Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
To cite this article: Rui Cheng , Xin Wang & Yinping Zhang (2014) Energy-Efficient Building
Envelopes with Phase-Change Materials: New Understanding and Related Research, Heat
Transfer Engineering, 35:11-12, 970-984, DOI: 10.1080/01457632.2013.863674
Download by: [Indian Institute of Technology Madras] Date: 01 November 2017, At: 22:17
Heat Transfer Engineering, 35(1112):970984, 2014
Copyright
C Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0145-7632 print / 1521-0537 online
DOI: 10.1080/01457632.2013.863674
Thermal performance of building envelopes is important in improving building energy efficiency. This paper includes three
parts: (1) It introduces our new understanding of developing optimized or ideal building envelopes based upon inverse prob-
lems and their solutions, which is helpful for energy efficient building envelope structure design and material development.
(2) It reviews our recent research on developing energy-efficient building envelopes with phase-change materials, includ-
ing the optimized thermal mass characteristics of building wall, novel phase-change material development, measurement
method for thermal physical properties of phase-change material, and application of some prototype energy efficient building
envelopes. (3) It puts forward some limitations of the available works and related research topics for future study.
Question 1 Ideal thermal physical properties of building envelopes (k, cp, etc.)
Thermal physical
Development of new Applications of PCMs
properties of PCMs and
PCMs in building envelopes
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Madras] at 22:17 01 November 2017
Figure 1 Schematic of our researches on energy efficient building envelope based upon new understanding.
properties of the wall. In principle, the time lag and decrement (integrated discomfort degree for indoor air temperature in sum-
factor depend on the thermal physical properties (k, cp , etc.) mer) were defined [5]:
and the thickness of the wall material. By designing special
walls according to different requirements of time lag and Isum = (Tin TH )d, Tin > TH (2)
year
decrement factor under various climatic conditions, one can
make full use of natural resources to maintain indoor thermal
comfort. Iwin = (TL Tin )d, Tin < TL (3)
The one-dimensional, transient heat conduction equation for year
a nontransparent wall can be expressed as follows: When I sum and I win are zero, a passive ideal energy conservation
building is achieved.
H 2t
=k 2 (1)
x
t t t t Determining the Ideal Thermal Physical Properties
where H = t0L c p,s dt + tLH c p,m dt + t H c p,l dt; t0L c p,s dt is
t
the enthalpy change during solid state, tLH c p,m dt is the en-
t The indoor air temperature of given buildings in given re-
thalpy change during phase change, and t H c p,l dt is the enthalpy gions is a function of thermal physical properties (specific heat
change during liquid state, for constant specific heat materials, cp , thermal conductivity k, etc.) of building envelopes, venti-
H = cp t. lation strategy (air exchange rate, ACH) and additional heat
source power Q. For passive buildings, ideal thermal physi-
cal properties can be determined when the other conditions
Ideal Thermal Physical Properties are known by minimizing I sum or I win . For active buildings,
ideal thermal physical properties, ideal mechanical ventilation
The concept of an ideal energy conservation building enve- strategy, or ideal heating mode can be identified when the
lope was put forward in reference [5], which was that if the heat other two are given by minimizing the total energy consump-
storage and insulation properties of the building envelope had tion. However, these are all nonlinear problems as indicated in
a suitable role in the delay and decay for outdoor temperature reference [6].
fluctuations, the indoor air temperature could stay in a comfort- The traditional method of space heating or cooling system
able range without heating and air conditioning loads. This kind design is a trial-and-error process. It can only compare the inte-
of building envelope was called a passive ideal energy conser- grated discomfort degree or total energy consumption of given
vation building envelope. The corresponding thermal physical cases by experimental or numerical analysis. It cannot determine
properties were called the ideal thermal physical properties of the ideal thermal physical properties of the building envelopes
building envelopes. material. In order to overcome the shortcomings or limitations,
In order to evaluate thermal comfort degree without heating Zeng et al. [6] proposed some new concepts and a new approach
and air conditioning, the new parameters I win (integrated dis- based on the inverse problem to solve this nonlinear optimiza-
comfort degree for indoor air temperature in winter) and I sum tion problem, which is shown in Figure 2.
heat transfer engineering vol. 35 nos. 1112 2014
972 R. CHENG ET AL.
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Madras] at 22:17 01 November 2017
Figure 2 Difference of conventional and new approaches in determining optimal building envelopes thermal physical properties: (a) conventional approach;
(b) new approach.
The N-segment method was put forward by Zeng et al. [6] tive, the implication is that the ideal building envelope material
to deal with this nonlinear optimization problem. The excessive has the thermal mass characteristics of phase-change material.
volumetric specific heat is considered as a function of tempera- The characteristic temperature corresponds to the phase-change
ture. The ideal distribution of the excessive volumetric specific temperature, and the excessive enthalpy corresponds to the heat
heat in effective temperature range (tp,min to tp,max ) with minimal of fusion of the phase-change material.
I sum /I winter can be determined through the sequential quadratic Our research group has also presented several analytical opti-
programming (SQP) method when other conditions are given. mization methods to improve the thermal performance of PCMs
The results showed that the ideal forms of c p of thermal mass used in building envelopes. These analytical optimizations are
in the studied cities all approached to afunction (Figure 3). The also based on the already-mentioned inverse problem method.
critical values of excessive enthalpy Hex were different in var- Xiao et al. [7] established a simplified theoretical model to opti-
ious climate regions. However, the corresponding characteristic mize an interior PCM for energy storage in a lightweight passive
temperatures tc of the ideal thermal mass were close to each solar room. For an optimal phase-change temperature, the en-
other in the Chinese mainland. From an energy-saving perspec- ergy stored and released by the PCM should be equal in a cycle.
