3.

1 Pressure:

Definition

Pressure results from normal compressive force acting on an area. Where, F is the normal
force acting over the area A. Pressure is a scalar quantity; it has magnitude only and acts
equally in all directions.

Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Horizontal Surfaces:

If a plane surface immersed in a fluid is horizontal, then Hydrostatic pressure is uniform over
the entire surface. The resultant force acts at the centroid of the plane.

If a plane surface immersed in a fluid is not horizontal, then

Hydrostatic pressure is linearly distributed over the surface.

The magnitude and location of the resultant force are obtained by a more general
type of analysis.

Consider the plane surface AB immersed in a liquid and inclined at angle to the liquid
surface as shown in figure above.

Hydrostatic Forces on Vertical Plane Surface:

Vertical Plane surface submerged in liquid

Consider a vertical plane surface of some arbitrary shape immersed in a liquid of mass
density as shown in Figure below:
 h C.P. h
h
b

G
C
P dh

End View Elevation

Let, A = Total area of the surface

h = Depth of Centroid of the surface from the free surface G =

Centroid of the immersed surface
C = Centre of pressure
h C.P. = Depth of centre of pressure
Consider a rectangular strip of breadth b and depth dy at a depth y from the free surface.
Total Pressure:

The pressure intensity at a depth y acting on the strip is p = gh

Total pressure force on the strip = dP = (gh)dA

The Total pressure force on the entire area is given by integrating the above expression
over the entire area P = dP = (gh)dA= g h dA Eq.(1)
But y dA is the Moment of the entire area about the free surface of the liquid given by

hdA = Ah
Substituting in Eq.(1), we get P = gAh = Ah Eq.(2)

Where is the specific weight of Water,

For water, =1000 kg/m3 and g = 9.81 m/s2. The force will be expressed in Newtons (N)

Solved Examples:
Q.1 A large tank of sea water has a door in the side 1 m square. The top of the door is 5 m below
the free surface. The door is hinged on the bottom edge. Calculate the force required at the top to
3
keep it closed. The density of the sea water is 1033 kg/m .
Solution: The total hydrostatic force F = sea water A h c

sea
water = 1033 x9.81 = 10133 .73 N / m 3
Given A = 1m X 1m = 1m2
1
h c = 5 + 2 = 5.5m

F = 10133 .73 X1X 5.5 = 55735 .5 N

Acting at centre of pressure (yc.p):

From the above hc = 5.5m, A =

(I ) BD3 1X13
c xx = =
12 12

h (Ic )xx
C.P. = h c + Ahc
1m2

= 0.08333m 4

0.08333
= 5.5 + = 5.515m
1X5.5
Distance of Hydrostatic force (F) from the bottom of the hinge = 6-5.515 = 0.48485m
The force P required at the top of gate (1m from the hinge)
PX1 = FX0.48485 = 55735.5X0.48485
P = 27023.4 N = 27.023 kN

Q.2 Calculate the total hydrostatic force and location of centre of pressure for a circular plate of
2.5 m diameter immersed vertically in water with its top edge 1.5 m below the oil

surface (Sp. Gr.=0.9)

Solution:

D 2 22 h y = 2.75m
A= 4
= 4
= 4.91 m2
Assume 2.5 m C

= 0 . 9X1000=900 kg/m 3 ,g=9 . 8 m/s 2

oil = 900 X 9.81 = 8829 N / m3

hc = 2 .7 5 m
We know that the total pressure force is given b y F
F = o i l A h c = 8829 x 4 . 91 x 2 . 75 = 238184 N = 238 . 184 kN
Cen tre of Pressu re:
The C entre of pressure is given b y
(I )
h c x x
C.P. = h c + Ah c
R
4
1.25 4
Ig = 4 = 4 = 1.9175 m 4

1.9175
h
C.P. = 2.75 + 4.91 2.75 = 2.892 m
Hydrostatic Force on a submerged surface:

The other important utility of the hydrostatic equation is in the determination of force
acting upon submerged bodies. Among the innumerable applications of this is the force
calculation in storage tanks, ships, dams etc.

Figure 3.4 : Force upon a submerged object

First consider a planar arbitrary shape submerged in a liquid as shown in the figure. The
plane makes an angle with the liquid surface, which is a free surface. The depth of water
over the plane varies linearly. This configuration is efficiently handled by prescribing a
coordinate frame such that the y-axis is aligned with the submerged plane. Consider an
infinitesimally small area at a (x,y). Let this small area be located at a depth from the free
surface. dA = dx.dy

Differential Force acting on the differential area dA of plane,

dF (Pressure) (Area) (h)

(dA) (Perpendicular to plane)
Then, Magnitude of total resultant force FR
F
R y sin
A hdA A dA Where h y sin

sin ydA 1st moment of the area
A
- Related with the center of area
ydA yc
A A where yc: y coordinate of the center of area (Centroid)

c.f. Center or 1st moment

ydm
xdm MX C MYC
M & M (XC & YC: Center of Mass)

xdA ydA
A = xc & A = yc (xc & yc: Center of Area)

Moment of inertia or 2nd moment

r 2dm I
M (2nd moment of Mass)

A y 2dA Ix &
A x2dA Iy (2nd moment of Area)
Then,

FR = Ayc sin = ( h c )A

hc
Where : Pressure at the centroid = (Pressure at the centroid) Area
- Magnitude of a force on an INCLINED plane

- Dependent on , Area, and Depth of centroid
- Perpendicular to the surface (Direction)

i) Position of FR on y-axis yR : y coordinate of the point of action of FR

Moment about x axis:

FR y R (Ayc sin ) yR A ydF A

2
sin y dA sin A y 2dA

I y
Ah 2 dA Ix where x A
2dA
h = = : 2nd moment of area
R
h c Ah c A

Ix I xc
Ay 2
or, by using the parallel-axis theorem, c

o
IG Sin 2
h =h+
C.P.
Ah

(The centre of pressure below the centroid)

Worked Examples
Q.4 . A rectangular plate 1.5m x 3.0m is submerged in water and makes an angle of 60 with
the horizontal, the 1.5m sides being horizontal. Calculate the magnitude of the force on the
plate and the location of the point of application of the force, with reference to the top edge of
the plate, when the top edge of the plate is 1.2m below the water surface.

Solution:
1.2 60
h= + 1.5 = 1.386 + 1.5 = 2.886m 1.2m
sin 60
h
A = 3m X 1.5m = 4.5m2
h = y sin 60 = 2.886 sin 60 = 2.499m x

F ghA 1000 9.81 2.499 3 1.5 xp 1.5m

F 109.92 103 N 109.92 kN

a
I G Sin 2 60 o
h C.P. = h +
Ah
CG

CP 3.0m
 32
h = 2.886 + = 2.886 + 0.260 = 3.146 m
C. P . 12 2.886
From the top edge of the plate, a 3.146 1.386 1.760m

PROPERTIES OF PLANE SECTIONS

Mome nt of Produc t of
Ge ometry Centroid Inertia Inertia A rea
I xx I xy

3
y b L bL
L
x 2 , 2 0 bL
12
b

y
4

x
2R 0,0 R 0 R2
4

L b L bL3 b 2L2 bL
y

x 3, 3 36 72 2
b

y 4R 4 8 R 2

a x 0,a R 0
R 3 8 9 2
s
2
3 b b2s L

L bL 1
y L a bL
x 3 36 72 2
b

y R 4R 4 1 4 R 2
4 4
x a R R

3 16 9 8 9 4
b
 1

h b 2b 3 2 2

y 1 h b 4 bb 1 b1 h
x a 0 b b1
h
3 b b1 36 b b1
2
b

Fl ui d Speci fic Weight

3 3 3 3
1bf/ft N /m 1bf /ft N /m
Air .0752 11.8 Seawater 64.0 10,050

Oil 57.3 8,996 Glycerin 78.7 12,360

Water 62.4 9,790 Mercury 846. 133,100

49.2 7,733 Carbon 99.1 15,570
Ethyl

5 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces

Since this class of surface is curved, the

direction of the force is different at each
location on the surface.

Therefore, we will evaluate the x and y

components of net hydrostatic force separately.

Consider curved surface, a-b. Force balances

in x & y directions yield

Fh = FH

F =W +W + W
v air 1 2

From this force balance, the basic rules for determining the horizontal and vertical
component of forces on a curved surface in a static fluid can be summarized as follows:

3.5.1 Horizontal Component, Fh

The horizontal component of force on a curved surface equals the force on the plane
 area formed by the projection of the curved surface onto a vertical plane normal to
the component.

The horizontal force will act

a a
h
through the c.p. (not the centroid) cg
Projected vertical
of the projected area. plane
y Curved
cp
F cp surface
h
b b

Lecture-1

INTRODUCTION:

Fluid Kinematics is primarily interested in the flow fields like velocity v f ( x, y, z, t ) , acceleration etc

and mass flow field m f ( x, y, z, t ) while accompanying rotations effects.

Fluid kinematics is a branch of fluid mechanics, which deals with time and space
relationship like Displacement, velocity, accelerations, rotation of fluid particles, without the concern
of forces/energies causing them (like pressure energy, kinetic energy or potential energy) and
describes the motion of fluids without necessarily considering the forces and moments that cause the
motion. I.e. fluid kinematics tries to describe flow processes in field variables.
The motion of fluids can be described by two methods namely Lagrangian method and
Eulerian method. Lagrangian method analyses any particular selected fluid particle, through out its
motion in space, where as Eulerian method analyses any fluid particle in space, at that point of
location of fluid particle.
In this chapter, we adopt Eulerian method and introduce several kinematic concepts related to
flowing fluids. We discuss the description of fluid flows and various ways to visualize flow fields
streamlines, streak lines, path lines etc.

Fluids when in motion has several parameters coming into action, having time and space
relationship like Displacement, velocity, accelerations and rate of rotation of fluid particles etc which
need to be analyzed for knowing the types of fluid and their behaviors, which is done in Fluid
kinematics. To simplify the analysis, Fluid kinematics does not consider the forces and energies that
cause these parameters behavioral aspects and their impacts.
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATIONS OF A FLUID IN MOTION:

Consider a fluid particle P moving in space with

velocity v f ( x, y, z, t ) . If the origin axis along X, Y, Z
at time t is moved to the new particle location at time
(t+dt), making the particle location as new location of
the origin, then new axes becomes i , j , k where i , j ,
k are the unit vectors parallel to the X, Y, Z axes and with velocity components u , v , w along the
original X, Y, Z axes, as shown in figure beside.

As the velocity is a function of space and time, the components u, v, w with respect to time, can
u f x, y , z , t

be given as v f x, y, z , t (4.0)
w f x, y , z , t

The partial derivate of the velocity components can be written as

u u u u
du x dx y dy z dz t dt

v v v v
dv dx dy dz dt (4.1)
x y z t
w w w w
dw dx dy dz dt
x y z t

If let the velocity components u, v, z be along the X , Y , Z axis respectively, then

dx dy dz
u ,v ,z (4.2)
dt dt dt

So velocity vector V and magnitude V with respect to its components can be written as

V ui vj wk (4.2a )
V u 2 v 2 w2 (4..2b)

Acceleration is a measure of how the velocity of an object is changing over time. It can be found by
computing the difference in velocities at initial and later times and dividing that by the difference in
time.

