uplegs, nozzle locations and injection
rate of gas in it. The circulation rate influences signifi-
cantly descarburization, deoxidation, removal of hydro-
gen and nitrogen from the melts as well as mixing and
homogenization in the ladle. Hence, optimization of the
process can be achieved through a better understanding
of the variables that affect this parameter.
During 19781979 USIMINAS installed a RH de-
gassing unit with a capacity of 86 tonnes. With the ob-
jective stated previously, a cold model was built in the
scale 1:5.3 considering similarity principles. Through a
dimensional analysis it was shown that

b
NF r = C[(NVa )]a (NRe )2 . (1)
The parameters C, a and b were determined through
experimental work with the physical model, using water
and injecting nitrogen in the upleg (1080 l/min) under
vacuum; NaCl was the tracer. A saturated solution of
NaCl was injected upleg and the variation of the con-
centration in the downleg end was evaluated through
341
Seshadri et al.

lowing equation resulted relating flow in the model and

prototype.

Qm 0.279Q p . (4)

Visualization techniques such as the use of video cam-

Fig. 1. Circulation rate as a function of gas flow rate for physical model and
industrial unit of Usiminas.
continuous measurement of the electric conductivity at
this location. From the CT diagram, circulation rate was
evaluated and the following correlation resulted for the
model through regression analysis.
NF r = 0.057NVa NRe .
0.192 0.33
(2)
The rate of circulation in the industrial installation
was evaluated using the correlation above. Fig. 1 repre-
sents the variation of the circulation rate with the argon
flow rate and this is in agreement with the results of
other publications in the literature. The correlation be-
tween the rate of circulation and argon flow rate is given
by the equation
era, for measuring and recording the flow pattern and
speed was made, and camphor particles (whose den-
sity of 0.99 g/cm guaranteed the absence of gravita-
tional flow) in the feeding circuit served as a tracer. This
enabled analysis of turbulence levels and formation of
vortexes, depth of penetration of flow and the speed
measurement of ascending and descending flows.
Figures 24 show that the speed of the descending flow,
its depth and penetration are functions of the liquid ve-
locity and angle of inclination of the exit holes of the
nozzle. This information was useful in the nozzle design
and optimisation of flow and consequently diminishing
inclusions etc in the casting.
In general the optimum condition was characterized
by a smaller depth of penetration of the flow of steel
and lower level of turbulence, which are obtained with
a submerged nozzle system with an exit angle so as
not to generate disturbances on the surface of the steel
solidifying.

Tc = 5.89Q0.33 , (3)

where Tc is the rate of circulation in t/min and Q is the

gas flow NI/min.

Study of flow through submerged nozzle system in

the continuous casting unit of USIMINAS [14]
Liquid steel is fed into the continuous casting mould Fig. 2. Depth of penetration of flow as a function of water flow in the model
for mold thickness of 950mm for various inclination of exit nozzle.
through a submerged nozzle system with lateral exits.
This system is used for the protection of steel against ox-
idation and the generation of flow that favours the flota-
tion of the inclusions and its absorption by the mould
fluxes at the surface. Simulation of the flow in the mould
with submerged nozzle of the continuous casting unit of
USIMINAS was carried out for the analysis of the influ-
ence of the diameter, inclination of the submerged noz-
zle openings and of the operational parameters such as
width of the plate, casting speed depth of the submerged
nozzle system on the flow patterns in the mould using a
physical model built of acrylic on the scale 1:1.667. Use
of water as liquid dynamic similarity parameters was
evaluated using the Froude and Reynold criteria opting
for an equality of Reynolds number to guarantee the
same flow regime in the model and prototype. The fol- Fig. 3. Flux lines in the mold and level of turbulence.