60
According to different phase-change states, PCMs fall
into three groups: solidsolid PCMs, solidliquid PCMs. and
40 liquidgas PCMs. Among these the solidliquid PCMs are most
suitable for thermal energy storage. Generally speaking, the
20 candidate PCMs that can be used for thermal energy storage in
buildings are paraffins, salt hydrates, and their mixtures. Most
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Madras] at 22:17 01 November 2017
solidliquid system. Most shape-stabilized PCMs are prepared single DSC test that consists of regularly cooling and heating
by physical methods, such as blending, adsorbing, impregna- of a sample, one expects to obtain qualitative and quantitative
tion, and so on [15, 16], or chemical methods, including graft information on the phase transitions of a sample, such as transi-
copolymerization and the solgel method [17, 18]. As the per- tion temperature, enthalpy, thermal conductivity, heat capacity,
centage of phase-change material in the composition of SSPCM specific heat, and latent heat [2327]. The DSC method has been
is usually very high (above 80%), the thermal energy storage widely used in many aspects, which include safety screening,
capacity of SSPCM is comparable with paraffins. When the op- drug analysis [28], general chemical analysis [29], and food
erating temperature is below the melting point of the supporting science [30].
material, the compound material can keep its shape unchanged However, there are some limitations of using the DSC meth-
through the whole phase-change process [19]. This advantage ods to determine the thermal physical properties of PCM con-
of SSPCM means it can reduce the leakage problem of conven- cretes: (1) The samples tested by them are usually very small
tional PCM and it can be applied into energy storage application. (110 mg) so that the thermal physical properties of samples
are usually different from those of the bulk materials used in
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Madras] at 22:17 01 November 2017
Heat transfer conditions The calibration functions of amplitude and phase The accuracy is better in the low frequency range. [31]
lag of the dynamic heat-flow rate of And the calibration is linearly independent of the
temperature-modulated DSC are investigated by measurement conditions.
model calculations.
The influences of heat resistances and heat transfers An offset of 5% can be observed experimentally, [32]
on the uncertainty of heat-capacity measurements leads to a deviation of 1% of the DSC signal and
by means of DSC method are analyzed. the heat capacity determined by conventional
DSC methods.
Heating rate and sample geometry The influence of the heating rate and the sample Both heating rate and PCM geometry affect the [33]
geometry on the apparent specific capacity of the DSC thermograms and the apparent specific heat
PCM during the melting process are examined capacity of the PCM.
experimentally and numerically.
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Madras] at 22:17 01 November 2017
Heat conductivity of the sample A method is shown that allows a correction of the Heat conduction in DSC and sample as well as heat [34]
smeared DSC curves on the basis of linear transfers cause a falsification (smearing) of the
response in the case study of badly heat measured heat flux in DSC measurements.
conducting samples. The necessary Greens
function can be derived from the smeared curve
without additional measurement.
Structure recovery and thermal lag TheToolNarayanaswamyMoynihan (TNM) The distortion degree increases as the magnitude of [35]
equation is applied to analyze a typical the excess enthalpy annealing peak increases. An
temperature-modulated DSC trace and examine apparent phase lag can result in the measured
the influence of the material nonlinearities on the response due to the presence of thermal gradients
dynamic heat flow. in the sample.
Multiple variables influences The influence of variables on the determination of Amplitude, frequency and heating rate did not [36]
the heat of fusion for phases with different significantly influence the conventional heat of
crystallinity was investigated using oscillating fusion values but had a great impact on the
differential scanning calorimetry (ODSC). values of the cp and the kinetic components.
(1) It adopts the release point [a in of (1) Uses an inflection point as the boundary The heat of fusion tested is in good [37]
supercooling as the end of phase between phase change and solid-state periods, agreement with that by DSC within
change period. (2) It doesnt include where the first derivative of T-history curve for 4% discrepancies.
the sensible heat in the phase change PCM becomes minimum. (2) The sensible heat
period. in the phase change period was considered in
the modified method.
Improve the presentation format of the The method is proposed to present the results The enthalpytemperature curves can [38]
original method. obtained in the form of enthalpytemperature value the variation of the thermal
curves. properties against temperature.
The original method using a vertically The accuracy of the measurement with the H m measured with the modified method [39]
oriented test tube, which will original T-history method was improved by is only a 2.1% error for distilled water
decrease the accuracy of PCMs with setting the test tube horizontally. They also and a 3.9% error for the paraffin; The
lower T m than ambient temperature suggested the addition of aluminum foil accuracy of the specific heat at the
because of nature convection. externally to avoid radiation effects. solid phase calculated by the low
temperature T-history method is low.
Cant handle granular materials The concept of enthalpy and its relationship with Experiments showed that the analysis of [40]
undergoing phase change over a temperature has been employed in the analysis temperature variation along the bed
temperature range and the accuracy to overcome these problems. shows good agreement with the
is limited by assumptions of constant Enthalpytemperature and apparent heat measured phase-change
temperature-dependent specific capacity curves were obtained. characteristics.
heats.
PCM wallboard In Yining, Xinjiang. Optimal Tm and thickness of The integrated discomfort degrees can be [51]
PCM are 26 C and 25 mm, exterior insulation with decreased by 35%.
thickness of 40 mm, nighttime ACH is 50 h1.
In Beijing typical summer day. Concretes with PCM Maximum indoor air temperature [52]
(Tm = 2832 C, Hm = 60 kJ/kg,), ACH = 20 h1 decreased by 2 C and temperature
for night ventilation. swing decreased.
In Beijing summer days. Optimal SSPCM values, Daily maximum temperature decreased by [53]
Tm = 26 C, Hm = 160 kJ/kg, k = 0.5 W/(m- C), L up to 2 C with SSPCM.
= 20 mm. Larger ACH is better.