Spatial Acceleration components ax , a y , az with

respect to time be given as

du dv dw
ax , a y , az (4.3)
dt dt dt

Since acceleration is the rate of change of velocity,

substituting Eq:(4.2) in Eq:(4.3) We have

u dx u dy u dz u dt
ax x dt y dt z dt t dt

v dx v dy v dz v dt
ay
x dt y dt z dt t dt
w dx w dy w dz w dt
az
x dt y dt z dt t dt
 u u u u
ax u x v y w z t

v v v v dx dy dz
ay u v w (4.4) sin ce u ,v , z
x y z t dt dt dt
w w w w
az u v w
x y z t

From Eq:(4.4) it can be generalized that the spatial tangential acceleration vectors and magnitude
V V
as V s t
as as (4.5)
a a a a
2 2 2
s x y z

Or

V V V V
as u x v y w z t
(4.5a)
as a x a y a z
2 2 2

V V
Where V is Convective acceleration and is local acceleration.
s t

So the total acceleration a is a combination of spatial tangential as and normal acceleration an , as

V2
shown in figure above. I.e. a as an (4.6) where an
r

V V V 2
I.e. Total acceleration a V (4.7)
s t r

Example.4.1: The velocity field in a fluid medium is given by V 3xy 2i 2xyj 2zy 3t k . Find
magnitudes and directions of translation velocity and acceleration at point P 1, 2,1,3 .

Solution: Given data: V 3xy 2i 2xyj 2zy 3t k and P 1, 2,1,3

From the given equation, Velocity components will be

u 3xy2 , v 2xy, w 2zy 3t

3xy 2xy 2zy 3t

2 2 2
Magnitude of translation velocity will be V
2

3*1*4 2*1*2 2*1*2 3*3

2
V1,2,1,3 13.6m / s
2 2

Direction of translation velocity will be V 3xy 2i 2 xyj 2 zy 3t k

V 1,2,1,3 3*1* 4i 2*1* 2 j 2*1* 2 3*3 k

V 1,2,1,3 12i 4 j 5k

V V V V
Spatial Acceleration as u v w
x y z t

V
3xy 2 i 2 xyj 2 zy 3t k 3 y 2i 2 yj
x x

V
3xy 2i 2 xyj 2 zy 3t k 6 xyi 2 xj 2 zk
y y

V
3xy 2 i 2 xyj 2 zy 3t k 2 yk
z z

V
3xy 2 i 2 xyj 2 zy 3t k 3k
t t

So spatial acceleration will become

as 3xy 2 3 y 2i 2 yj 2 xy 6 xyi 2 xj 2 zk 2 zy 3t 2 yk 3k

as 9 xy 4i 6 xy 3 j 12 x 2 y 2i 4 x 2 yj 4 xyzk 4 zy 2 k 6tyk 3k
as 9 xy 4 12 x 2 y 2 i 6 xy 3 4 x 2 y j 4 xyz 4 zy 2 6ty 3 k

as 1,2,1,3 9*1* 24 12*12 * 22 i 6*1* 23 4*12 * 2 j 4*1* 2*1 4*1* 2 2 6*3* 2 3 k

as 1,2,1,3 192i 56 j 15k

as 1,2,1,3 1922 562 152 200.56m / s 2

Example.4.2: The velocity field in a fluid medium is given by V 10 xyi 5 x 2 j z xt 2 k . Find

magnitudes and directions of translation velocity and acceleration at point P 1, 2,3,1 .

Solution: Given data: V 10 xyi 5 x 2 j z xt 2 k and P 1, 2,3,1

From the given equation, Velocity components will be

u 10 xy, v 5 x 2 , w z xt 2

Magnitude of translation velocity will be V u v w

2 2 2

V1,2,3,1 10*1* 2 5*1*1 3 1*1*1 21m / s

2 2 2

Direction of translation velocity will be V 10 xyi 5 x 2 j z xt 2 k

V 1,2,1,3 10*1* 2i 5*1*1 j 3 1*1*1 k

V 1,2,1,3 20i 5 j 4k
 V V V V
Spatial Acceleration as u v w
x y z t

V

x x

10 xyi 5 x 2 j z xt 2 k 10 yi 10 xj t 2 k

V

y y

10 xyi 5 x 2 j z xt 2 k 10 xi
V

z z

10 xyi 5 x 2 j z xt 2 k k
V

t t

10 xyi 5 x 2 j z xt 2 k 2txk
So spatial acceleration will become

as 10 xy 10 yi 10 xj t 2 k 5 x 2 10 xi z xt 2 k 2txk

as 100 xy 2 i 100 yx 2 j 10 xyt 2 k 50 x 3i zk xt 2 k 2txk

as 100 xy 2 50 x3 i 100 yx 2 j 10 xyt 2 z xt 2 2tx k

as 1,2,,1 100*1* 22 50*13 i 100* 2*12 j 10*1* 2*12 3 1*12 2*1*1 k

as 1,2,3,1 450i 200 j 26k

as 1,2,3,1 4502 2002 262 493.1m / s 2

Example.4.3: The velocity field in a fluid medium is given by V 4x3 yi 10x2 y 2 j 2tz k . Find
magnitudes and directions of translation velocity and acceleration at point P 1, 2,3, 2 .

Solution: Given data: V 4x3 yi 10x2 y 2 j 2tz k and P 1, 2,3, 2

From the given equation, Velocity components will be

u 4 x3 y, v 10 x 2 y 2 , w 2tz

Magnitude of translation velocity will be V u v w

2 2 2

V1,2,3,2 4*1* 2 10*1* 4 2* 2*3 42.52m / s

2 2 2

Direction of translation velocity will be V 4 x3 yi 10 x 2 y 2 j 2tz k

V 1,2,3,2 4*1*2i 10*1*4 j 2*2*3k

V 1,2,3,2 8i 40 j 12k
 V V V V
Spatial Acceleration as u v w
x y z t

V
4 x3 yi 10 x 2 y 2 j 2tz k 8 x 2 yi 20 xy 2 j
x x

V
4 x3 yi 10 x 2 y 2 j 2tz k 4 x3i 20 x 2 yj
y y

V
4 x3 yi 10 x 2 y 2 j 2tz k 2tk
z z

V
4 x3 yi 10 x 2 y 2 j 2tz k 2 zk
t t

So spatial acceleration will become

as 4 x3 y 8 x 2 yi 20 xy 2 j 10 x 2 y 2 4 x 3i 20 x 2 yj 2tz 2tk 2 zk

as 32 x5 y 2i 80 x 4 y 3 j 40 x5 y 2i 200 x 4 y 3 j 4t 2 zk 2 zk

as 32 x5 y 2 40 x5 y 2 i 120 x 4 y 3 j 4t 2 z 2 z k

as 1,2,,3,2 32*1*4 40*1*4 i 120*1*8 j 4*4*3 2*3 k

as 1,2,3,1 32i 960 j 54k

as 1,2,3,2 322 9602 542 962.05m / s 2

Example.4.4: The velocity field in a fluid medium is given by V 3x 2 y i 2 z 3x 2 j 2t 3z k .

Find a.) Magnitudes and directions of translation velocity components at any point. b.) Velocity at
point P 1,1,1, 4 c.) Magnitude and direction of Acceleration at point P 1, 2,1,3 d.) Classify the type
of fluid flow.

Solution: Given data: V 3x 2 y i 2 z 3x 2 j 2t 3z k and P 1,1,1, 4

a.) From the given equation, Velocity components will be

u 3x 2 y , v 2 z 3x 2 , w 2t 3z

b.) Magnitude of translation velocity will be V 3x 2 y 2 z 3x 2 2t 3z

2 2 2

3*1 2*1 2*1 3*1 2*4 3*1

2
V1,1,1,4 8.66m / s
2 2

Direction of translation velocity will be V 3xy 2i 2 xyj 2 zy 3t k

V 1,1,1,4 3x 2 y i 2 z 3x 2 j 2t 3z k 3*1 2*1 i 2*1 3*1 j 2*4 3*1 k

V 1,1,1,4 5i 5 j 5k

V V V V
c.) Spatial Acceleration as u v w
x y z t

V

x x

3x 2 y i 2 z 3x 2 j 2t 3z k 3i 6 xj

V

y y

3x 2 y i 2 z 3x 2 j 2t 3z k 2i

V

z z

3x 2 y i 2 z 3x 2 j 2t 3z k 2 j 3k

V

t t
3x 2 y i 2 z 3x j 2t 3z k 2k
2

So spatial acceleration will become as 3x 2 y 3i 6 xj 2 z 3x 2 2i 2t 3z 2 j 3k 2k

as 9 xi 18 x 2 j 6 yi 12 xyj 4 zi 6 x 2i 4tj 6tk 6 zj 9 zk 2k

as 9 x 6 y 4 z 6 x 2 i 18 x 2 12 xy 4t 6 z j 9 z 6t 2 k

as 1,2,1,3 9*1 6*2 4*1 6*1 i 18*1 12*1*2 4*3 6*1 j 9*1 6*3 2 k

as 1,2,1,3 31i 48 j 7k as 1,2,1,3 312 482 72 57.56m / s 2

d.) Classification of the flow:

As the flow is based on time t, it is un-steady.

As the velocity has three velocity components, so it is three dimensional flow.

As the velocity do not change its magnitude with respect to time, so it is Uniform flow.

Example.4.5: The velocity distribution at an entry to a pump intake is inversely proportional to the
square of the radial distance from the inlet to the suction pipe. If the velocity at a radial distance of
2.5m is 0.99m/s, determine the acceleration of flow at 1m, 1.8m from the inlet. Assume the
streamlines to be radial and steady.

Solution: Given data: V C and VL 2.5m 0.99m / s

r2

From the given equation, V C we have C V * r 2 0.99*2.5*2.5 6.18

r2

V V
Acceleration a as an V 0 sin ce an 0
s t
 V
a as an V 0 0 sin ce steady & Radial
s

a V
V C
r
2 *
r r
C
r2 aC
C
r r r
2
2
2C 2 76.4
r5
5
r

76.4
Hence acceleration at r=1m, will be ar 1 76.4m / s 2
15

76.4
r=1.8m, will be ar 1.8 4.04m / s 2
1.85

Negative sign indicates the acceleration towards the intake.