342

Fig. 4. Velocity of descendant water flux in the mold (nozzle angle 0 ).
Analysis of flow of steel in indirect casting of steel
ingots in USIMINAS through cold modeling [15]
In the indirect casting of steel ingots, the steel from
the ladle flows into the vertical channel and distributes
the same via horizontal channels for feeding the ingot
molds. It is essential that the metal is fed in a manner
minimising the problems generated by the impact of the
jet of steel on the base plate as well as avoiding high cast-
ing speed which can sometimes lead to the flow from
the top of the mold. Hence, the flow has to be optimised
for improving production efficiency and final quality of
products with respect to inclusions etc. For simulating
the indirect casting process, a water model was built at
a scale of 1:1.887.
Applying dimensional analysis to the process it can
be shown that
N f r = K (NRe )a (NRh )b .
In this equation, the Froude number represents the re-
lationship among inertial forces defined by the speed of
the jet in a free fall and the forces opposed to the same,
namely column of liquid in the ingot mold. N Re defines
the relationship between the forces of inertia and viscos-
ity for flow through the channels. N Rh gives the height
relationship H/h, which represents the effect of energy
contained in the jet starting from the decreasing height
(H) of metal in the ladle and that of the of the resistance
of the liquid column (h) ascending in the ingot mold. For
the determination of the actual correlation between the
above dimensional numbers several experiments were
carried out varying (H) of the level of water in the ladle
and (h) of the ingot mold. Through a regression analysis
the following correlation resulted; see Fig. 5
NF r = 0.0812(NRh )0.387 (NRe )0.20 .
Physical modeling simulations
Fig. 5. Relation between Froude number and relative height, N Rh = ladle
(H)/ingot(h).
Physical model for evaluation of mixing time
during injection of gas through lance in the steel
ladle (project sponsored by COSIPA steel Co. Sao
Paulo [16]
The process of injection of gas and powders such as
CaSi and lime are used extensively to carry out effi-
cient desulphurization, dephosphorization etc, as this
process improves the efficiency of interaction between
metal and flux or slag. Injection is normally done
through a lance system or porous plug at the bottom
of the ladle. The gas serves to homogenise the effect, ef-
ficient mixing, and promotes efficient degasification of
the melts, and the fine powder flux serves to improve
efficiency of the refining reactions. One of the variables
that is intrinsically linked to the hydrodynamic perfor-
mance is the efficiency of mixing and this is a function
of lance depth, diameter and design of the lance system
(5) such as 2 exits or 3 exits and the exit angle as well as gas
velocity.
A study of the effect of these variables on time of mix-
ing was done using a physical model in the laboratory.
Correlations obtained were extrapolated for the indus-
trial installation. Through a dimensional analysis, it can
be shown that Froud and Reynold numbers as well as a
proportionality number relating gas and liquid flow are
important in the process.
The model was built (acrylic ladle) at a scale of 1:5
(Fig. 6) using a group of lances for the injection of air
in the water in the ladle and the following variables
are considered: (a) gas flow, (b) lance position (hori-
zontal and vertical displacement); (c) lance type (two
three holes); (d) type of exit of the lance (horizontal
and inclined) and diameter of the lance hole. The time
of mixing is defined as the requested time so that the
concentration of the tracer in a certain place reaches
(6) 95% concentration of the stationary regime after the
343
Seshadri et al.

for the nozzle in the model and in the prototype.

Dm = 0.40Dp . (10)

The time of mixing is the time necessary for the ho-

mogenisation of the tracer solution (15% NaCl) deter-
mined by the measurement of conductivity. This time
was evaluated in the static condition of the bath and af-
ter the establishment of the flow regime. As the time of
mixing is highly dependent on the viscosity, it is neces-
sary to introduce the proportion of viscosities between
water and liquid iron in the model (m) and prototype
(p), respectively in the computations
m 1
= = . (11)
p 5.56
This correlation was also applied in eq. (9) to correct
the value of Q m . Starting from experiments on the cold
model by varying the height of the lance, a mean value
was calculated (50 W/t). This value was used to develop
a correlation between T mix measured for different con-
ditions (flow variation, position of the lance and lances
with two or three holes) using regression analysis. The
Fig. 6. Lance positions in the physical model. results are for the static condition of the bath represented
in Table 1. The following observations can be made: (a)
the displacement and the penetration of the lance in the
addition of the tracer at another reference point. This bath decrease the time of the mixing, the former has
time is related to agitation intensity, defined by the work more influence than the latter, Figs. 7 and 8; (b) the time
that the gas accomplishes during the residence time in
the liquid phase (M tons) for unit of time due to ex- Table 1. Lance positions in the physical model
pansion caused by heating of liquid to temperature (T), # Central # Intermediate # Far left
expansion during its ascension in the bath and buoy-
1 Above ref. point 4 Above ref. point 7 Above ref. Point
ancy work. Considering all these, one can arrive at the 2 Ref. point 5 Ref. point 8 Ref. point
following expression for the total energy (E). 3 Below ref. point 6 Below ref. point 9 Below ref. Point
     
0, 006183 Q S
E= T 4, 60 log 1 + + 1 298 ,
M 144
(7)
and for the physical model
     
0, 006183 Q S
E= T 4, 60 log 1 + + 1 298 ,
M 1033
(8)
where S is the bath height above the hole of the lance
(cm).
The flow of air to be used in the model (Q m ) was eval-
uated equalling the flow number for the model and the
prototype and considering expansion of gas (17 times)
and flow in the real system (750 Nl/min).