Night ventilation with PCM (NVP) packed In Beijing June to July. PCM values, k = The COP (the ratio of cooling discharging [54]
bed system (Figure 5) 0.2 W/(m C), Tm = 2226 C, Hm = 190 kJ/kg. amount to the room to fan power
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Madras] at 22:17 01 November 2017
consumption) is 80.
Hybrid space-cooling system with In an office room in Beijing summer. PCM values, It saves 76% of daytime energy [55]
mechanical night ventilation and thermal k = 0.2 W/(m- C), Tm = 2226 C, Hm = 190 consumption compared with no night
storage using SSPCM. (Figure 6) kJ/kg. Nighttime ACH = 40 h1, daytime ACH = ventilation and SSPCM. The electrical
1 h1. COPs of night ventilation (the reduced
cooling energy/fan power) are 7.5 and
6.5 with and without SSPCM.
Experimental installation flat plate PCM A mean loading capacity of 3,000 W, inlet temperature A payback period of 34 years, and an [5658]
encapsulate during night of 16 C for 4 h, inlet temperature electric power 9.4 lower than the
during day of 30 C. Airflow rate should let Biot conventional one.
number near 1 to maximum heat transfer rate.
Graphite can be added to enhance heat transfer.
thermal performance. Similar works were completed by many and are much lighter in weight. The phase-change materials
other researchers, which are summarized in Table 4 [5962]. have been used to replace masonry in a Trombe wall. Experi-
PCM Trombe wall. Traditional Trombe walls rely on sensi- mental and theoretical tests have been conducted to investigate
ble heat storage, but because of the potential for greater heat the reliability of PCMs as a Trombe wall [6365], in order to
storage per unit mass, the PCM Trombe wall is an attractive analyze how PCM latent heat storage is useful to improve ther-
concept still awaiting successful implementation. A wall filled mal performance of an ordinary Trombe wall for passive solar
with PCM is constructed on the south-side window of a house. heating.
The wall is heated during the day by incoming solar radiation, PCM shutter. Soares et al. [66] proposed a PCM shutter for
melting the PCM. At night the heat is withdrawn to warm the buildings space heating during the winter. Based on the nu-
house. For a given amount of heat storage, the phase-change merical simulation results, the optimal melting temperature of
units require less space than water walls or mass Trombe walls the PCM in this system in Coimbra is 20 C. In their simulated
A direct gain room with SSPCM plates in SSPCM (cp = 1 kJ/(kg-K), Hm = 1.2 For given conditions, suitable Tm equal to [59]
Urumchi, Beijing, and Shanghai. kJ/kg, k = 0.2 W/m-K), with various the average indoor air temperature. Hm >
Tm in different places. 120 kJ/kg, k > 0.5 W/(m- C), L <
20 mm, air-gap between PCM plates and
the floor should be as smaller as possible.
A typical south-facing middle room in a Hm is 150 kJ/kg, and various melting Under given conditions, optimal Tm = 21 C. [60]
multi-layer building in Beijing. temperatures are considered for optimal Both mixed type PCM-gypsum and
selection. Mixed type PCM-gypsum is shape-stabilized PCM plates effectively
the compound of PCM and gypsum. shave the indoor temperature swing by
And SSPCM is compounded of PCM 46% and 56%.
and the supporting material-HDPE.
A 6 mm iron plate, the heat flux meter, the A commercial PCM wallboard (Knauf, Optimal Tm close to average room [61]
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Madras] at 22:17 01 November 2017
15 mm thick PCM wallboard and 200 mm Germany) containing encapsulated temperature to maximize the thermal heat
isopink insulation layer was placed in a organic phase change material was storage in the wallboards. Optimal L of
room where the room temperature was used. Tm = 297 K, Hm = 246 kJ/m2. PCM board is 15 mm and the thermal
manipulated using a number of convective energy storage reaches maximum for the
heaters and an air-conditioner. case of h = 3 W/m2 K. Time shift
decrease with h and range of Tm .
Three naturally ventilated, zones were PCM impregnated gypsum board. Hm = The PCMs did effectively store solar energy [62]
established to represent a middle portion 45 kJ/kg, Tm range = 1 K, k = in the transitions periods. The solar energy
of a multi-storey office. Weather data for 0.35 W/(m-K). Tm = 21 C, Mar. 612; stored in the PCMgypsum panels can
Warsaw (52 N) in 1982 was used for = 24 C Mar. 27Apr.2; = 27 C; = reduce the heating energy demand by up
simulations. 30 C, May 2329; July 1925. to 90% at times during the heating season.
cases, the total energy stored and released by the optimum sys- consumption from peak periods to the valley ones, which will
tem during a complete 24-hour-day cycle can reach 2501.3 kJ. generate great economic benefit [68]. Our research group pro-
Buddhi et al. [67] compared the thermal performance of a test posed some kinds of under-floor electric heating system with
cell (1 m 1 m 1 m) with and without a PCM window in PCMs, and they also studied the thermal performance of them
south direction. It was found that the heat storing capacity of the through numerical simulations and experiments. A summaru of
cell due to the presence of PCM increase up to 4 C for 45 h, our work and related research is shown in Table 5 [7074]. Also
and was used during nighttime. see Figure 7 [72].
Other off-peak electric heating systems with PCMs. Ham-
mou and Lacroix [75] proposed a new system that can store
Integration of PCMs With Off-Peak Electric Heating System and manage simultaneously and efficiently heat from solar and
in Buildings in Winter electric sources. In this system, called a hybrid thermal energy
storage system (HTESS), solar energy is stored during sunny
Integration of PCMs into building envelopes to store the days and recovered later at night or during cloudy days, while
heat produced by off-peak electricity can effectively transfer thermal electricity energy is stored during off-peak periods and
the peak electricity demand to off-peak times, which has similar recovered during on-peak periods. Through numerical simu-
benefits compared with an ice cooling storage system. Usu- lations with meteorological data for four consecutive winter
ally, the PCMs can be applied into the floors or other internal months in Montreal, Canada, the results showed that the elec-
building envelopes to absorb the off-peak heating energy. Some tricity consumption for space heating was reduced by nearly
researchers have presented related works on this topic. Our re- 32%. Also, more than 90% of the electric energy is consumed
search group has also analyzed and optimized the thermal com- during off-peak hours. Thus, much electric energy consumption
fort and energy-saving performance of this electric heating sys- and economic cost can be reduced.
tem with PCMs through numerical simulation and experiments.