4.1.1.1. Lecture-2

TYPES OF FLUID FLOWS:

When a fluid is flowing from one point to another, the flow behavior may be of any type like

a.) Steady and Un-steady flow.

b.) Rotational or Ir-rotational flow.
c.) Uniform or non-uniform flow.
d.) Laminar or Turbulent flow.
e.) Compressible or Incompressible flow.
STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW: When a fluid flow, have its characteristics like velocity,
pressure, density, temperature etc unchanged with respect to the time then the flow is said to be steady
flow. I.e. when all the time derivatives of fluid flow field vanish, is termed as Steady fluid flow. So
dV dp d
0 (4.8a) and if any one of these characteristics or all the characteristics, changes
dt dt dt
with respect to time then it is said to be Unsteady flow.

dV dp d
I.e. 0 (4.8b)
dt dt dt

ROTATIONAL or IR-ROTATIONAL FLOW: When a fluid flowing, having its fluid particles
rotating, about their mass center, as shown in figure.4.3, then the flow
is said to be rotational flow. E.g. Motion of fluid in a rotating tank,
Flow near the solid boundaries are of rotational.

If the fluid flow does not have rotation of fluid particles about
their mass centers, then it is said to be having Ir-rotational flow.

E.g. Flow above a drain hole of a wash basin.

 Note: If the flow is ir-rotational and as well as steady, then the flow is said to be Potential
Flow.

UNIFORM and NON-UNIFORM FLOW: In a uniform flow, the velocity of fluid particles at any
given time does not change in magnitude and direction, from point to point.

dV
I.e. cons tan t where s represent any direction. E.g.: Flow through a straight pipe with
ds
constant diameter.

Where as in non-uniform flow the velocity changes in magnitude and direction, at any given
dV
time, i.e. cons tan t . E.g.: Flow through a curved pipe with constant diameter, Flow through a
ds
non-prismatic conduit.

LAMINAR and TURBULENT FLOW: In laminar flow, each and every fluid particle moves in a

consistent path without over lapping with other fluid

particles due to which each fluid particle has well-defined paths, as shown in figure:4.4. And its
existence can be predicted by the dimensionless number like Reynolds number Re (if Re 2000 then
the flow is said to be laminar, in a pipe).

Characteristics of Laminar flow are as follows:

1.) No slip at the boundary.

2.) The flow is rotational.

3.) No mixing between different layer molecules of same liquid.

4.) Continuous dissipation of energy due to viscous shear.

E.g.: Flow through capillary tube, flow of blood, under ground flow, Flow of oil in measuring
instruments, Rise of water in plates through their roots, Flow past tiny bodies.

In Turbulent flow, each particle does not move in a consistent path and they try to over lap with other
fluid particles making the flow circulate with eddies formation and due to which each the particles do
not move in well-defined paths, as shown in figure.4.5. And its existence can be predicted by the

dimensionless number like Reynolds number Re (if Re 4000 then the flow is said to be turbulent, in
a pipe).
E.g.: Flow through water supply pipes, sewers.

COMPRESSIBLE or INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW: When a fluid can be compressed by an

external source due to which the density changes (i.e. cons tan t ) from point to point, then the fluid
is said to be compressible fluid.

E.g.: Flow of gasses through orifice, nozzles, turbines etc.

When a fluid cannot be compressed, due to which the density changes (i.e. cons tan t ) from point to
point, then the fluid is said to be Incompressible fluid.

E.g.: all liquids can be treated as Incompressible.

UTYPES OF FLOW LINES:

When a fluid is flowing, the fluid particles follow a path as they travel from point to point. And the
flow paths may be of several differing types, like

a.) Path lines.

b.) Stream lines.
c.) Stream tube.
d.) Streak line.
PATH LINES: Path lines are the lines indicating the path followed by fluid particles or in other
words path line is the curve traced out by a fluid particle
from one point to other point, when in motion. Shown
in figure.4.6 are the path lines traced out by two fluid
particles, P1 and P2.

STREAM LINES: Stream lines are the imaginary lines with in the fluid flow, such that the tangent at
any point on the stream lines indicates
the velocity at that point, as shown in
figure.4.7.

From figure.4.7, we have

v dy
tan i.e.
u dx

dx dy dz
(4.8c)
u v w

E.g.: Observe the picture of Streamlines passing over a car surface.

Example.4.6: Determine the equation of stream line for a two dimensional flow field, having the
i. u 4 xy y 2 , v 6 xy 3x
velocity components as passing through point P(3, 0) .
ii. u 2 x 2 y 2 , v 4 x

Solution: Given data: Stream line passing through point P(3, 0)

 i.) for u 4 xy y 2 , v 6 xy 3x
dx dy
Equation of a stream line for 2 dimensional
u v

dx dy

4 xy y 2
6 xy 3x

6 xy 3x dx 4 xy y 2 dy
3x 2 y 3
3x 2 y 2 xy 2 c
2 3

27
Hence stream line equation at point P(3, 0) , will be c
2

3x 2 y 3 27
3x 2 y 2 xy 2
2 3 2

2 y3
6 x 2 y 3x 2 4 xy 2 27
3

ii.) for u 2 x 2 y 2 , v 4 x
dx dy
Equation of a stream line for 2 dimensional
u v

dx dy

2x y
2 2
4 x

4 x dx 2 x 2 y 2 dy
y 3 2 x3
2x2 c
3 3

Hence stream line equation at point P(3, 0) , will be c 36

y 3 2 x3
2 x 2 36
3 3

Example.4.7: Determine the equation of stream line for a two dimensional flow field, having the
y x
velocity components as u 2
, v 2 passing through point P(a,0) .
b a

Solution: Given data: Stream line passing through point P(a,0)

dx dy
Equation of a stream line for 2 dimensional
u v

dx dy

y x
2 2
b a
 x y
2 dx 2 dy
a b

x2 y2
2
2 c
2a 2b

x2 y 2
2c
a 2 b2

1
Hence stream line equation at point P(a,0) , will be c
2

x2 y 2
1
a 2 b2

Example.4.8: The velocity field in a fluid medium is given by V axi ayj 2az k . Find equation
of stream line at point P 2, 2, 4 .

Solution: Given data: V axi ayj 2az k and P 2, 2, 4

From the given equation, Velocity components will be

u ax, v ay, w 2az

dx dy dz
Equation of a stream line for 3 dimensional
u v w

dx dy dz

ax ay 2az

dx dy
Consider expression of dx and dy only, we have
ax ay

dx dy

ax ay

log e x log e y log e c

x cy

Hence at point P 2, 2, 4 , will be c 1 x y

dx dz
Similarly consider expression of dx and dz only, we have
ax 2az

dx dz

ax 2az

1
log e x log e z log e c
2
c
x
z
 4
Hence at point P 2, 2, 4 , will be c 4 x
z

4
Therefore we get the stream line equation as x y
z

Example.4.9: Determine the equation of stream line for a two dimensional flow field, having the
velocity components as u 2 x3 3 y 2 , v 3x3 4 y 2 passing through point P(2,0) .

Solution: Given data: Stream line passing through point P(2,0) and velocity components as
u 2 x 3 3 y 2 , v 3x 3 4 y 2

dx dy
Equation of a stream line for 2 dimensional
u v

dx dy
3
2x 3 y
3 2
3x 4 y 2

3 x3 4 y 2 dx 2 x 3 3 y 2 dy
3x 4 2 y4 y3
4 y2 x 3 c
4 4 3

3x 4 y4
y3 4 y 2 x c
4 2

Hence stream line equation at point P(2,0) , will be c 12

3x 4 y4
y3 4 y 2 x 12 0
4 2

Example.4.10: Determine the equation of stream line for a two dimensional flow field, having the
velocity components as u x 2 y 2 , v x 2 y 2 passing through point P(3,3) .

Solution: Given data: Stream line passing through point P(3,3) and velocity components as
u x y , v x2 y 2
2 2

dx dy
Equation of a stream line for 2 dimensional
u v

dx dy

x2 y 2 x2 y 2

x 2 y 2 dx x 2 y 2 dy

x3 y 3 x3 y 3
c
3 3 3 3

2 y3
c
3
Hence stream line equation at point P(3,3) , will be c 18

y 3

STREAM TUBE: Steam tube is a group of stream lines bounded on a fluid mass and so the shapes of
steam tube vary with respect to the fluid mass flow. As the stream tube is
comprised of steam lines only, the fluids have only tangential velocity
component and no chance of having normal velocity components and
hence there will be no obstacle for a fluid to enter or exit from a pipe.

E.g.: Fluid entering or leaving a pipe line, fluid leaving a nozzle.

STREAK LINE: A Streak line is the locus of fluid particles that have passed sequentially through a
prescribed point in the flow and so Streak lines are the curves which
shows the instantaneous picture of the location of the fluid particles,
passed through a given point.

E.g.: 1.) The path taken by color dye, sprayed on to an

automotive vehicle.

2.) The path taken by smoke coming out of a chimney.

Note: For steady flow, streamlines, path lines and streak lines are identical.

CONTINUITY EQUATION: Continuity equation is based on the conservation of mass (i.e. mass
can be neither be created nor destroyed). Continuity equation states that The mass of fluid is same
at any section, along any length of a pipe, unless some fluid is added or removed from the pipe.

Consider a pipe of non-uniform diameters D1 , D2 at the inlet and outlet respectively and length
of the pipe be L .

Let 1 , A1 ,V1 and 2 , A2 ,V2 be density, cross section area, velocity of fluid respectively at inlet section
11 and outlet section 2-2
respectively, as shown in
figure.4.10.

As per the continuity

equation, mass flow rate remains
constant at any section in a pipe,
along a length, unless some fluid is
added or removed from the pipe. So in
unit time the mass flow rates at inlet

m1 and outlet section m2 are same

and hence m1 m2 .

m1 1 AV Kg
Where 1 1 and m2 2 A2V2 and have units s
.

I.e. 1 AV
1 1 2 A2V2 (4.9)

Eq:(4.9) is applicable to compressible fluids like gases, due to the reason that the density is not
constant for gases (i.e. 1 2 ) .

If density is constant (I.e. 1 2 ) as in case of incompressible fluids like liquids, then Eq. :( 4.9)
1 1 A2V2 AV cons tan t .
reduces to AV

i.e. Q AV (4.10)

Where the product of area and velocity is termed as Discharge or volume rate of flow Q and has
3
units m s .

Example.4.11: Assuming no losses, determine the diameter of a water jet traveling a height of 5m
vertically, from an exit of a vertical nozzle having exit diameter of 0.04m and the velocity of jet
leaving the nozzle is 15m/s.
Solution: Given data: d1 0.04m,V1 15m / s, h 5m

Using fundamental formulae of physics, we know that V 2 u 2 2 gh

Hence the taking the velocity of jet from the nozzle as the initial velocity, we have

V 2 V12 2 gh

V 2 152 2*9.81*5
V 17.97m / s

As per continuity equation, we have Q AV

1 1 A2V2

AV
A 1 1
V

*0.042 *15
*d2 0.001048
4 4*17.97
d 0.065m

Hence the diameter of the jet at a height of 5m is 0.065m.