Qm = 0.32Q p . (9)

The diameter of the hole of the lance in the model (D m ) Fig. 7. Variation of time of mixing with gas flow through Lance (type 3T
was arrived at equalling the modified Froude numbers ( = 7,0mm).

344

Fig. 8. Variation time of mixing with gas flow through Lance (type 2T, =
5, 0 mm) and positions.
of mixing corresponding to the central deep position and
the use of 2T type of lance should improve the efficiency
of the process and avoid overflow risks.
Physical modeling study of RH degassing process
of CST to assess the effect of nozzle blockage,
bottom injection in ladle and decarburization [18]
A physical model based on similarity principles was
constructed for simulating the RH degasser of CST
(Companhia Siderurgica Tubarao, Vitoria, ES, Brazil)
to evaluate the circulation rate of the metal which es-
sentially defines the degree of exposure of the metal to
vacuum in the chamber and thus the refining rate. The
circulation rate, on the other hand, will influence the de-
carburisation rate and removal of dissolved gases like
nitrogen and hence it is essential to optimise this param-
eter to get maximum refining efficiency with the mini-
mum refining times, thus improving the productivity of
the secondary refining process.
The water model of the RH unit of the CST was
fabricated (acrylic) with scale factor of 1:5 considering
the geometric and dynamic similarity criteria based on
Reynolds (NRe) Froude (NFr) numbers as well as pro-
portional flow of gas and liquid in the system (Nva)
and modified Froud number (NFrm) for nozzle design
as in the case of the RH unit of USIMINAS reported in
reference 13.
Operational and geometrical parameters of the phys-
ical model were arrived at from the prototype applying
similarity principles as mentioned earlier. The vacuum
vessel is equipped with two snorkels and 16 nozzles in
the upleg (two levels). Air was used for injection through
the nozzles. The upleg and downleg diameters were
150 mm, snorkel immersion depth was 60 mm and liquid
Physical modeling simulations
Fig. 9. Scheme for the nozzle locations and blockage.
level in the vacuum vessel amounted to 65 mm. These
are basic data for standard operation. Most of them have
been varied during the experiments in order to assess
their influence upon the operation.
Nozzle blockage inside the upleg is frequent in indus-
trial practices. Blockage itself is not critical if circulation
rates can be kept at a safe level by further gas injec-
tion. As will be shown the more important factor here
is not the number of nozzles blocked, rather it is the
gas distribution. The location of the nozzles (diameter =
3 mm) in the upleg is given in Fig. 9. The distance be-
tween the two levels of injection amounted to 45 mm in
the physical model. Symmetrical (four nozzles at each
injection level, uniformly distributed) and nonsymmet-
rical (four nozzles at each injection level, facing ladle
wall) locations of nozzles were blocked and the circula-
tion rates were studied for different gas flow rates. For
symmetrical nozzle blockage, inside upleg, a small neg-
ative change in the circulation rate was observed. It is
apparent that a trend of lowering the circulation rate
with higher gas flow rates. This is probably due to a
decrease in the liquid flow rate caused by higher frac-
tion gas in the plume. In the case of nonsymmetrical
blockage, a lowering of 50% in the liquid flow rate was
observed (Fig. 10). These changes were also observed in
the visualization of the flux with aniline additions.
Mixing characteristics in the ladle and circulation
were evaluated by pulse tracer addition using conduc-
tivity meters located at the downleg as well as at several
locations in the ladle (see Fig. 11).
The conductivity probes have been located close to
the wall at three different levels; atthe bottom, at the
medium level and close to the liquid top. To assess the
influence of the angular position they have been placed
in front of thesnorkels, by the down snorkel and the up
snorkel. The results are not substantially different. The
upper curve is for measurements made at downleg and
the lower curves are for conductivity data taken at dif-
ferent levels inside the ladle. The fact that there is no
remarkable discrepancy between data derived from the
conductivity meters located at the ladle is an indication
345
Seshadri et al.
Fig. 10. Effect of the nozzle blockage on the circulation rate, without gas
injection through porous plug as determined for the water model.
Fig. 11. Rate of mixing vs rate of circulation.
of the good state of mixing. However, the circulation
time inferred from data collected with the probe located
inside the downleg, about half of the mixing time result-
ing from probes inside the ladle; i.e. circulation rates, are
twice as higher.
Additional gas injection can be made through a
porous plug located under the upleg in order to improve
and/or restore circulation just in case one or more noz-
zles happen to be blocked. Experiments on the kinetics
of degasification CO 2 adsorption- desorption process in
sodium hydroxide solution as circulating fluid and the
effect of, bottom gas flow rate in this case was also eval-
uated. This technique relies on the hypothesis that in
caustic solutions equilibrium among the species H 2 O (l),
H+ , OH , H 2 CO 3 aq, HCO 3 , CO 3 = , CO 2 aq e Na+ can be
achieved quickly, when the solution contacts a gaseous
phase containing CO 2 (g) and/or air. For a limited range
of pH (in this case 6 to 7), the reaction is predominantly
desorptionadsorption (CO 2(g) = CO 2aq ). Changes in the
pH values are then related to CO 2aq concentration. Thus
a macroscopic kinetic model can be proposed, assuming
perfect mixing. Accordingly,
LnC/Co = (K .A/V).t (12)
346
Fig. 12. Kinetics of degassing (with and without gas injection through
porous plug). The abscissa axis is for gas injection through the upleg only.
where, C is the concentration of CO 2 [mol/l], Co is the
initial concentration of CO 2 , [mol/l]; A is the liquidgas
interfacial area [m2 ]; V is the volume of the liquid [l]; t
is the time [s]; K is the mass transfer coefficient for the
gasliquid interface.
It can be seen from Fig. 12 that increased degassing
rates result in increasing injection rate through nozzles
as well as rate of gas injection through a porous plug, as
these factors also increase the circulation rates.
To confirm if injection from the bottom can replace
injection through the nozzles as far as degassing is con-
cerned, more experiments are necessary. It should be
remembered that degassing is also enhanced by higher
vacuum. Data for circulation with and without auxiliary
gas injection, gas flow rate and apparent degasification
parameters have been combined in order to highlight
the influence of the circulation rate. The main objective
was to assess if the same circulation rate would guar-
antee the same degasification. As shown in Fig. 13, the
degassification level is not the same even if the circula-
tion rate is kept constant for different combinations of
gas injection through the porous plug and upleg. For ex-
ample, a circulation rate of 10.5 [kg/s] can be achieved
by different gas flow rates through the upleg nozzles
Fig. 13. Effect of circulation rate upon degasification (for different rates of
gas injection through porous plug) as determined for the water model.