In addition, there are some novel ideas regarding thermal storage
Solar Energy Storage and Heating System With PCMs
of the off-peak electricity for peak time heating.
Under-floor electric heating system with PCMs. There are Solar air heating systems with PCMs. Our research group
many benefits of using floor radiant heating systems with ther- proposed a new kind of solar energy heating system with shape-
mal energy storage: (1) It can use the floors to heat the in- stabilized PCM [76]. The solar radiation energy was gained by
door environment without additional complex installations [68]; an air solar collector, and the heated air was sent to the under-
(2) combination of thermal energy storage with electric heating floor space of the room by duct during the daytime. Then the
can improve the building energy efficiency without decreasing thermal energy was stored in the shape-stabilized PCM plates.
thermal comfort level [69]; and (3) it can transfer the electrical At night the heat energy stored in the PCM could be released into
heat transfer engineering vol. 35 nos. 1112 2014
R. CHENG ET AL. 979
In Beijing. Under-floor heating electrical SSPCM consists of 75 wt% paraffin and For the tested room, 3.3 kWh electric heat [70]
heating system in building with 25 wt% polyethylene as a supporting energy was shifted from the peak period to
SSPCM plates. material. Tm = 52 C, Hm = 150 kJ/kg. the off peak period every day, which was
54% of the total heat consumption.
In Beijing. Electric heating system with SSPCM consists of 75 wt% paraffin and The total electrical energy consumption [71]
ductless air supply and SSPCM for 25 wt% polyethylene as a supporting shifted from the peak period to the off-peak
thermal storage. material. Tm = 52 C, Hm = 150 kJ/kg. period, which would provide significant
economic benefits because of the different
day and night electricity tariffs.
On Jan.1 in Beijing. Electrical heating Tm = 312314 K, Hm = 150 kJ/kg, k = 14.3% energy consumption decreased [72]
phase change heat storage floor system 0.5 W/(m-K). compared with heat convectors, and the
(Figure 7). indoor temperature distribution is more
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Madras] at 22:17 01 November 2017
the room by ductless air supply. Advantages of this system are: Solar water heating systems with PCMs. Solar thermal en-
(1) The system is safe and reliable without heating pipes; (2) the ergy had been traditionally stored in the form of sensible heat
PCM floor can be maintained above 18 C when daytime solar by raising the temperature of water or rocks for later use. Al-
radiation is enough; and (3) heating is provided by radiation in though such systems are very simple, they are inefficient to
daytime and forced convection by fans in nighttime with stable store enough solar energy compared with latent heat storage.
speed, so the temperature difference in the whole room is very PCMs integration with solar water heaters attracted the inter-
small. ests of many researchers. Different designs of the system have
Figure 6 Daily variation of auxiliary cooling supply with and without SSPCM plates [55].
been proposed and analyzed by many researchers. Shukla [77] posed inverse problem method. Such analyses not only focus
designed two solar water heaters with paraffin as thermal en- on preparations of new PCMs to be used in buildings, but also
ergy storage material. It showed that on a 24-hour cycle basis, should emphasize optimal control strategies of the thermal en-
the two systems were able to deliver hot water during the night ergy storage system, which can coordinate with thermal energy
and morning with 45% and 60% efficiency, respectively. Rabin storage process of PCMs and make full use of renewable energy
et al. [78] designed an integrated solar collector storage system resources. (2) Accurate measurements are needed of thermal
with salt hydrate as the PCM. The salt hydrate eutectic mixture, physical properties of mixtures of PCMs integrated with build-
which is composed of 48% CaCl2 , 4.5% KCl, 0.4% NaCl, and ing construction materials. As thermal physical properties of
47.1% H2 O with a nucleating agent BaCl2 at 1% by weight, had small samples tested by conventional methods cant represent
a phase transition temperature of 2729 C and latent heat of fu- equivalent values of the inhomogeneous bulk materials, it is a
sion 164 kJ/kg. Tayeb [79] developed a system for domestic hot novel and important issue to design a measurement procedure
water using Na2 SO4 .10H2 O as a PCM and the optimal inlet flow for such materials. (3) The safety and long-term evaluation of
rate was determined to maintain constant-temperature water at PCMs integration with building envelopes is needed. (4) Ef-
the outlet. fective evaluation indexes considering thermal comfort level,
A novel structure of an integrated water pipe floor heating additive energy consumption, and economic cost should be pro-
system using shape-stabilized phase-change materials (SSPCM) posed to access the integrated performance of PCMs in different
for thermal energy storage was developed and experimentally buildings.