Example.4.12: A pipe line 60cm in diameter has water flow in it at a velocity of 4m/s and it suddenly
expands to a pipe diameter of 80cm up to some length and then the flow Bifurcates to a Y-junction
into two branches 40cm and 30cm diameter (as shown in figure.4.11) such that the velocity of flow in
branched pipe of 30cm diameter has 7.5m/s, determine the discharge through the 40cm diameter pipe
and also velocity of flow in the 40cm diameter pipe.
Solution: Given data: d1 0.6m, d2 0.8m, d3 0.4m, d4 0.3m,V1 4.0m / s,V4 7.5m / s

As per continuity equation, we have Q AV

1 1
 *0.62 * 4
Q1 AV
1 1 1.1m3 / s
4

As the discharge through the 60cm diameter pipe is let to flow into the pipe diameter of 80cm, the
discharge Q2 Q1 1.1m3 / s

*0.32 *7.5
Similarly as per continuity equation, we have Q4 A4V4 0.529m3 / s
4

*0.32
Q3 A3V3 *7.5 0.529m3 / s
4

And also we know Q2 Q3 Q4

1.1 0.529 Q4
Q4 0.57 m3 / s

As per continuity equation, we have Q4 A4V4

Q4 0.57 * 4
V4 4.54m / s
A4 *0.42

Hence the discharge and velocity through 40cm diameter pipe are 0.57m3 / s, 4.54m / s respectively.

Example.4.13: A pipe line 60cm in diameter Bifurcates at a Y-junction into two branches 40cm and
30cm diameter. If the rate of flow in main pipe is 1.5m3/s and mean velocity of flow in 30cm
diameter pipe is 7.5m/s, determine the rate of flow in the 40cm diameter pipe.
Solution: Given data: d1 0.6m, d 2 0.4m, d3 0.3m, Q1 1.5m3 / s,V3 7.5m / s

As per continuity equation, we have Q AV

1 1

4*1.5
V1 Q 5.3m / s
A1 *0.62

Similarly as per continuity equation, we have Q3 A3V3

*0.32
Q3 A3V3 *7.5 0.529m3 / s
4

And also we know Q1 Q2 Q3

1.5 Q2 0.529
Q2 0.97 m3 / s

Hence the discharge through 40cm diameter pipe is 0.97m3 / s .

Example.4.14: Water flows in a circular pipe which

decreases in diameter from 500mm at point 1 to
400mm at point 2. Then pipe then splits into two
branches of diameters 0.25m and 0.3m discharging at
3 and 4 respectively )as shown in figure.4.13). If the
velocity at 1 is 1.5m/s and at 2.0m/s at 1 and 4 respectively, what are the discharges at 3 and 4 and the
velocities at 2 and 3?

Solution:

d1 0.5m, d 2 0.4m
Given data: d3 0.25m, d 4 0.3m
V1 1.5m / s,V4 2.0m / s

Bottom of the vessel at the edge is z1 0, r1 0.15m

Point Diameter d Area A Velocity V Discharge Q AV Remarks

M m2 m/s m3/s
1 0.5 0.196 1.50 0.294
2 0.4 0.125 2.35 0.294 AV
1 1 A2V2

3 0.25 0.049 3.10 0.152 AV

1 1 A3V3 A4V4

4 0.3 0.071 2.0 0.142

a.) UCONTINUITY EQUATION IN CARTESIAN COORDINATEUS:

Consider a small elemental parallopiped of dimensions dx, dy, dz , as shown in figure.4.11 and let the
velocity components along x, y, z axes be u, v, w respectively.

Let the mass rate entered into the parallopiped from the face ABCD along x-axis be m x . I

i.e. m xI x AxVx

mxI dy * dz u (4.11a)

Let the mass rate leaving the parallopiped from the face EFGH along x-axis be m x . o

i.e. m xO x AxVx
x
x AxVx dx

Where
x
x AxVx dx is the mass already existing in
the parallopiped.

* dy * dz * u
m xO dy * dz u dx (4.11b)
x

Hence total mass accumulated per unit time along X-axis be m x m xi m xo

u
mx dx * dy * dz (4.12a)
x
Similarly the difference in mass rate left and entered into the parallopiped from the faces
v
BCEF , ADGH along Y-axis respectively is m y dx * dy * dz (4.12b)
y

Similarly the difference in mass rate left and entered into the parallopiped from the faces
w
ABEH , DCFG along Z-axis respectively is m z dx * dy * dz (4.12c)
z

So, Total gain in fluid mass per unit time along the three X, Y, Z axes be m

Where m is equal to sum of all the equations Eq :(4.12a) +Eq:(4.12b)+Eq:(4.12c)

u v w
i.e. m dx * dy * dz (4.13)
x y z

m
Let Rate of change of mass of parallopiped be
dt

m * dx * dy * dz m
i.e. (4.14) Since * volume
dt dt dt dt

As the parallopiped is same Eq :(4.14) must be equal to the Eq:(4.11)

* dx * dy * dz u v w
i.e. dx * dy * dz
dt x y z

* dx * dy * dz u v w
dx * dy * dz 0 (4.15)
dt x y z

By taking the volume of parallopiped dx * dy * dz as common term, we get

u v w
(4.16)
dt x y z

Eq :(4.16) is the General equation for Continuity in three dimensional form and is applicable for
any type of flow. And hence any possible flow should satisfy the continuity equation.

d
If the flow is steady 0 , 3-Dimensional and incompressible flow cons tan t then we get
dt

u v w
0 (4.16a)
x y z

d w
If the flow is steady 0 , 2-Dimensional 0 and incompressible flow cons tan t then we
dt dz
u v
get 0 (4.16b)
x y
 d v w
If the flow is steady 0 , 1-Dimensional 0 and incompressible flow cons tan t then
dt y dz
u Q
we get 0 u cons tan t ,
x A

Q Area *Velocity (4.16c)

Example.4.15: A conical pipe diverges uniformly from 125mm to 210mm diameter of length 1.5m.
Determine acceleration at the mid section, when the rate of flow is 0.16 m3 / s and is constant through
out.

Solution: Given data: d1 0.125m, d 2 0.21m, Q 0.16m3 / s, L 1.5m

Diameter at any section on the conical diverging pipe can be given by

d d1
d x d1 2 x
L

d x 0.125 0.0567 x

Q 4Q 0.203
We know velocity Vx
Ax 0.125 0.0567 x 2
0.125 0.0567 x
2

As this problem is of one dimensional and steady state, we have spatial acceleration as

V
as u
x

0.203 0.203
as
0.125 0.0567 x
2

x 0.125 0.0567 x 2

0.0412 1
as *
0.125 0.0567 x
2
x 0.125 0.0567 x 2

1 1
as 0.0824*0.0567 0.00467
0.125 0.0567 x
5
0.125 0.0567 x
5

1
Acceleration at mid section as x 0.75 0.00467 35.46m / s 2
0.125 0.0567 *0.75 5

Example.4.16: For steady, incompressible flow, verify whether the following values of u and v are
possible:

i. u 4 xy y 2 , v 6 xy 3x
ii. u 2 x 2 y 2 , v 4 xy
Solution: Given data: Steady, in-compressible flow.

For steady, in-compressible flow to be possible, the continuity equation must be satisfied and hence
u v
0
x y

a.) for u 4 xy y 2 , v 6 xy 3x
u v u v
4 y, 6 x and so 4 y 6x 0
x y x y

And hence the flow is not possible.

b.) for u 2 x 2 y 2 , v 4 xy
u v u v
4 x, 4 x and so 4 y 4x 0
x y x x

And hence the flow is possible.

Example.4.17: The u and v components of velocity in a three dimensional flow are given by
u x 2 z 2 , v y 2 z 2 . Find the simplest z component of velocity that satisfies the continuity
equation.

Solution: Given data: 3-Dimensional continuity equation satisfies.

u v w
For satisfying 3-D continuity equation 0
x y z

u v u v w w
And hence 2 x, 2 y and so 2x 2 y 0
x y x y z z

w
2x 2 y
z

w 2 x 2 y z
w 2 xz 2 yz

Hence the Z-component of velocity is w 2xz 2 yz

Example.4.18: The v and w components of velocity in a three dimensional flow are given by
v ax3 by 2 cz 2 , w bx3 cy 2 az 2 x . Find the simplest u component of velocity that satisfies the
continuity equation.

Solution: Given data: 3-Dimensional continuity equation satisfies, velocity components

v ax3 by 2 cz 2 , w bx3 cy 2 az 2 x

u v w
For satisfying 3-D continuity equation 0
x y z
 v w
And hence 2by, 2azx
y z

u v w u
So 2by 2azx 0
x y z x

u
2by 2azx
x

u 2by 2azx x

azx 2
u 2bxy
2

azx 2
Hence the U-component of velocity is u 2bxy
2

Example.4.19: Given u xy, v 2 yz . Examine whether these velocity components represent 2-D or 3-
Dimensional Incompressible continuity flow. If it is 3-Dimensional, determine the third velocity
component.

Solution: Given data: u xy, v 2 yz

u v
For 2 dimensional flows, the continuity equation will be 0
x y

u v u v
And hence y, 2 z and so y 2z 0
x y x y

And hence the flow is not 2 dimensional.

u v w
For satisfying 3-D continuity equation 0
x y z

u v u v w
And hence y, 2 z and so 0
x y x y z

w
y 2z 0
z

dw y 2 z dz
w yz z 2

So the third component of velocity is w yz z 2

Example.4.20: Does it satisfy continuity incompressible equation having velocity components

z3
u x3 y 3 z 3 , v y 3 z 3 , w 3x 2 z 3 y 2 z .
3
 z3
Solution: Given data: u x3 y 3 z 3 , v y 3 z 3 , w 3x 2 z 3 y 2 z
3

u v w
For satisfying 3-dimensioanl continuity equation 0
x y z

u v w
And 3x 2 , 3 y 2 , 3x 2 3 y 2 z 2
x y z

u v w
0
And x y z
3x 2 3 y 2 3x 2 3 y 2 z 2 0

Hence the continuity equation does not satisfy.

CIRCULATION : Circulation is defined as the

Line integral of the tangential velocity along a
closed path and is denoted by .

Consider flow of a fluid mass indicated by its stream

lines and let a closed curve passing through them, cut
these stream lines, as shown in figure.4.12.

Consider an intersection point of the closed curve and a fluid element in space ds on any
one stream line and let this point be named as P. The stream lines will have a tangential velocity
V, which can be resolved into two components, like one component along the velocity of stream
line like V cos and other component along tangential velocity to the stream line element ds, like
V sin , where is angle between tangential velocity of stream line and tangential velocity to
element.

According to the definition

V cos ds (4.19)
If a rectangular fluid element having edges CD, DA, AB, BC and
having velocity components u, v along edges CD.CB and
u v
DA u y , AB v x along edges DA, AB
dy dx
respectively, as shown in figure.4.12a be considered, then
circulation of the rectangular element becomes

AB BC CD DA (4.20)

u v
By substituting the velocity components u y , v x , u, v along the rectangular fluid
dy dx
u v
element edges AB, BC , CD, DA in Eq :(4.18), we get u y , v x , u, v
dy dx
 v u
x * y (4.19)
dx dy

VORTICITY : Vorticity is defined as Circulation per unit area enclosed. And is denoted by
.