Fig. 14. Schematic view of IR-UT.
Table 2. Comparison of degasification rates with and without auxiliary
injection
Injection
conditions Working formula K.A/(2.303 V)
no auxiliary 0.0331 e0.2557Q 0.4851
auxiliary 20 lpm 0.0116 Q2 + 0.4122 Q 2.5854 0.4638
auxiliary 33 lpm 0.0042 Q2 + 0.2089 Q 1.3353 0.3951
only or with some auxiliary gas plug injection. For this
circulation rate and considering the working formulas
from Table 2, a comparison can be made.
To conclude, a physical model simulating the RH de-
gassing practice in the CST was satisfactory in verifying
the findings of the earlier works in the field such as the
increase of circulation rates with increasing gas injection
rates in the upleg. The bottom gas injection practice, un-
der the upleg, improved the circulation rates. This effect
was more significant for low snorkel gas flow rate. A
nonsymmetrical nozzle blockage has been shown to be
deleterious to the process performance. A drop in circu-
lation rate of approximately 50% was noted. However,
these effects were not important for symmetrical nozzle
blockage. Increasing circulation rates by bottom injec-
tion are followed by increasing degassing rates. The re-
sults were carried over to the prototype to optimize the
process.
Physical modelling of Injection Refining-Up
Temperature Process of theCompanhia Siderurgica
de Tubarao, Brazil) [19]
Steel refining reactors based on chemical heating are be-
ing used as an alternative to ladle furnaces. They show
a high degree of flexibility with respect to the heating
rate in addition to carrying out refining reactions such as
de-S, inclusion removal, alloying etc. IR-UT process as
Physical modeling simulations
given in Fig. 14 and CAS-OB are examples of such reac-
tors. Their performance is dependent upon geometrical
characteristics as well as operational conditions, which
determine the flow field inside the vessel. A physical
model of the IR-UT process of the CST, a steel plant lo-
cated in Serra, Espirito Santo, Brazil, was developed to
assess the features of the flow field and its influence on
metallurgical behaviour. Results of the physical model
were used to optimize the process parameters in the in-
dustrial unit.
The principle of conducting alloy addition and blow-
ing oxidant within a slag-free space provided by a
snorkel is used for IR-UT processing. It utilizes a re-
fractory snorkel as a means to facilitate additions to the
ladle and to protect molten steel from uncontrolled re-
actions with the slag. Liquid steel can be homogenized,
alloyed, heated or cooled if necessary, by adding small
scrap pieces. Process control software are available for
the process. The IR-UT heating is based on the chemical
reaction of aluminium with oxygen gas blowing on the
metal surface. Inert gas stirring may continue for some-
time after reheating to ensure that the alumina particles
formed during reheating are removed by flotation.
The physical model of CST (Brazil), IR-UT, was built
using plexiglass at a scale factor of 1:5. Water was used
for simulating liquid steel and compressed air was used
in place of argon. Air flow rate was monitored and
controlled using mass flow meters (Omega Engineer-
ing, Inc., USA) and a range was chosen to cover the
presumed operational conditions. The main parameter
used for flow characterization was macroscopic mixing
time as given by conductivity probes. Mixing time is
taken as the time required to have concentration sta-
bilised within 5% of nominal concentration. Mixing time
is also a function of reactor geometrical parameters such
as number and degree of inclination of the agitation
lance injection nozzles, relative to the position of the
agitation lance with regard to the snorkel/vessel walls,
snorkel dimension and depth of immersion, in addition
to gas flow rate. As far as the liquid flow is concerned,
dynamic similarity must be ensured. A common ap-
proach is to take the interaction between gas and liquid
as the driving force behind the flow field. The present
authors have assumed that the main characteristics of
liquid flow field of the prototype would be reproduced
by taking into consideration the Froude group and tur-
bulent Reynolds group. That is, the momentum con-
servation equation for isothermal flow and the constant
properties remain valid. Thus, an equation for turbulent
viscosity characteristic of a liquid stirred by gas injection
can be introduced as part of the definition of turbulent
Reynolds number. Proper manipulation leads to Q m =
2.5 Q p .
347
Seshadri et al.