studied by Zeng et al. [80]. The results showed that the energy
storage ratio (ESR) of the SSPCM floor is much higher than
that of the non-SSPCM floor. The SSPCM floor heating system
can provide stable heat flux and prevent a large attenuation of CONCLUSIONS
the floor surface temperature. Also, the SSPCM floor heating
system dampens the indoor temperature swing by about 50% Based on the review work of energy-efficient building en-
and increases the minimum indoor air temperature by 23 C velopes with phase-change materials in this paper, some new
under experimental conditions. understandings of current works can be found: (1) The new
optimization method based on the inverse problem is more ef-
fective than conventional means in determining and explaining
the mechanisms of ideal building envelopes thermal physical
RELATING RESEARCH TOPICS FOR FUTURE STUDY properties; (2) in current studies, the analytical optimization of
PCMs thermal physical properties, which can provide a better
Although there have been many accomplishments achieved understanding, is much less compared with numerical studies;
through the already-mentioned studies, there are still some (3) current studies neglect the evaluation of long-term perfor-
points with high social and scientific values that need to be mance of PCMs and their safety impact on humans in building
further studied in the future: (1) Simultaneously analyze the co- envelopes; (4) low thermal conductivity and high cost are still
effects of thermal physical properties of PCMs with other key limitations preventing extensive applications of PCMs in build-
parameters in building envelopes design, and try to optimize ings; (5) many studies regarding the applications of PCMs in
their working parameters and control strategies through the pro- building envelope just focus on their thermal performance in a
heat transfer engineering vol. 35 nos. 1112 2014
R. CHENG ET AL. 981
This work was supported by the National Science Founda- 2010/indexch.htm, 2010 (in Chinese).
tion of China (51376098), National Basic Research Program of [2] Han, B., and Yang, D. N., Calculation and Analysis of En-
China (2010CB227305), National Science & Technology Pillar ergy Consumption of Energy Efficient Buildings in Heat-
Program in the Twelfth Five-year Plan Period (2013BAJ03B04), ing Period, Architectural Design Management, vol. 5, pp.
International Science & Technology Cooperation Program of 5660, 2006 (in Chinese).
China (2010DFA64240), and the Open Project of Subtropical [3] Wang, N. N., Chang, Y. C., and Dauber, V., Carbon Print
Building Science National Key Laboratories (2011KB16). Studies for the Energy Conservation Regulations of the
UK and China, Energy and Buildings, vol. 42, no. 5, pp.
695698, 2010.
NOMENCLATURE [4] Asan, H., Effects of Walls Insulation Thickness and Po-
sition on Time Lag and Decrement Factor, Energy and
A area (m2) Buildings, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 299305, 1998.
ACH air exchange rate (h1) [5] Zhang, Y. P., Lin, K. P., Zhang, Q. L., and Di, H. F., Ideal
cp specific heat (J kg1 C1) Thermal Physical Properties for Free-Cooling (or Heating)
E internal heat gain rate (W) Buildings With Constant Thermal Physical Property Mate-
f decrement factor rial, Energy and Buildings, vol. 38, no. 10, pp. 11641170,
I integrated discomfort degree for indoor air temperature 2006.
( C-h) [6] Zeng, R. L., Wang, X., Di, H. F., Jiang, F., and Zhang, Y.
k thermal conductivity (W m1 K1) P., New Concepts and Approach for Developing Energy
L thickness (m) Efficient Buildings: Ideal Specific Heat for Building Inter-
q soalr radiation flux (W/m2) nal Thermal Mass, Energy and Buildings, vol. 43, no. 5,
Q heating load (W) pp. 10811090, 2011.
SC shading coefficient [7] Xiao, W., Wang, X., and Zhang, Y. P., Analytical Optimiza-
t temperature ( C) tion of Interior PCM for Energy Storage in a Lightweight
t0 reference temperature with enthalpy equals zero ( C) Passive Solar Room, Applied Energy, vol. 86, no. 10, pp.
tL lower limit of phase-change temperature ( C) 20132018, 2009.
tH upper limit of phase-change temperature ( C) [8] Jiang, F., Wang, X., and Zhang Y. P., A New Method to
tin indoor air temperature ( C) Estimate Optimal Phase Change Material Characteristics
tp,max upper bound of the effective temperature range ( C) in a Passive Solar Room, Energy Conversion Management,
tp,min lower bound of the effective temperature range ( C) vol. 52, no. 6., pp. 24372441, 2011.
U overall heat transfer coefficient (W m2 K1) [9] Zhou, D., Zhao, C. Y., and Tian, Y., Review on Ther-
V volume (m3) mal Energy Storage With Phase Change Materials (PCMs)
in Building Applications, Applied Energy, vol. 92, pp.
593605, 2012.
Greek Symbols
[10] Farid, M. M., Khudhair, A. M., Razack, S. A. K., and Al-
Hallaj, S., A Review on Phase Change Energy Storage:
density (kg/m3)
Materials and Applications, Energy Conversion Manage-
time (s)
ment, vol. 45, pp. 15971615, 2004.
[11] Hasnain, S. W., Review on Sustainable Thermal Energy
Subscripts Storage Technologies, Part I: Heat Storage Materials and
Techniques, Energy Conversion Management., vol. 39, no.
a air 11, pp. 11271138, 1998.
heat transfer engineering vol. 35 nos. 1112 2014
982 R. CHENG ET AL.
[12] Hasnain, S. M., Review on Sustainable Thermal Energy Demulsifiers, Oil & Gas Science and Technology, vol. 63,
Storage Technologies, Part I: Heat Storage Materials and no. 1, pp. 165173, 2008.
Techniques, Energy Conversion Management, vol. 39, no. [27] Jamil, A., Kousksou, T., Omari, K.E., Zeraouli, Y., and
11, 11271138, 1998. Guer, Y. L., Heat Transfer in Salt Solutions Enclosed in
[13] Li, W. D., and Ding, E. Y., Preparation and Characterization DSC Cells, Thermochim Acta, vol. 507508, pp. 1520,
of Cross-Linking PEG/MDI/PE Copolymer as SolidSolid 2010.
Phase Change Heat Storage Material, Solar Energy Mate- [28] Francesco C., Chiara M., Maria, G. S., Rosario P., and
rials and Solar Cells, vol. 91, no. 9, pp. 764765, 2007. Giovanni P., Eudragit as Controlled Release System for
[14] Jiang, Y., Ding, E. Y., and Li, G. K., Study on Transition Anti-Inflammatory Drugs: A Comparison Between DSC
Characteristics of PEG/CDA SolidSolid Phase Change and Dialysis Experiments, Thermochimica Acta, vol. 400,
Materials, Polymer, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 117120, 2002. no. 12, pp. 227234, 2003.