Circulation
Where
Elemental Area dA

v u
(4.20)
dx dy

Example.4.21: The velocity potential function for 2-Dimensional flow is given by u 16 y 8x ,

v 8 y 7 x . Find circulation and Vorticity around a rectangular element of length 4m and
breadth 6m.

Solution: Given data: u 16 y 8x , v 8 y 7 x , x 4m, y 6m

v u
Circulation is given by * x * y
dx dy

8 y 7 x 16 y 8 x * x * y
dx dy
7 16 * 4*6 552

v u
Vorticity is given by
dA dx dy

8 y 7 x 16 y 8 x * x * y
dx dy
7 16 * 4*6 552

ROTATION OF FLUID ELEMENTS: A fluid element in addition to its linear motion has Rotation,
Linear strain and Shear strain also due to the disturbance created by the adjacent fluid elemental flow
(i.e. due to the angular momentum in the fluid flow).

To cause rotation for an elemental object of a solid which is

moving, a single disturbance (angular displacement)
perpendicular to its motion is sufficient enough but a fluid
element will be having two perpendicular disturbances
(angular displacements in y, z directions) along the
perpendicular axiss to its flow.

If the angular displacement of the fluid element is in

single perpendicular direction, then the fluid element will be
having only rotation, as shown in figure.4.13b. And if the
angular displacement is in both the perpendicular directions to its flow then the fluid element is not
only rotated but also shear strained, as shown in figure.4.13c.

Considering the fluid element ABCD in figures.4.13b & 4.13c, we observe that AAP1P is the arc
length of the fluid element rotation with an angular rotation of . And hence AAP1P is function of
the radius (AB) and rotational angle .

i.e. AA1 AB *1 (4.21)

V
Since we know V r & t and by replacing with , we get t
r

v
1 dt (4.21a) & AB dz (4.21b)
z

Substituting Eq:(4.21a) and Eq:(4.21b) in Eq:(4.21), We get

v
AA1 * dz * dt (4.22)
z

w
Similarly CC1 * dy * dt (4.23)
y

v
And hence angular rotations 1 dt (4.23a) Anti-clock wise direction
z

w
2 dt (4.23b) Clock wise direction
y

As the total rotation of the fluid element comprises two angular displacements, the rotational velocity
will be the average of these two angular displacements.

1 2 (4.24)
1
i.e.
2

Taking angular rotation of fluid element in anti clock wise direction, we get

1 v w
x (4.24a) ,
2 z y
1 u w
y (4.24b)
2 z x
1 v u
z (4.24c)
2 x y

And so the rotational velocity vector and magnitude ,
can be written as
 i j k
1
x i y j z k OR (4.25)
2 x y z
u v w
x2 y2 z2 (4.26)

And xV
1
where is Vorticity (refer Eq:(4.20))
2 2

1

2 xV (4.27)
2

If a fluid element to be Ir-rotational then z 0 (4.27a)

v u

i.e. From Eq:(4.27a) or xV 0
x y 2

Hence Vorticity will happen only when fluid elements rotate.

Example.4.22: The velocity field in a fluid medium is given by V 3xy 2i 2xyj 2zy 3t k .

Find magnitudes and directions of Translation velocity and Rotational velocity, Vorticity at point
P 1, 2,1,3 .

Solution: Given data: V 3xy 2i 2xyj 2zy 3t k and P 1, 2,1,3

From the given equation, Velocity components will be

u 3xy2 , v 2xy, w 2zy 3t

3xy 2xy 2zy 3t

2 2 2
Magnitude of translation velocity will be V
2

3*1*4 2*1*2 2*1*2 3*3

2
V1,2,1,3 13.6m / s
2 2

Direction of translation velocity will be V 3xy 2i 2 xyj 2 zy 3t k

V 1,2,1,3 3*1* 4i 2*1* 2 j 2*1* 2 3*3 k

V 1,2,1,3 12i 4 j 5k
 i j k
1

2 x y z
u v w
i j k
1
Rotational velocity vector
2 x y z
3 xy 2 2 xy 2 zy 3t
1 1 1
1,2,1,3 2 z i 0 0 j 0 0 k i 0 j ok
2 2 2

Rotational velocity magnitude x2 y2 z2 12 1rad / s

Hence flow is rotational.

v u
Vorticity is given by
dx dy

v
2 y 2* 2 4
x
u
6 xy 6*1* 2 12
y

v u
So Vorticity 4 12 8
dx dy

4.2.4.1. Lecture-3

VELOCITY POTENTIAL : Velocity potential is defined as Scalar function of space and

time, such that in any direction, its negative derivative gives the fluid velocity in that direction.

i.e. u ,v ,w (4.28)
x y z

f x, y, z, t for unsteady flow

Where
f x, y, z for steady flow

d dx dy
Hence Total differential x y
d udx vdy (4.28a)

u v w
As per the continuity equation, 0 (4.29) for steady, incompressible fluid.
x y z

So, by substituting Eq:(4.28) in Eq:(4.29), we get 0
dx dx dy dy dz dz
 d 2 d 2 d 2
2 2 2 0
dx dy dz
2 0 (4.30)

d2 d2 d2
where is the Laplace operator
dx 2 dy 2 dz 2

This equation is called Laplace equation in velocity potential and it indicates that the flow is
steady, incompressible and ir-rotational flow if satisfied.

Note: If the velocity potential is constant through out a stream line, then the line is called as Equi-
0 udx vdy
potential line. i.e. cons tan t . So d 0
dy u
dx v

STREAM FUNCTION : Stream function is defined as Scalar function of space and time,
such that its derivative with respect to any direction, gives the fluid velocity components at the
right angles to that direction.

i.e.

f x, y, z, t for unsteady flow

Where
f x, y, z for steady flow

d dx dy
Hence Total differential x y
d vdx udy (4.31a )

u v
As per the continuity equation, 0 (4.32) for steady, two dimensional and
x y
incompressible fluid.

So, by substituting Eq:(4.31) in Eq:(4.32), we get 0
dx dy dy dx

2 2
0 (4.33)
dxdy dydx

This equation decides whether the flow exists or not

1 v u
I.e. For the flow to be rotational z 0
2 x y

1 2 2
Substituting Eq:(4.31) in z , we get z (4.34)
2 x 2 y 2
 Eq:(4.34) is equation is called Poisson equation.

1 2 2
For ir-rotational flow z 0 , i.e. z 0
2 x 2 y 2

2 2
2 2 0
x y
2 0

d2 d2
Where is the Laplace operator 2
2 and is called as Laplace equation in stream
dx dy
function .

Note: The stream function along a stream line is constant. i.e. cons tan t . And so

0 vdx udy
d 0
dy v
dx u

4.2.4.2. Lecture-4:

Example.4.23: The velocity potential function for 2-Dimensional flow is x 2 y 1 . At

point P 4,5 determine velocity vector and its magnitude and value of stream function.

Solution: Given data: x 2 y 1 and P 4,5

d d
We know velocity potential u , v
dx dy

d d
u x 2 y 1 , v x 2 y 1
dx dy

u 1 2 y , v 2x

Hence velocity vector and Magnitude V 1 2 y i 2 xj

V 1 2 y 2x
2 2

V 4,5 1 2*5 2* 4 12.04m / s

2 2

Stream function and its value d udy vdx

d 1 2 y dy 2xdx
 d 1 2 y dy 2 xdx

x2 y 2 y

4,5 16 25 5 4

Example.4.24: The stream function in a 2-D flow is 6x 4 y 7 xy . Verify whether the flow is
Irrotational or rotational.

Solution: Given data: 6x 4 y 7 xy and P 1, 1

1 2 2
To have flow rotational, z 0
2 x 2 y 2

1 2 2 1 2 2
i.e. z 2 6 x 4 y 7 xy 2
6 x 4 y 7 xy
2 x 2 y 2 2 x y

1
z 0 0 0
2

Hence the flow is rotational.

Example.4.25: The stream function in a 2-dimensional flow is 6x 4 y 7 xy . Estimate the vectors

and magnitudes of velocity and acceleration at point P 1, 1 , if the flow is having a uniform
discharge of 0.16m3/s.

Solution: Given data: 6x 4 y 7 xy, Q 0.16m3 / s, P 1, 1

d d
We know stream function u , v
dy dx

d d
u 6 x 4 y 7 xy , v 6 x 4 y 7 xy
dy dx

u 4 7 x , v 6 7 y

Velocity vector and magnitude V 4 7 x i 6 7 y j

V 4 7*1 i 6 7*1 j 3i j
1,1

V 32 12 10m / s

V V
Spatial Acceleration as u v
x y
 V
4 7 x i 6 7 y j 7i
x x

V
4 7 x i 6 7 y j 7 j
y y

So spatial acceleration will become as 7 x 4 7i 7 y 6 7 j

as 49x 21 i 49 y 42 j

as 1, 1 49*1 4 i 7 * 1 6 j

as 1, 1 45i 1 j

as 1, 1 452 12 45.01m / s 2

Example.4.26: In a two-dimensional incompressible flow, the fluid velocity components are given by
u x 4 y, v y 4x . Show that velocity potential exists and determine its form for stream function
as well.

Solution: Given data: u x 4 y, v y 4x

d udx vdy

d x 4 y dx y 4 x dy

x2 y2
4 xy 4 xy
2 2

x2 y 2
8xy
2 2

d 2 d 2
For velocity potential to exist 0
dx 2 dy 2

d 2 x2 y 2 d 2 x2 y 2
8xy 8xy 0
dx2 2 2 dy 2 2
2

1 1 0

As L.H.S=R.H.S, hence velocity potential exists.

d udy vdx d udy vdx

x 4 y dy y 4 x dx
2 x2 2 y 2 2 xy
 2 2
For stream function to exist 0
dxdy dydx

2 2

dxdy
2 x 2 2 y 2 2 xy
dydx
2 x 2 2 y 2 2 xy 0 22 0

As L.H.S=R.H.S, hence Stream function exists.

Example.4.27: In a two-dimensional incompressible flow, the fluid velocity components are given by
u x 2 y 2 , v x 2 y 2 . Show that velocity potential exists and determine its form for stream function
as well.

Solution: Given data: u x 2 y 2 , v x 2 y 2

d udx vdy
d x2 y 2 dx x2 y 2 dy
x3 y3
xy 2 x 2 y
3 3

d 2 d 2
For velocity potential to exist 0
dx 2 dy 2

d 2 x3 y 3 d 2 x3 y3
xy 2 x2 y xy 2 x 2 y 0
dx2 3 3 dy 2 3 3

d 2
dx

x y 2 2 xy
d
dy

2 xy x 2 y 2 0
2x 2 y 2x 2 y 4 y 0

As L.H.SR.H.S, hence velocity potential does not exists.

d udy vdx d udy vdx

x2 y 2 dy x2 y 2 dx x2 y


y3 x3
3
xy 2
3

2 2
For stream function to exist 0
dxdy dydx

2 2 y 3 x3 2 2 2 y 3 x3 2
x y xy x y xy 0
dxdy 3 3 dydx 3 3

2

dx
x y 2 2 xy 2 xy x 2 y 2 0
dy
2x 2 y 2x 2 y 0 00

As L.H.S=R.H.S, hence Stream function exists.