Fig. 15. Main features of the flow field, determined by laser sheet visualiza-
tion.

Laser sheet visualization was used for a first appraisal
of the flow field. Particles of resin (S6H from Goodyear,
specific gravity 1040 kg/m3 ) were dispersed in water. A
plane of light was produced by making a beam impinge
on a glass rod. Then the path of those particles moving
on the plane was recorded by a digital domestic cam-
era (Sony). The movies could then be produced with
a domestic fame grabber (PCVision). Figure 15 shows
a schematic view for the flow observed in the vertical
plane defined as longitudinal axis and the stirring lance.
It makes apparent that the snorkel works for diverging
the main flow, which would otherwise be directed to the
metal surface. This main feature is not present at a regu-
lar ladle and is expected to show remarkable influence.
A series of experiments were designed in order to assess
the influence of snorkel (with, without), snorkel depth
of immersion, snorkel diameter, distance between lance
and bottom of the ladle, and gas flow rate.
Preliminary experiments have shown that the gas
blown at the surface would not affect the mixing times
very much. Flow phenomena induced by chemical re-
actions or splashing due to shear stresses are obviously
important but cannot be promptly be simulated with
this kind of experiment. Thus, this work did not take
their possible effects into consideration. One can assume
that the very presence of the snorkel acting as a physical
barrier would reduce the influence of the oxygen blast
at steel-free surface (contained inside the snorkel). Two
kinds of representation were used to highlight the effects
of many parameters. One of them shows mixing time as
function of gas flow rate, other parameters being kept
constant (see Figs. 16 and 17). The present experiments
with the physical model of IR-UT show a strong snorkel
influence. As shown in Fig. 17, an optimum value of
depth of immersion of the snorkel seems to exist. For this
value, the mixing time is minimum, which is, however,
dependent on the gas flow rate. Mixing time curves flat
out when the gas flow rate increases, suggesting that for
a given specific stirring energy small snorkel positioning
errors should not be significant. That would character-
ize a robust modus operandi. The other [22] employs a
Fig. 16. Relationship between mixing times and gas flow rate determined
with physical model for nominal conditions.
Fig. 17. Optimal positioning of snorkel as function of gas flow rate.
relationship between the specific energy of stirring, ,
and the mixing time, .
= a . n , (13)
which would be specific for each class of reactor as they
are defined by different geometry and arrangement of
stirring elements. Thus one should be able to evalu-
ate the proper values of a and n for each combination
of ladle geometry, snorkel geometry, depth of immer-
sion, number, shape and location of nozzels for a given
IR-UT.unit. As far as evaluating the specific stirring en-
ergy is concerned the present authors have chosen
   