[15] Pielichowski, K., and Flejtuch, K., Thermal Properties of [29] Gao, J. M., Ding, L. X., and Hu, C. Q., A Comparative Un-
Poly(ethylene oxide)/Lauric Acid Blends: A SSADSC certainty Study of the Purity Assessment of Chemical Ref-
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Madras] at 22:17 01 November 2017
Study, Thermochimica Acta, vol. 442, no. 12, pp. 1824, erence Substances Using Differential Scanning Calorime-
2006. try (DSC) and Mass Balance Method, Thermochimica
[16] Pielichowski, K., and Flejtuch, K, Binary Blends of Acta, vol. 525, no. 12, pp. 18, 2011.
Polyethers With Fatty Acids: A Thermal Characterization [30] Gajdos, J., Galic, K., Kurtanjek, Z., and Cikovic, N., Gas
of the Phase Transitions, Journal of Applied Polymer Sci- Permeability and DSC Characteristics of Polymers Used
ence, vol. 90, no. 3, pp. 861870, 2003. in Food Packaging, Polymer Test, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 4957,
[17] Jiang, S., Yu, D., Ji, X., An, L., and Jiang, B., Confined 2000.
Crystallization Behavior of PEO in Silica Networks, Poly- [31] Schawe, J. E. K., and Winter, W., The Influence of Heat
mer, vol. 41,no. 6, 20412046, 2000. Transfer on Temperature-Modulated DSC Measurements,
[18] Grandi, S., Magistris, A., Mustarelli, P., Quartarone, E., Thermochimica Acta, vol. 298, no. 12, pp. 916, 1997.
Tomasi, C., and Meda, L., Synthesis and Characterization [32] Sarge, S. M., and Poenecker, W., The Influence of Heat
of SiO2 PEG hybrid Materials, Journal of Non-Crystalline Resistances and Heat Transfers on the Uncertainty of Heat-
Solids, vol. 352, no. 3, pp. 273280, 2006. Capacity Measurements by Means of Differential Scan-
[19] Zhou, G. B., Zhang, Y. P., Lin, K. P., and Xiao, W., ning Calorimetry (DSC), Thermochimica Acta, vol. 329,
Thermal Analysis of a Direct-Gain Room With Shape- no. 1, pp. 1721, 1999.
Stabilized PCM Plates, Renewable Energy, vol. 33, no. 6, [33] Kousksou, T., Jamil, A., El Omari, K., Zeraouli, Y., and Le
pp. 12281236, 2008. Guer, Y., Effect of Heating Rate and Sample Geometry on
[20] Xu, J., Wan, X., Zhang, B. Q., Wang, Y., Guo, B. H., Zhang, the Apparent Specific Heat Capacity: DSC Applications,
Y. P., and Wang, X., Preparation of Phase Change Ma- Thermochimica Acta, vol. 519, no. 12, pp. 5964, 2011.
terial WAX/P(MMA-co-AA) Core-Shell Microcapsules, [34] Schawe, J., and Schick, C., Influence of the Heat Conduc-
Acta Polymerica Sinica, vol. 11, pp. 11541156, 2009 (in tivity of the Sample on DSC Curves and Its Correction,
Chinese). Thermochimica Acta, vol. 187, pp. 335349, 1991.
[21] Wan, X., Wang, Y., Xu, J., Cheng, B. H., and Guo, B. H., [35] Simon, S. L., and McKenna, G. B., The Effects of
Preparation and Characterization of Microcapsule Con- Structural Recovery and Thermal Lag in Temperature-
taining Phase Change Materials for Functionally Thermal Modulated DSC Measurements, Thermochimica Acta, vol.
Fluid, Plastics, vol. 35, no. 6, pp. 1114, 2006 (in Chinese). 307, no. 1, pp. 110, 1997.
[22] Zhang, Y. P., and Jiang, Y., A Simple Method, the T-History [36] Alden, M., Wulff, M., and Herdinius, S., Influence of Se-
Method, of Determining the Heat of Fusion, Specific Heat lected Variables on Heat of Fusion Determinations by Os-
and Thermal Conductivity of Phase-Change Materials, cillating DSC, Thermochimica Acta, vol. 265, pp. 89102,
Measurement Science & Technology, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 1995.
201205, 1999. [37] Hong, H., Kim, S. K., and Kim, Y. S., Accuracy Improve-
[23] Hohne, G. W. H., Hemminger, W., and Flammersheim, ment of T-History Method for Measuring Heat of Fusion of
H. J., Differential Scanning Calorimetry, SpringerVerlag, Various Materials, International Journal of Refrigeration,
Berlin, Germany, 1996. vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 360366, 2004.
[24] Hemminger, W., and Hohne, G., Calorimetry Fundamen- [38] Marin, J. M., Zalba, B., Cabeza, L. F., and Mehling,
tals and Practice, Verlag Chemie, Weinheim, Germany, H., Determination of Enthalpy-Temperature Curves of
1984. Phase Change Materials With the Temperature-History
[25] Merzlyakov, M., and Schick, C., Thermal Conductivity Method: Improvement to Temperature Dependent Prop-
From Dynamic Response of DSC, Thermochimica Acta, erties, Measurement Science & Technology, vol. 14, no. 2,
vol. 377, no. 1, pp. 183191, 2001. pp. 184189, 2003.
[26] Dalmazzone, C., Noik, C., and Clausse, D., Destabilisation [39] Hong, H. K., Peck, J. H., Kim, J. J., and Kang, C. D., A
of Water-in-Crude Oil Emulsions by Silicone Copolymer Study of Accurate Latent Heat Measurement for a PCM
heat transfer engineering vol. 35 nos. 1112 2014
R. CHENG ET AL. 983
With a Low Melting Temperature Using T-History Method, gree Thesis, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, 2001 (in
International Journal of Refrigeration, vol. 29, no. 7, pp. Chinese).