Example.4.28: In a two-dimensional incompressible flow, the stream line is represented by
x 2 y 2 , x 2 y 2 . Sketch stream lines.

Solution: Given data: x 2 y 2 , x 2 y 2

Refer Table.4.1: we have on any stream line, the stream function is constant and hence for the
function x 2 y 2 , we have x y 2 (1)

Substituting different values of , y we can plot the stream lines with constant stream functions, as
given below in the table.

y y0 y 1 y2 y 3
1 x y 2 1 2 5 10
2 x y 2 2 3 6 11
3 x y 2
3 2 7 11
Using the above tabulated data, we can plot the graph between x, y, , as shown below in the
figure.P4.28.

4.2.4.3. Lecture-5

FLOW NETS: Flow nets can be defined as graphical representation of series of Equi-potential
dy
lines (slope ) and stream lines, in form of a grid. A flow net may be drawn for a two
dx
dimensional Ir-rotational flow and it provides a simple, yet valuable indication of the flow pattern.
Flow net provides a simple graphical technique for studying two dimensional ir-rotational flows,
especially in the cases where mathematical relations for stream function and velocity function are
either not available or arte rather difficult and cumbersome to solve.

There are four methods of representing flow nets and they are:

a.) Analytical method.

b.) Graphical method.
c.) Hydraulic models.
d.) Electrical analogy.
a.) Analytical method: Analytical method obtains the values of and mathematically and are
plotted to get the required flow net grid. This method is useful in drawing flow nets, when dealing
with simple and ideal boundary conditions.

b.) Graphical method: In graphical method the

stream lines and Equi-potential lines are plotted on a graph, so that they cut each other
orthogonally, so as to obtain curvilinear squares. And this method of drawing flow nets requires
more time consumption for getting proper curvilinear shapes.
c.) Hydraulic models: Hydraulic models like a Seepage model is been used with a dye injected by
it, so as to trace the stream lines and equi-potential lines, and by drawing them the flow nets are
completed.
d.) Electrical analogy method: Electrical analogy method is based on assuming that the fluid flow is
analogy to flow of electricity through a conductor. And so the electric current is taken as analogy
to velocity of the flow and electric potential is taken as analogy to velocity potential. And this
method is a practical method.

Applications and Limitations of flow nets:

Uses of Flow nets:

1.) Flow net can be used for determining stream lines and equi-potential lines.
2.) It is useful to determine velocity, pressure distributions for a given boundary of flow.
3.) It is used to determine the design of the outlets of their stream lining.
4.) To determine quantity of seepage and upward lift pressure below the hydraulic structures.

Limitations of Flow nets:

1.) Flow nets can not be applied for close boundary, due to viscosity presence.
2.) In case of flow of a fluid past over a solid body, it can not give clear picture of stream lines
and flow conditions at the boundaries of the grid, due to presence of Eddies and separations.
3.) The flow should be Steady and ir-rotational because streamlines patterns will remain constant
only for steady flow and the rotation of flow changes the flow pattern instantaneously ad
hence the flow need to be Steady and Ir-rotational.
KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW
Fluid kinematics refers to the features of a fluid in motion. It only deals with the motion of fluid

m
e
t
i
particles without taking into account the forces causing the motion. Considerations of velocity,
acceleration, flow rate, nature of flow and flow visualization are taken up under fluid kinematics.

n
a
i

l
A fluid motion can be analyzed by one of the two alternative approaches, called
Lagrangian and Eulerian.
In Lagrangian approach, a particle or a fluid element is identified and followed during the
course of its motion with time as demonstrated in Fig.1
Initial

Fig. 1. Lagrangian Approach (Study of each particle with time)

Fig. 2. Eulerian Approach (Study at fixed station in space)

Eg: To know the attributes of a vehicle to be purchased, you can follow the specific vehicle in the
traffic flow all along its path over a period of time.
Difficulty in tracing a fluid particle (s) makes it nearly impossible to apply the Lagrangian
approach. The alternative approach, called Eulerian approach consists of observing the fluid by
setting up fixed stations (sections) in the flow field (Fig. 2).

Motion of the fluid is specified by velocity components as functions of space and time. This is
considerably easier than the previous approach and is followed in Fluid Mechanics.
Eg: Observing the variation of flow properties in a channel like velocity, depth etc, at a section.

1 2 3

y 5
y1 y2 3
v v
2 3
v1 4 y v
5 5
v4 y
4

Fig. 3 Different types of fluid flow

Classification of Flows:
1. Steady and unsteady flows:
A flow is said to be steady if the properties (P) of the fluid and flow do not change

P 0 t
with time (t) at any section or point in a fluid flow.

A flow is said to be unsteady if the properties (P) of the fluid and flow change with

P 0 t
time (t) at any section or point in a fluid flow.
Eg: Flow observed at a dam section during rainy season, wherein, there will be lot of inflow with
which the flow properties like depth, velocity etc.. will change at the dam section over a period of
time representing it as unsteady flow.

2. Uniform and non-uniform flows:

A flow is said to be uniform if the properties (P) of the fluid and flow do not change (with
direction) over a length of flow considered along the flow at any instant.
P
P 0 0
x x
A flow is said to be non-uniform if the properties (P) of the fluid and flow change (with
direction) over a length of flow considered along the flow at any instant.
Eg: Flow observed at any instant, at the dam section during rainy season, wherein, the flow varies
from the top of the overflow section to the foot of the dam and the flow properties like depth,
velocity etc., will change at the dam section at any instant between two sections, representing it
as non-uniform flow.
Consider a fluid flow as shown above in a channel. The flow is said to be steady at sections 1 and
2 as the flow does not change with respect to time at the respective sections (y1=y2 and v1=v2 ).
The flow between sections 1 and 2 is said to be uniform as the properties does not change
between the sections at any instant (y1 =y2 and v1 = v2).
The flow between sections 2 and 3 is said to be non-uniform flow as the properties vary over the
length between the sections.

y
 x
z

Fig. 4 c) Three dimensional flow

Non-uniform flow can be further classified as Gradually varied flow and Rapidly varied flow. As
the name itself indicates, Gradually varied flow is a non-uniform flow wherein the flow/fluid
properties vary gradually over a long length (Eg: between sections 2 and 3).

Rapidly varied flow is a non-uniform flow wherein the flow/fluid properties vary rapidly within a
very short distance. (Eg: between sections 4 and 5).
Combination of steady and unsteady flows and uniform and non-uniform flows can be classified
as steady-uniform flow (Sections 1 and 2), unsteady-uniform flow, steady-non-uniform flow
(Sections 2 and 3) and unsteady-non-uniform flow
(Sections 4 and 5).

3. One, two and three dimensional flows:

Flow is said to be direction and will
one-dimensional if the properties vary only along one axis / be constant with respect to other two
directions of a three-
s
 x

s
Fig. 4 a) One dimensional flow
y

Fig.4b)Twodimensionalflow
dimensional axis system.
Flow is said to be two-dimensional if the properties vary only along two axes / directions and
will be constant with respect to other direction of a three-dimensional axis system.
Flow is said to be three-dimensional if the properties vary along all the axes / directions of a
three-dimensional axis system.

4. Laminar and Turbulent flows:

When the flow occurs like sheets or laminates and the fluid elements flowing in a layer does not
mix with other layers, then the flow is said to be laminar. The Reynolds number (R e) for the flow
will be less than 2000.
vD
Re

When the flow velocity increases, the sheet like flow gets mixed up and the fluid elements mix
with other layers there by causing turbulence. There will be eddy currents generated and flow
reversal takes place. This flow is said to be Turbulent.
Velocity

x
F i g . 5 La m i n a r f l o w
The Reynolds number for the flow will be greater than 4000.
For flows with Reynolds number between 2000 to 4000 is said to be transition flow.

5. Compressible and Incompressible flows:

Flow is said to be Incompressible if the fluid density does not change (constant) along the flow
direction and is Compressible if the fluid density varies along the flow direction

Constant (incompressible) and Constant (compressible)

6. Rotational and Irrotational flows:
Flow is said to be Rotational if the fluid elements does not rotate about their own axis as they
move along the flow and is Rotational if the fluid elements rotate along their axis as they move
along the flow direction

Fluid Motion

Fig. 6 a)Irrotational flow

Fluid Motion

Fig.6 b)Rotational flow

7. Critical, Sub-critical and Super-critical flows:

Froudes Number
It is the ratio of the inertia forces to gravity forces and mathematically
V
Fe , where Fe=Froudes No, V is the flow velocity and d is the hydraulic mean gd
A
depth given by d , A is the flow cross-sectional area and T is the top width.
T
If the Foudes number is ONE, the flow is critical, Less than ONE, Sub-critical and Greater than
ONE, Super-critical.

Rate of flow or Discharge (Q):

Rate of flow or discharge is said to be the quantity of fluid flowing per second across a section of
a flow. Rate of flow can be expressed as mass rate of flow or volume rate of flow. Accordingly
Mass rate of flow = Mass of fluid flowing across a section / time Rate of
flow = Volume of fluid flowing across a section / time

Types of lines
Path Line: It is the path traced by a fluid particle over a period of time during its motion along
the fluid flow.
t=0 P
t=t
P

Fig. 7 Path line

Eg: Path traced by an ant coming out from its dwelling

Stream Lines
It is an imaginary line such that when a tangent is drawn at any point it gives the
y

velocity of the fluid particle at that point and at that instant. Fig. 8
Stream lines
Eg: Path traced by the flow when an obstruction like, a sphere or a stick is kept during its motion.
The flow breaks up before the obstruction and joins after it crosses it.
Streak lines
It is that imaginary line that connects all the fluid particles that has gone through a point/section
over a period of time in a fluid motion.
1 4
2 5 8
3
9
7
6
t = 10

Fig. 9 Streak lines

Stream tube:
10
 It is an imaginary tube formed by stream line on its
surface such that the flow only enters the tube from
one side and leaves it on the other side only. No
flow takes place across the stream tube. This
concept will help in the analysis of fluid motion.

Variation of a Property along any given direction

If P is a Property at any point, then the property at any other location along x

x P
P dx
x
P x
dx
direction at a distance dx is given by
Fig. 12 Variation of a property along x direction
New Property = Old Property + slope x Old Property x distance
Continuity Equation
The derivation is based on the concept of Law of conservation of mass.
Statement: The flow of fluid in a continuous flow across a section is always a constant.