8, 32 TI 9, 81 H
= TS 1 + ln 1 + Q, (14)
22, 4M TS PA
where is the specific stirring energy, W/kg; M is the
mass of liquid, kg; Q is the gas flow rate, STP, dm3 /s;
T S is the temperature of steel, K; T I is the temperature
of gas, K; is the liquid specific gravity, kg/m; H is the
depth of injection, m; P A is the ambient pressure, Pa.
Some relevant equations for gas flow up to 200 lpm
are as follows:
1. Influence of snorkel diameter, 4 cm immersion.
ln no = 0.3144 ln + 2.453, (15)

348

ln 34 = 0.3144 ln + 2.453,
ln 45 = 0.3144 ln + 2.453,
where the subscripts refer to no snorkel, 34 cm snorkel
and 45 cm snorkel.
2. Influence of the lance to the bottom of the ladle
distance.
ln 4 = 0.2936 ln + 2.7813,
ln 6 = 0.3243 ln + 2.6843,
ln 8 = 0.3071 ln + 2.7588,
ln 10 = 0.3714 ln + 2.5804.
The relationship arrived at can be used to make es-
timations for the industrial unit under different condi-
tions or to forecast variations if not absolute values. For
getting specific absolute values, experiments must be
conducted in the plant, which is rather difficult. Prelim-
inary calculations have indicated specific stirring energy
values around 0.04 0.06 W/kg for the industrial unit. If
one takes into consideration the above-mentioned val-
ues of stirring energy then a model gas flow rate close to
200 Nl/min would be required to match the model and
the prototype. At this level the mixing time differences
would not be significant. As a matter of fact they are not
important for flow rates higher than 50 Nl/min.
Mixing times are shown for two snorkel diameters
and for no snorkel present in Table 3. Mixing times
are shorter without a snorkel acting as a flow bar-
rier. Although mixing is more effective for no snorkel
or snorkels of increasing diameters the difference may
not be important at relatively high flow rates. The
same kind of conclusion is reached with respect to the
positioning of the stirring lance. Skulls or premature
lining failure could make it difficult to assess the true
distance lance/bottom of the ladle. This can be an impor-
tant factor mainly at low gas flow rates. At higher flow
rates, the flow behavior as evaluated by the mixing time
is not remarkably affected by even deliberate misposi-
tioning of the lance. Again, a robust operation almost
insensitive to regular fluctuations can be expected (see
Table 4).
The availability of a lance designed for powder injec-
tion is an important feature of IR-UT. However, nozzle
Table 3. Comparison of predicted mixing times at different snorkel diam-
eters
(s) no snorkel 45 cm snorkel 34 cm snorkel
31,97 38.66 41.52
Physical modeling simulations
(16) Table 4. Predicted mixing times as a function of the distance between the
lance and bottom of the ladle
(17) Distance lance to bottom of the ladle [cm] [w/kg]
4 6 8 10
[s] 42 42 42 44 0.040
[s] 46 47 47 50 0.028
blockage has been reported in some cases. Because the
(18) lance is positioned far from the reactors longitudinal
axis, a nonsymmetrical flow field could result and this
(19) may pose a problem. A nonsymmetrical flow field is not
a problem by itself. In fact it is usually more efficient for
(20) mixing purposes as shown by trial experiments with the
model. However, some combinations of nozzle block-
(21) age, i.e. number and sequence, can be very detrimental
in this respect.
Assessment of the performance of the tundish of a
6-strand continuous casting unit of Companhia
Siderurgica Belgo-Mineira, Brazil using physical
modeling [21]
This work described the characterization of the perfor-
mance of the tundish of a 6-strand continuous casting
unit of the Companhia Siderurgica Belgo Mineira, Joao
Monlevade, Brazil, using physical modelling. Perma-
nent and transient conditions, due to ladle metal com-
position changes, were considered. For transient con-
ditions, due to ladle change, the degree of intermixing
and the minimum residence time are determined with a
view to optimizing the process. Reduction of the effect
of ladle change requires different approaches. During
ladle changeover the level of metal inside the tundish
decreases to a minimum and then is restored to regu-
lar levels usually by increasing the pouring rate to the
maximum allowed by the ladle/gate assembly. The re-
filling period is characterized by a metal stream of high
kinetic energy, impinging on the slag layer. Partial emul-
sification of the slag happens during this process. Also,
in some instances, vortex formation is significant. These
conditions can lead to slag being drawn into the mold
resulting in a product of low internal soundness. A in-
termix product is the natural result of sequential casting
of different grades. Decreasing the incidence of stream
break-up as well as that of air-molten steel contact
would be fundamental to reducing the levels of metal
reoxidation during ladle changeover operations. Other-
wise macro cleanness and mechanical properties will be
adversely affected in addition to resulting in possibly
smaller aluminium residual contents and higher nitro-
gen contents. Slag entraining is also a factor contribut-
[w/kg] ing to mold metal contamination because a heavy slag
cover can result in the tundish during sequential cast-
0.04
ing. Experiments suggested that the thermal gradient is
349
Seshadri et al.