12251232, 2006. [53] Zhou, G. B., Yang, Y. P., Wang, X., and Zhou, S. X.,
[40] Rady, M. A., Eric, A., and Cedric, L. B., Characterization Numerical Analysis of Effect of Shape-Stabilized Phase
of Granular Phase Changing Composites for Thermal En- Change Material Plates in a Building Combined With
ergy Storage Using the T-History Method, International Night Ventilation, Appl. Energ., vol. 86, no. 1, pp. 5259,
Journal of Energy Research, vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 333344, 2009.
2010. [54] Kang, Y. B., Jiang, Y., and Zhang, Y. P., Modeling and
[41] Khudhair, A. M., and Farid, M. M., A Review on En- Experimental Study on an Innovative Passive Cooling
ergy Conservation in Building Applications With Thermal SystemNVP System, Energy and Buildings, vol. 35, no.
Storage by Latent Heat Using Phase Change Materials, En- 4, 417425, 2003.
ergy Conversion Management, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 263275, [55] Zhou, G. B., Yang, Y. P., and Xu, H., Energy Performance
2004. of a Hybrid Space-Cooling System in an Office Building
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Madras] at 22:17 01 November 2017
[42] Mettawee, E. B. S., and Assassa, G. M. R., Experimental Using SSPCM Thermal Storage and Night Ventilation, So-
Study of a Compact PCM Solar Collector, Energy, vol. 31, lar Energy, vol. 85, no. 3, pp. 477485, 2011.
no. 14, pp. 29582968, 2006. [56] Zalba, B., Marin, J. M., Cabeza, L. F., and Mehling, H.,
[43] Varol, Y., Koca, A., Oztop, H. F., and Avci, E., Forecasting Free-Cooling of Buildings With Phase Change Materials,
of Thermal Energy Storage Performance of Phase Change International Journal of Refrigeration, vol. 27, no. 8, pp.
Material in a Solar Collector Using Soft Computing Tech- 839849, 2004.
niques, Expert Systems with Applications, vol. 37, no. 4, [57] Zalba, B., Marin, J. M., Sanchez-Valverde, B., and Cabeza,
pp. 27242732, 2010. L. F., Free Cooling; An Application of PCMS in TES, in
[44] Hussein, H. M. S., El-Ghetany, H. H., and Nada, S. IEA, ECES IA, annex 17, 3rd workshop, 2002.
A., Experimental Investigation of Novel Indirect Solar [58] Marin, J. M., Zalba, B., Cabeza, L. F., and Mehling,
Cooker With Indoor PCM Thermal Storage and Cooking H., Improvement of Thermal Storage Using Plates With
Unit, Energy Conversion Management, vol. 49, no. 8, pp. ParaffinGraphite Composite, International Journal of
22372246, 2008. Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 48, no. 12, pp. 25612570,
[45] Weng, Y. C., Cho, H. P., Chang, C. C., and Chen S. L., Heat 2005.
Pipe With PCM for Electronic Cooling, Applied Energy, [59] Xu, X., Zhang, Y. P., Lin, K. P., Di, H. F., and Yang,
vol. 88, no. 5, pp. 18251833, 2011. R., Modeling and Simulation on the Thermal Performance
[46] de Gracia, A., Oro, E., Farid, M. M., and Cabeza, L. of Shape-Stabilized Phase Change Material floor Used in
F., Thermal Analysis of Including Phase Change Mate- Passive Solar Buildings, Energy and Buildings, vol. 37, no.
rial in a Domestic Hot Water Cylinder, Applied Ther- 10, pp. 10841091, 2005.
mal Engineering, vol. 31, no. 1718, pp. 39383945, [60] Zhou, G. B., Zhang, Y. P., Wang, X., Lin, K. P., and Xiao,
2011. W., An Assessment of Mixed Type PCM-Gypsum and
[47] Mazman, M., Cabeza, L. F., Mehling, H., Nogues, M., Shape-Stabilized PCM Plates in a Building for Passive So-
Evliya, H., and Paksoy, H. O., Utilization of Phase Change lar Heating, Solar Energy, vol. 81, no. 11, pp. 13511360,
Materials in Solar Domestic Hot Water Systems, Renew- 2007.
able Energy, vol. 34, no. 6, pp. 16391643, 2009. [61] Koo, J., So, H., Hong, S. W., and Hong, H., Effects of Wall-
[48] Alawadhi, E. M., Using Phase Change Materials in board Design Parameters on the Thermal Storage in Build-
Window Shutter to Reduce the Solar Heat Gain, En- ings, Energy and Buildings, vol. 43, no. 8, pp. 19471951,
ergy and Buildings, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild. 2011.
2011.12.009, 2011. [62] Heim, D., and Clarke, J. A., Numerical Modelling and
[49] Ismail, K. A. R., and Henrquez, J. R., Thermally Effec- Thermal Simulation of PCMGypsum Composites With
tive Windows With Moving Phase Change Material Cur- ESP-r, Energy and Buildings, vol. 36, no. 8, pp. 795805,
tains, Applied Thermal Engineering., vol. 21, no. 18, pp. 2004.