Consider an enlarging section in a fluid flow of fluid density. Consider two sections 1 and 2 as
shown in Fig. Let the sectional properties be as under
A1and A2 = Cross-sectional area, V1 and V2 = Average flow velocity and 1 and
2 = Fluid density at Sec 1 and 2 respectively
dt is the time taken for the fluid to cover a distance dx The mass
of fluid flowing across section 1-1 is given by
m1 = Density at section 1 x volume of fluid that has crossed section 1
1 x A1 x dx
Mass rate of fluid flowing across section 1-1 is given by
m1/dt = (Density at sec 1 x volume of fluid that has crossed sec 1)/dt
1 x A1 x dx/dt = 1 A1V1 (01)
Similarly Mass rate of fluid flowing across section 2-2 is given by
m2/dt = 2 x A2 x dx/dt = 2A2 V2 (02)

From law of conservation of mass, mass can neither be created nor destroyed.

Fluid flow
2
1
 dx Fig. 13 Fluid flow through a control volume
Hence from Eqs. 1 and 2, we get
1A1 V1 = 2 A2V2
If the density of the fluid is constant, then the equation reduces to
A1V1 = A2 V2
The above equation is discharge continuity equation in one dimensional form for an steady,
incompressible fluid flow

Continuity Equation in three dimensional or differential forms

Consider a parallelepiped ABCDEFGH in a fluid flow of density as shown in Fig. Let the
dimensions of the parallelepiped be dx, dy and dz along x, y and z directions respectively. Let the
velocity components along x, y and z be u, v and w respectively.

Similarly mass rate of fluid flow leaving the section EFGH along x direction is given by

M u
x2 u dx dy dz (02)
x

Net gain in mass rate of the fluid along the x axis is given by the difference
between the mass rate of flow entering and leaving the control volume. i.e. Eq.
1 Eq. 2

dM x u dy dz u u dx dy dz
x
y

D H

A
E

v
dy
G x
C u x

w dz
F
B
z dx
u dx dy
dM x dz (03)
x

Similarly net gain in mass rate of the fluid along the y and z axes are given by
dM y v dx dy (04)
 dz
y
w dx dy
dM z dz (05)
z
Net gain in mass rate of the fluid from all the three axes are given by
u dx dy dz v dx dy
dM dz w dx dy dz
x y z
From law of conservation of Mass, the net gain in mass rate of flow should be zero and hence

u v w dx dy dz 0
x y z

u w
or v 0
x y z
This expression is known as the general Equation of Continuity in three dimensional form or
differential form.
If the fluid is incompressible then the density is constant and hence
u v w
0
x y z
The continuity equation in two-dimensional form for compressible and incompressible flows are
respectively as below
u
v 0
x y
u v 0
x y

Velocity
Velocity of a fluid along any direction can be defined as the rate of change of displacement of the
fluid along that direction.
u = dx / dt
Where dx is the distance traveled by the fluid in time dt.
Velocity of a fluid element is a vector, which is a function of space and time.
Let V be the resultant velocity of a fluid along any direction and u, v and w be the velocity
components in x, y and z directions respectively.
Mathematically the velocity components can be written as
u = f ( x, y, z, t )
v = f ( x, y, z, t )
w = f ( x, y, z, t )
u 2 v2 w
2
andV = ui + vj + wk =
Where u = (dx/dt), v = (dy/dt) and w = (dz/dt).

Acceleration
Acceleration of a fluid element along any direction can be defined as the rate of change of
velocity of the fluid along that direction.
If ax , ay and az are the components of acceleration along x, y and z directions respectively, they
can be mathematically written as
ax = du/ dt.
But u = f (x, y, z, t) and hence by chain rule, we can write,
ax u dx u dy u dz u x dt y
dt z dt t

Similarly
ay v dx v dy v dz v
x dt y dt z dt t

w dx w dy w dz w
and az
x dt y dt z dt t

But u = (dx/dt), v = (dy/dt) and w = (dz/dt).

Hence
Local accln
Convective accln

u u u u
ax u v w
x y z t
ay v v v v
u v w Total accln
x y z t
w w w w
az u v w
x y z t
If A is the resultant acceleration vector, it is given by
1.0 axi ay j az k
ax2 ay2 az2

For steady flow, the local acceleration will be zero

Problems
1. The velocity field in a fluid is given by

Vs 2z 3x23x j 2y i 2t 3z k
i. What are the velocity components u, v, and w ?
ii. Determine the speed at the point (1,1,1).
iii. Determine the speed at time t=2 s at point (0,0,2). Solution:
The velocity components at any point (x, y, z) are
u
3x 2 y , v 2z 3x2 , w 2t 3z k
Substitute x=1, y=1, z=1 in the above expression
u = (3*1+2*1) = 5, v = (2*1+3*1) = 5, w = (2t-3) V2 = u2 + v2
+ w2
52 + 52 + (2t-3)2
V 4 t 2 12 t + 59
2
V 1,1,1 4t 12t 59
Substitute t = 2 s, x=0, y=0, z=2 in the above expression for u, v and w u = 0, v = (4
+ 0) = 4, w = (4 6) = -2
V 2 (0,0,2,2) = (0 + 15 + 4) = 20 V =
4.472 units

2
2. Calculate the velocity component V given u xy3 x 2 y so that the equation of 3
continuity is satisfied (July 2006) (06)
Solution:
The continuity equation for two dimensional incompressible flow is given by
[( u/ x)+( v/ y)] = 0 (01)
u 2
y 3 2 xy
x 3
From Eq. 01, we have
u v 2 v
0 y 3 2 xy 0 x
y3x
v 2
2xy y 3 y 3
Integrating the above expression with y, we get
1
v xy 2 y 4
6
3. The velocity distribution in a three-dimensional flow is given by:
u = - x, v = 2y and w = (3-z). Find the equation of the stream line that passes
through point (1,1,1).
Solution: The stream line equation is given by
dx dy dz dx dy dz
3
u v w or x 2y z

dx dy
x 2y
Integrating we get log e
x 1 log y
e
A,
2
Where A is an integral constant. Substituting x=1 & y=1, A = 0
1
or x 1
log x log y 2
e e
y
Considering the x and z components, dx dz
x 3z
x loge 3z
Integrating we get loge B,
Where B is an integral constant. Substituting x=1 & z=1, B = log e 2
x loge 3-z 3z

loge loge 2 loge

2
3z
or x
2
Velocity Potential ( )

Velocity Potential is a scalar function of space and time such that its negative derivative with
respect to any direction gives the velocity component in that direction

Thus = (x,y,z,t) and flow is steady then,

u = -( / x); v = -( / y) ; w = -( / z)

Continuity equation for a three dimensional fluid flow is given by

[( u/ x)+( v/ y) +( w/ z)] = 0
Substituting for u, v and w, we get
[( / x)(- / x)+( / y)(- / y) +( / z) (- / z)] = 0 i.e. [( 2
/ x2 )+( 2/ y2 )+( 2 / z2 )] = 0
The above equation is known as Laplace equation in For a 2 D
flow the above equation reduces to
[( 2 / x2 )+( 2/ y2 )] = 0

We know that for an irrotational two dimensional fluid flow, the rotational fluid elements about z axis
must be zero.
i.e. z = [( v/ x) - ( u/ y)]
Substituting for u and v, we get
z = [( / x)(- / y) - ( / y)(- / x)]
For the flow to be irrotational, the above component must be zero
z = [ (- 2 / x y) - (- 2 / y x)] = 0 i.e. (- 2
/ x y) = (- 2 / y x)
This is true only when is a continuous function and exists.
Thus the properties of a velocity potential are:
1. If the velocity potential exists, then the flow should be irrotational.
2. If the velocity potential satisfies the Laplace Equation, then it represents a possible case of a
fluid flow.

Stream Function ( )

Stream Function is a scalar function of space and time such that its partial derivative with respect
to any direction gives the velocity component at right angles to that direction.

Thus = (x,y,z,t) and flow is steady then, u = -(

/ y); v = ( / x)
Continuity equation for a two dimensional fluid flow is given by
[( u/ x)+( v/ y)] = 0
Substituting for u and v, we get
[( / x)(- / y)+( / y)( / x)] = 0
i.e. [ (- 2 / x y) + ( 2 / y x)] = 0 or ( 2 / x
y) = ( 2 / y x)
This is true only when is a continuous function.

We know that for an irrotational two dimensional fluid flow, the rotational fluid elements about z axis
must be zero.
i.e. z = [( v/ x) - ( u/ y)]
Substituting for u and v, we get
z = [( / x)( / x) - ( / y)(- / y)]
For the flow to be irrotational, the above component must be zero i.e. [( 2 /
x2 )+( 2 / y2)] = 0
The above equation is known as Laplace equation in

Thus the properties of a Stream function are:

1. If the Stream function exists, then it represents a possible case of a fluid flow.
 2. If the Stream function satisfies the Laplace Equation, then the flow should be irrotational.

Equi-potential lines:
It is an imaginary line along which the velocity potential is a constant i.e. =
Constant
d = 0
But = f (x,y) for a two dimensional steady flow
d = ( / x)dx + ( / y)dy
Substituting the values of u and v, we get
d = u dx v dy 0
or u dx = v dy
or (dy/dx) = u/v (01)
Where dy/dx is the slope of the equi-potential line.

Line of constant stream function or stream line

It is an imaginary line along which the stream function is a constant
i.e. = Constant
d=0
But = f (x,y) for a two dimensional steady flow
d = ( / x)dx + ( / y)dy
Substituting the values of u and v, we get
d = v dx u dy 0
or v dx = u dy
or (dy/dx) = v/u (02)
Where dy/dx is the slope of the Stream line.
From Eqs. 1 and 2, we get that the product of the slopes of equi-potential line and stream line is given
by -1. Thus, the equi-potential lines and stream lines are orthogonal to each other at all the points of
intersection.

Flow net
A grid obtained by drawing a series of equi-potential lines and stream lines is called a Flow net. The
flow net is an important tool in analysing two dimensional flow irrotational flow problems.

Relationship between Stream function () and Velocity potential ()

We know that the velocity components are given by
u = - ( / x) v = -( / y)
and u = - ( / y) v = ( / x)
Thus u = - ( / x) = - ( / y) and v = -( / y) = ( / x)
Hence ( / x) = ( / y)
and ( / y) = - ( / x)

PROBLEMS
1. For the velocity components in a fluid flow given by u=2xy and v=x2-y2, show that the
flow is possible. Obtain the relevant stream function. (July 2006) (10)
Solution:
For the flow to be possible, it should satisfy the continuity equation given by
u v 0 (01)
x y
u 2
y
x
v
2 y y
Substituting in Eq. 01, we get 2y 2y = 0
Hence it satisfies continuity equation and the flow is continuous and Stream function exists.

1.1.1. Test Questions

a. Multiple choice questions <Minimum of ten>

1. Whenever a plate is held immersed at some angle with the direction of flow of the liquid, it is
subjected to some pressure. The component of this pressure, at right angles to the direction of flow of
the liquid is known as lift.
A. True

B. False

2. The density of air is same at different heights.

A. Correct.

B. Incorrect

3.
The total pressure on a horizontally immersed surface is (where w = Specific weight of the
liquid, A = Area of the immersed surface, and x = Depth of the centre of gravity of the immersed
surface from the liquid surface)
A. w.A

B. wx
 C. wAx

D. wA/x

4.

b. True or False questions <Minimum of ten>

1. When the pressure intensity at a point is less than the local atmospheric pressure, then the difference of these
two pressures is called vacuum pressure.