the cause of flow reversal when high-temperature steel

from a new ladle interacts with the cold metal of the
previous ladle. This behaviour is also dependent upon
the combination of buoyancy forces, inertial forces and
geometrical parameters and has been the object of many
investigations. The problems cited during the transients
can be resolved to some extent by increasing the tundish
working volume if there is a possibility. Generally, loss of
material quality is ascribed to inclusions resulting from
free pouring and excessive refilling rates and also to in-
termix produced by a slow transition between different
grades. Increasing the working volume should normally
enhance inclusion entrapment and intermix generation.
Ideally, a product mix should allow one to reduce or Fig. 18. Parameters for evaluating flow performance.
eliminate the transitional plate (or bloom, or billet). For
some applications the inclusion counting can be not Table 6. Values for transient isothermal ladle change
quite important. So an optimal design is to be aimed Average each pair of strands
at by each plant and the results of physical modelling 13 tons; 2Q o #1, # 6 # 2, # 5 #3, # 4
T min (s) 91.71( 10) 62.68(4) 11.54(1)
can make important contributions in this respect. The fo- intermix (ton) 2.48( 0.38) 1.05( 0.39) 0.38(0,04)
cus of this work was to generate a relationship between (ton/min) 0.34 0.34 0,.4
geometry/operational parameters and the metallurgi- Average for each pair of strands
17,8 tons, 2Q o #1, #6 #2, #5 #3, #4
cal behaviour of a 6-strand billet casting machine. The T min (s) 167.75(17) 89.36(12) 24.04(4)
acceptable conditions for a steady-state operation were Intermix(ton) 3.32(0,52) 1.72(0,17) 0.50(0,08)
determined by a comparison between a tundish without (ton/min) 0.34 0.33 0.34
Average for each pair of strands
any sort of flow modifiers and a tundish with modifiers.
13 tons, 3Q o #1, #6 #2, # 5 #3, #4
The recommended configuration can then be applied Tmin (s) 81.86(9) 45.33(4) 8.40(1)
to transient experiments related to ladle changeover. In intermix (ton) 2.21(0.22) 1.27(0.13) 0,25(0,05)
addition to geometry the effects of the rate of refilling, (ton/min) 0.34 0.34 0.34
Average values for each pair of strands
minimum level of metal, thermal gradient and casting 17,8 tons, 3Q o #1, #6 #2, #5 # 3, # 4
rate have also been assessed. T min (s) 112.39(13) 50.11(6) 13.64(1)
A 1:3 plexiglass model of the tundish of the 6-billets intermix (ton) 4.19(0,65) 1.96(0.43) 0.93(0.11)
(ton/min) 0.34 0.34 0.34
continuous casting machine of Belgo Mineira SA, Joao
Monlevade, Brazil was built using similarity criteria. It
is a tee-shaped tundish, with 28 tons of nominal capac-
The working level is recovered by refilling at refilling ra-
ity operating at 2.10 tons/min. The experimental set up
tios of 2 or 3, as compared with the nominal throughput.
includes flow meters for cold and hot inflow streams
The graph presented here is an idealized one; the actual
as well as at each strand; conducivity measurements at
curves can show a short circuit, especially if flow rever-
each strand in the cold model. Data acquisition is made
sal is present as in the case for some nonisothermal tran-
through an A/D board. Similarity criteria for isothermal
sients. The reference time, zero, for the experiment was
flow are presented in Table 5. As far as nonisothermal
taken to be the instant when the inflow is stopped. From
flow is concerned the similarity criterion T.) steel =
then on, the liquid level decreases during a time interval
T.) water was obeyed.
called draining interval, t D , from the nominal working
A step tracer addition technique has been adopted
volume V T to a minimum V MIN . V MIN is reached at t =
and S-type cumulative curves have arisen (see Fig. 18).
t D when refilling starts at refilling ratio f ,
As shown the liquid volume is allowed to decrease to

13 tons or 17.8 tons from the working volume of 28 tons. Q0 = f. Qi . (22)