19091923, 2001. [63] Swet, C. J., Phase Change Storage in Passive Solar Ar-
[50] Wang, X., and Niu, J., Performance of Cooled-Ceiling Op- chitecture, Proceedings of the 5th national passive solar
erating With MPCM Slurry, Energy Conversion Manage- conference, pp. 282286, 1980.
ment, vol. 50, no. 3, pp. 583591, 2009.. [64] Ghoneim, A. A., Klein, S. A., and Duffie, J. A., Analysis
[51] Lin, K. P., Zhang, Y. P., and Jiang, Y., Simulation and De- of CollectorStorage Building Walls Using Phase Change
signing of PCM Wall Board Room Combined With Con- Materials, Solar Energy, vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 237242, 1991.
trolled Night Ventilation in Summer, Acta Energiae Solaris [65] Chandra, S., Kumar, R., Kaushik, S., and Kaul, S., Thermal
Sinica, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 145150, 2003 (in Chinese). Performance of a Non A/C Building With PCCM Thermal
[52] Zhong, Z. P., Study on the Thermal Performance of PCM Storage Wall, Energy Conversion Management, vol. 25,
Wallboard Rooms Under Night Ventilation, Masters De- no. 1, pp. 1520, 1985.
heat transfer engineering vol. 35 nos. 1112 2014
984 R. CHENG ET AL.
[66] Soares, N., Samagaio, A., Vicente, R., and Costa, J., [77] Shukla, A., Heat Transfer Studies on Phase Change Materi-
Numerical Simulation of a PCM Shutter for Buildings als and Their Utilization in Solar Water Heaters, Ph.D. De-
Space Heating During the Winter, World Renewable En- gree Thesis, Devi Ahilya University, Indore, India, 2006.
ergy Congress (WREC), Sweden, pp. 268271, 2011. [78] Rabin, Y., Bor-Miv, I., and Karin, E., Integrated Solar
[67] Buddhi, D., Mishra, H. S., and Sharma A., Thermal Per- Collector Storage System Based on a Salt Hydrate Phase
formance Studies of a Test Cell Having a PCM Window in Change Material, Solar Energy, vol. 55, no. 6, pp. 435444,
South Direction, Annex 17, Indore, India, 2003. 1995.
[68] Dale, J. D., and Ackerman, M. Y., A Comparison of Radi- [79] Tayeb, A. M., A Simulation Model for a Phase Change En-
ant floor and Forced Air Heating, Proceedings of the 15th ergy Storage System: Experimental and Verification, En-
Annual SESCI Conference, 1989. ergy Conversion Management, vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 243250,
[69] Zhang, Y. P., Lin, K. P., Yang, R., Di, H. F., and Jiang, 1993.
Y., Preparation, Thermal Performance and Application of [80] Zeng, R. L., Wang, X., Xiao, W., Zhang, Y. P., Zhang, Q. L.,
Shape-Stabilized PCM in Energy Efficient Buildings, En- and Di, H. F., Thermal Performance of Phase Change Mate-
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Madras] at 22:17 01 November 2017
ergy and Buildings, vol. 38, no. 10, pp. 12621269, 2006. rial Energy Storage Floor for Active Solar Water-Heating
[70] Lin, K. P., Zhang, Y. P., Xu, Y., Di, H. F., Yang, R., and Qin, System, Frontiers of Energy and Power Engineering in
P. H., Experimental Study of Under floor Electric Heating China, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 185191, 2010 (in Chinese).
System With Shape-Stabilized PCM Plates, Energy and
Buildings, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 215220, 2005. Rui Cheng is a Ph.D. student in the Department of
Building Science, Tsinghua University, China. He
[71] Lin, K. P., Zhang, Y. P., Di, H. F., and Yang, R., Study
worked on the new concepts and methods to de-
of an Electrical Heating System With Ductless Air Supply velop sustainable buildings, applications of phase-
and Shape-Stabilized PCM for Thermal Storage, Energy change materials in building envelopes and their test-
Conversion Management, vol. 48, no. 7, pp. 20162024, ing methods. He obtained his bachelors degree from
2007. North China Electric Power University (2010).
[72] Luo, X. X., Zhang, Y. P., and Lin, K. P., Numerical Sim-
ulation and Analysis on Thermal Performance of Electric
Heating Floor With Phase Change Material Heat Storage,
Xin Wang is an associate professor in the Department
Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning, vol. 34, no. 11, of Building Science, Tsinghua University, China. She
pp. 59, 2004 (in Chinese). received her Ph.D. degree from Southeast University
[73] Li, J. L., Xue, P., He, H., Ding, W. Y., and Han, J. M., Prepa- (2001). She is now focusing on sustainable energy ap-
ration and Application Effects of a Novel Form-Stable plication, heat and mass transfer, and energy storage
in the built environment. She won the New Century
Phase Change Material as the Thermal Storage Layer of
Excellent Talent Award (2009) and the Second-Rate
an Electric Floor Heating System, Energy and Buildings, Prize in Science of the Ministry of Education of China
vol. 41, no. 8, pp. 871880, 2009. (2005).
[74] Farid, M. M., and Chen, X. D., Domestic Electrical Space
Heating With Heat Storage, Proc. Institute of Mechanical
Engineering, vol. 213, no. A2, pp. 8392, 1999. Yinping Zhang is a professor and director of the
[75] Hammou, A. Z., and Lacroix, M., A New PCM Storage Institute of Built Environment, Department of Build-
System for Managing Simultaneously Solar and Electric ing Science, Tsinghua University, China. He is the
Energy, Energy and Buildings, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 258265, administrative deputy director and secretary-in-chief
2006. of Chinese Association of Indoor Environment and
Health. His research interests are indoor air quality,
[76] Xiao, W., Wang, X., Zhang, Q. L., Di, H. F., and Zhang, Y. heat and mass transfer, and energy storage in the built
P., Experimental Study on Underfloor Air Supply System environment. He has published more than 100 inter-
With Air Solar Collector and Shape-Stabilized PCM, Acta national journal papers. He serves on the editorial or
Energiae Solaris Sinica, vol. 29, no. 11, pp. 13191323, advisory boards of seven international journals, such
2008 (in Chinese). as Indoor Air, Built Environment, and Indoor and Built Environment.