A. Agree B. Disagree

2. An ideal fluid is frictionless and incompressible.

A. Correct B. Incorrect

3.If an incompressible liquid is continuously flowing through a pipe, the quantity of liquid passing per second is
different at different sections.

A. True B. False

4. The ratio of specific weight of a liquid to the specific weight of pure water at a standard temperature is called
specific gravity

5.A fluid which obeys the Newton's law of viscosity is termed as newtonian fluid

A. True B. False

6.A fluid whose viscosity changes with the rate of deformation or shear strain is known as non-newtonian fluid.

A. True B. False

7.A thick liquid like a syrup has a lesser viscosity than a light liquid like water.

A. True B. False

8.Poise is the unit of viscosity in C.G.S. system of units.

A. Agree B. Disagree

9.The pressure at a stagnation point is always low.

A. Agree B. Disagree

10Kinematic viscosity is the product of dynamic viscosity and the density of the liquid.

A. Yes B. No

3.4.5. Review Questions

 c. Objective type of questions(Very short notes) <Minimum of ten>

1. Distinguish between the Eulerian and Lagrangian method of representing fluid motion.
2. Define centre of pressure and centre of buoyancy.
3. Will the centre of pressure and centre of gravity ever coincide? If so, under what conditions?
4. Write the formula used to determine the Meta centric height.
5. Define stream function and state properties of stream function.
6. State Pascals law and give example where this principle is applied.
7. State hydrostatic law.
8. What do you understand by the terms Total acceleration, Local acceleration and Connective
acceleration?
9. Distinguish between path lines, stream lines and streak lines.
10. Define metacentre and metacentric weight.
d. Analytical type questions <Minimum of ten>

1. Derive an expression for the force exerted and centre of pressure for a completely submerged
inclined plane surface.
2. The left limb of a U tube manometer is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of specific gravity
0.8 is flowing. The right limb is open to atmosphere and manometric fluid is mercury. The
difference in mercury level between the two limbs is 20cm and the center of the pipe is 12cm
below the mercury level in the right limb. Find the fluid pressure in the pipe.
3. The velocity potential function for a 2- dimensional flow is given by = x (4xy-3). Determine
(a) the velocity at the point (2, 3), (b) stream function at the same point.
4. A hollow cylinder closed at both ends has an outside diameter of 1.25m, length 3.5m and
specific weight 75 kN/m3. If the cylinder is to float just in stable equilibrium in sea water (specific
weight 10 kN/m3), find the minimum permissible thickness.
5. What is a Flow net? Enumerate the methods of drawing flow nets. What are the uses and
limitations of flow nets?
6. Derive the equation of continuity for three dimensional incompressible fluid flows and reduce it
to one dimensional form.
7. The velocity potential function is given by an expression = y2 - x2 + (x3y/3) (xy3/3). Check
continuity flow. Find the velocity components in X and Y directions.
8. The two velocity components are given by u = x2 + y2 + z2 and v = xy2 yz2 + xy. Determine the
third component of velocity such that they satisfy the continuity equation.
9. A cylindrical tank contains 180cm depth of water. On the top of the water is 100cm of kerosene
which is open to atmosphere. If the temperature is 22oC, what is the gauge pressure at the bottom
of the tank?
10. An annual ring of 2m external diameter and 1m internal diameter is immersed in water with the
plate making 30o to the horizontal and the lowest edge is 5m below the water surface. Determine
the total force and position of centre of pressure.

e. Essay type Questions <As per requirements>

11. A 400mm diameter shaft is rotating at 200 rpm in a bearing of length 120mm. If the
thickness of oil film is 1.5mm and the dynamic viscosity of the oil is 0.7 Ns/m2. Determine
the torque required and power lost.
12. Two large plane surfaces are 120mm apart. The space between the surfaces is filled with
oil of viscosity 0.92 Ns/m2. A flat thin plate of 0.6m2 area moves through the oil at velocity of
0.5 m/s. Calculate the drag force (i) When the plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces
(ii) When the thin plate is at a distance of 30mm from one of the planes.
13. Two large plane surfaces are 200mm apart. The space between the surfaces is filled with
oil of viscosity 8 poise. A flat thin plate of 0.7m2 area moves through the oil at velocity of 0.8
m/s. Calculate the drag force (i) When the plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces (ii)
When the thin plate is at a distance of 70mm from one of the planes.
14. Calculate the pressure due to a column of 0.6m of (i) water, (ii) an oil of S = 0.8, and (iii)
mercury of S = 14. Take density of water = 1000 kg/m3.
15. The dynamic viscosity of oil used for lubricating between a shaft and a sleeve is 8 poise.
The shaft rotates at 200rpm. The power lost in the bearing for a sleeve length of 90 mm is 300
watts. The thickness of oil film is 1.8mm. Calculate the diameter of shaft and sleeve.

f. Problems
1.The density of mercury is given as 26.3 slug/ft3. Calculate the specific gravity and the
specific volume in mVkg of the mercury. Calculate the specific weight in lbf/ft3 on Earth
and on the moon. Acceleration of gravity on the moon is 5.47 ft/s.
2. 7. i) A soap bubble 50mm diameter has an inside pressure of 20 N/m2 above atmosphere.
Calculate the tension in the soap film. ii) The water level in a steel tank is measured with a
piezometer of diameter 5mm. if the reading of water surface in the tube is 90cm. what is the true
depth of water in the tank? Take surface tension of water as 0.0725 N/m.
8. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a fluid which is compressed in a cylinder from a
volume of 0.009 m3 at 70 N/cm2 pressure to a volume of 0.0085 m3 at 70 N/cm2 pressure.
9. Calculate the dynamic viscosity of oil, which is used for lubrication of surface between a plate
of size 0.6m x 0.9m and an inclined plane with an angle of inclination 25o with horizontal. The
weight of plate is 500 N and it slides down the inclined plane with a uniform velocity of 0.4 m/s.
the thickness of oil film is 1.8mm.
10. A square metal plate 1.8m side and 1.8mm thick weighing 60 N is to be lifted through a
vertical gap of 30 mm of infinite extent. The oil in the gap has a specific gravity 0.95 and viscosity
of 3Ns/m2. If the metal plate is to be lifted at a constant speed of 0.12 m/s. find the force and
power required. 9. An oil film of thickness 10mm is used for lubrication between the two square
parallel plate of size 0.9 m x 0.9 m in which the upper plate moves at 2m/s requires a force of
100N to maintain this speed. Determine (i) viscosity of the oil and (ii) kinematic viscosity of oil if
the specific gravity of oil is 0.95.

g. Case study <As per required Number>

3.4.6. Skill Building Exercises/Assignments

Eg:-
-Trace out the importance of viscosity for different types of fluids
-Prepare a report on different luids existing with their density values,

3.4.7. Previous Questions (Asked by JNTUK from the concerned Unit)

1. Two large plane surfaces are 200mm apart. The space between the surfaces is filled with oil
of viscosity 8 poise. A flat thin plate of 0.7m2 area moves through the oil at velocity of 0.8
m/s. Calculate the drag force (i) When the plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces (ii)
When the thin plate is at a distance of 70mm from one of the planes.
2. The dynamic viscosity of oil used for lubricating between a shaft and a sleeve is 8 poise. The
shaft rotates at 200rpm. The power lost in the bearing for a sleeve length of 90 mm is 300
watts. The thickness of oil film is 1.8mm. Calculate the diameter of shaft and sleeve.

3. a) What is viscosity? Derive Newtons law of viscosity? What are the units of
measurement of
4. viscosity?
5. b) Find the height through which a fluid of specific gravity 0.8, raises in a capillarity
tube of
6. 1.5 mm diameter. The surface tension of the fluid is 0.09N/m. Angle of contact
between
7. water and glass is 10 degrees.

8. Explain all the fluid properties and write their units?

9. what are the different types of fluids?

10. Derive the pressure difference equation of micro manometer

 11. The right limb of a simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is open to
atmosphere, while the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of specific
gravity 0.9 is flowing. The center of pipe is 12cm below the level of mercury in the
right limb. Find the pressure of fluid in the pipe if the difference of mercury level in
the two limbs is 20cm.

12. What are the different types of pressure lines. Explain with neat sketch?

1.1.1. GATE Questions (Where relevant)

1. Flow lines and equipotential lines in a flow net are orthogonal to each other. (True / False)--
---true

2. Water pressure is atmospheric at all points on a phreatic line. Phreatic line is, therefore, an
equipotential line. (True / False)----(False)

3. Let the x and y components of velocity in steady, two dimensional, incompressible flow be
linear function of x and y such that

V (ax by )i (cx dy ) j , where a, b, c and d are constants. The condition for which the
flow is irrotational is..........(Ans :b=c)

4. The hydraulic head at a point in the soil includes.. ( Piezometric and Datum head)

( Hydraulic head at a point in a soil = Piezometric head + Datum head)

5. If, for a fluid in motion, pressure at a point is same in all directions, then the fluid is
(C)

a. a real fluid b. a Newtonian fluid

c. an ideal fluid d. a Non-Newtonian fluid

6. X components of velocity in a 2-D incompressible flow is given by u y 2 4 xy . If Y

component of velocity v equals zero at y 0 , the expression for v is given by

a. 4 y b. 2 y 2 c. 2 y 2 d. 2xy

7.The unit of dynamic viscosity of a fluid is 1997

a. m2/s b. Ns/m2 c. Pa s/m2 d. kgs2/m2

8.The relation that must hold for the flow to be irrotational is (a)
 u v u v 2u 2 v u v
a. 0 b. c. 0 d.
y x x y x 2 y 2 y x

9.Cavitation is caused by (c) 2000

a. high velocity b. low pressure c. high pressure d. high temperature

10.In a Bernoulli equation, used in pipe flow, each term represents 2001 (a)

a. Energy per unit weight b. Energy per unit mass

c. Energy per unit volume d. Energy per unit flow length

11. A stream function is given by(c)

Y 2 x2 y ( x 1) y 2

The flow rate across a line joining points A(3,0) and B(0,2) is 2005

a. 0.4 units b. 1.1 units c. 4 units d. 5 units

1.1.2. Interview questions (which are frequently asked in a Technical

round - Placements)

1. . What are mechanical gauges? Name four important mechanical gauges

2. What is Moodys diagram?

3. State a few engineering applications of the momentum equation.

4. How does turbulence affect the flow properties?

5. Differentiate stream line and path line.

6. State the assumptions used in deriving Bernoullis equation.

7. Explain Eulers equation of motion.

8. Name the different forces present in a fluid flow?

9. Write Reynolds equation, Navier stokes equation and Eulers equation of motion.

10. Explain potential energy, kinetic energy and pressure energy.

 11. State advantages and limitations of manometers.

Differentiate between simple manometers and differential manometers.