Parameters and time interval used for flow character-

Table 5. Similarity criteria for isothermal flow ization were defined from t = t D . A minimum residence
Ratios for model/prototype conversion time, t 2%, was defined as the time interval required for
Dimension Area Volume Velocity Flow Time a 2% level of transition to be reached from t D . The mix-
ing of steel from ladles cast sequentially should be the
2 3 1/2 5/2 1/2
cause of intermix production. Twenty percent and 70%

350
 Physical modeling simulations

transition measured at the normalized concentration Internal strands:

curve have been set as lower and upper boundary for the
intermix production. Time intervals are, respectively, t ID t2% = 181.003 57.04 f + 19.66VMIN r 2 = 70, (34)
and t FD . The intermix was evaluated as

Di = (tF D tI D )Qi . (23) D = 3.99 + 0.967 f + 0.081VMIN r 2 = 81. (35)

The average values for the transient isothermal (i.e. for
a hypothetical operation where there would be no tem-
perature difference between the incoming and outgoing
ladles) simulations are presented in Table 5 (figures in
parenthesis are for 95% confidence interval).
The effects of refilling ratio, throughput, working vol-
ume, minimum level during ladle changeover, and ge-
ometry were assessed as follows. Minimum residence
times are (much) smaller for transient conditions as com-
pared with steady-state operations. Minimum residence
times are smaller for the higher refilling rate and the
smaller minimum level of liquid. Transition for the in-
ternal strands is sharper than transition for the external
strands. The level of influence varies according to the
strand location and each should be analysed separately.
Stepwise multiregression resulted in following corre-
lations for transient isothermal.
External strands:
t2% = 25.70 33.20 f + 11.10VMIN r 2 = 71, (24)
D = 2.45 + 0.383 f + 0.295VMIN r 2 = 51. (25)
Intermediate strands:
t2% = 86.70 29.80 f + 3.24VMIN r 2 = 71, (26)
Comparison between isothermal and nonisothermal
data shows a smaller degree of confidence for intermedi-
ate strands t 2% estimates. Flow reversal was observed in
some nonisothermal experiments and that was charac-
terized by short circuit at strands 3 and 4, which should
result in a certain degree of uncertainty of minimum
residence time at these strands.
With respect to the minimum residence time during
ladle change-over transient it is necessary to remember
that in some cases the free stream of steel impinging over
the slag cover could promote slag emulsification. In this
case the issue is not inclusion flotation but rather the
dispersing of the emulsion. In that sense larger values
of minimum residence time are favourable.
The optimisation of internal design parameters of
tundish should lead to maximizing the minimum res-
idence time; that would improve the efficiency of inclu-
sion flotation or emulsification dispersion. Minimizing
intermix production would also be a goal.
The effects of flow obstacles geometry vary according
to the strands, especially in the tee-shaped tundish.
The transition for internal strands was sharper than
the transition for external strands; the relationships be-
tween minimum residence time and minimum level of
liquid, refilling rate were evaluated.

D = 0.87 + 0.189 f + 0.125VMIN r 2 = 35. (27)

Conclusions
The use of a physical or cold model to simulate processes
Internal strands: of high temperatures is attractive as it can be done with
t2% = 4.73 6.57 f + 1.68VMIN r 2 = 82, (28) ease and at low cost using principles of similarity. Ex-
periments can be conducted with great flexibility vary-
ing many important parameters of the process. Low re-
D = 1.17 + 0.167 f + 0.081VMIN r 2 = 63. (29)
search cost and noninterference in the operation rhythm
Experimental data were also available for nonisother- of the industrial installation are additional advantages.
mal transient conditions, T = 20 C. Stepwise multiple Even a mathematical model simulating the operation
regression results in the following correlations. at an industrial scale can be first tested in the physical
External strands: model.. The examples cited above were the fruit of ac-
tive collaboration between industry and university in
t2% = 98.78 8.44 f + 1.87VMIN r 2 = 59, (30) the field of modelling, where both parties have gained;
the industry in terms of improving and optimising ex-
D = 1.78 + 0.84 f + 0.166VMIN r 2 = 75. (31) isting process parameters and the university in terms of
academic contributions.
Intermediate strands:

t2% = 155.93 9.61 f + 0.742VMIN r 2 = 36, (32) Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the respective steel compa-
D = 4.183 + 0.551 f + 0.205VMIN r = 81.
2
(33) nies in Brazil for sponsoring the projects and also

351
Seshadri et al.
financing institutions such as CNPq and FAPEMIG in
Brazil.
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Address:
Varadarajan Seshadri
Department of Metallurgical Engg and Materials
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais
Rua Espiritosanto 35
Belohorizonte
Brazil
E-mail: seshadri@demet.ufmg.br