FAULT

Internal structures of earth

Crust cooler, thin outer layer
Mantle hot middle portion
Core hottest inner portion
Lithosphere crust and the uppermost part of the mantle together form a solid rocky
sphere
Lithospheric plates or tectonic plates lithosphere broken into segments
Theory of plate tectonics the tectonic plates are moved by the hot plastic mantle
beneath the lithosphere

Fault
Is a break in Earths crust where slabs of crust slip past each other.
Usually occur along plate boundaries, where the forces of plate motion compress,
pull, or shear the crust so much that the crust breaks.
Rock fractures where a block of rock moves with respect to another, caused by
forces which may be vertical or inclined at an angle.
Fault plane - the plane along which the rock or crustal material has fractured
Hanging Wall Block - the rock material which lies above the fault plane, It is always
above the fault.
Footwall Block - the rock material which lies below the fault plane, It is always under
the fault.

Types of Faults
Normal Fault
Caused by tension forces where plates diverge
The fault is at an angle
One block lies above the fault (hanging wall)
The other block lies below the fault (footwall)
When movement occurs along a normal fault, the hanging wall slips downward
Reverse Fault
Caused by compression forces along convergent plate boundaries
Has the same structure as a normal fault, but blocks move in opposite direction
One side lies at an angle above the other
Where the hanging wall is displaced upward relative to the footwall
OR where the footwall is displaced downward relative to the hanging wall
Strike-slip Fault
Created by shearing along transform boundaries
Rocks on either side of fault slip past each other sideways with little up-or-down
motion

FAULTS AND EARTHQUAKES

Earthquakes generate waves that travel through the earth

Earthquakes occur when rocks slip along faults
 Faults are classified by the kinds of movement that occur along them
Earthquakes dont kill people, buildings kill people
Magnitude and Intensity
Seismic waves are used to map the earths interior
Predicting earthquakes is not yet possible

Seismograph made up of seismometer and a recorder

Seismometer detects the seismic waves
Seismic waves - waves of energy that travel through the earth
Body waves - seismic waves that travel through the Earths interior
P wave
S wave
Surface waves seismic waves that travel along the earths surface

P Waves Shear waves

Pressure waves Cant travel through parts
of the Earth that are all
Waves that travel through
liquid
solids, liquids, and gases
Slower than P Waves and
Fastest waves
arrive later
Also called primary waves
Also called secondary
Move rock back and forth waves
squeezing and stretching
Stretch the rock sideways,
the rock
movement is side to side
S Waves

Focus - Location within the earth where fault rupture actually occurs
Epicenter - Location on the surface above the focus

Faults Are Classified According to the Kind of Motion That Occurs on Them:
Joints - No Movement
Strike-Slip - Horizontal Motion
Dip-Slip - Vertical Motion

Strike slip fault

Right lateral
Left lateral
Dip slip fault
Normal Faults: Extension
Reverse Faults: Compression
 Reverse Faults are often called Thrust Faults

Major hazards of earthquake

Building collapse
Landslide
Fire
Tsunami
Safest and most dangerous buildings
Small, Wood-frame House - Safest
Steel-Frame
Reinforced Concrete
Unreinforced Masonry
Adobe - Most Dangerous

Tsunami
Probably Caused by Submarine Landslides
Travel about 400 M.p.h.
Pass Unnoticed at Sea, Cause Damage on Shore
Warning Network Around Pacific Can Forecast Arrival
Whether or Not Damage Occurs Depends on:
Direction of Travel
Harbor Shape
Bottom
Tide & Weather

Intensity
How Strong Earthquake Feels to Observer
Depends on:
Distance to Quake
Geology
Type of Building
Observer
Varies from place to place
Mercalli Scale- 1 to 12

Magnitude
Related to Energy Release
Determined from Seismic Records
Rough correlation between the two for shallow earthquakes
Richter Scale:
Related to Energy Release Magnitude-Energy Relation
Exponential 4-1
No Upper or Lower Bounds 5 - 30
Largest Quakes about Mag. 8.7 6 - 900:
1 Megaton = about 7
7 - 27,000
 8 - 810,000
A Seismograph Measures Ground Motion at One Instant But --
A Really Great Earthquake Lasts Minutes
Releases Energy over Hundreds of Kilometers
Need to Sum Energy of Entire Record
Modifies Richter Scale, doesn't replace it
Adds about 1 Mag. To 8+ Quakes

Seismology and Earth's Interior

1. Assume the Earth is uniform.
We know it isn't, but it's a useful place to start. It's a simple matter to
predict when a seismic signal will travel any given distance.
2. Actual seismic signals don't match the predictions
If we match the arrival times of nearby signals, distant signals arrive too
soon
If we match the arrival times of distant signals, nearby signals arrive too
late.
Signals are interrupted beyond about 109 degrees
3. conclude:
a) Distant signals travel through deeper parts of the Earth, therefore ..
b) Seismic waves travel faster through deeper parts of the Earth, therefore .
c) They travel curving paths (refract)
d) Also, there is an obstacle in the center (the core).

Strategies of Earthquake Prediction

Lengthen Historical Data Base Long-term Prediction

Historical Records Seismic Gaps
Paleoseismology Risk Levels
Short-term Prediction Modeling
Precursors Dilatancy - Diffusion
Stick - Slip
Asperities (kinks)
Crack Propagation

Some Important Earthquakes

1755 - Lisbon, Portugal 1811-1812 - New Madrid, Missouri

Killed 70,000, Raised Waves in Felt over 2/3 of the U.S.
Lakes all over Europe
Few Casualties
First Scientifically Studied
1886 - Charleston, South Carolina
Earthquake
 Felt All over East Coast, Killed 1923 Tokyo - Killed 140,000 in
Several Hundred. firestorm
First Widely-known U.S. 1964 - Alaska
Earthquake
Killed about 200
Wrecked Anchorage.
1906 - San Francisco
Tsunamis on West Coast.
Killed 500 (later studies, possibly
1976 - Tangshan, China
2,500)
Hit an Urban Area of Ten Million
First Revealed Importance of
People
Faults
Killed 650,000

TYPHOON

Typhoon
A weather event that is common in the Philippine
A severe weather disturbance
It is developed in the north east pacific ocean
Air mass - a large body of air
Front the boundary between two air masses with different temperature
Warm front air mass that is warmer than a surface
Cold front air mass that is colder than the surface
Tropical depression wind speed less than 63 km/h
Tropical storm wind speed from 63 to 118 km/m
Typhoon wind speed of more than 118 km/h

Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration

(PAGASA) in charge of observing, studying recording weather conditions in the
Philippines. Monitors weather disturbances from the time a low pressure area is spotted
into and exit out of the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR), Department Of
Science and Technology (DOST)
Eye calm area in the center of a tropical cyclone and bordered by the spinning winds
Southwest monsoon (habagat) strongest around July and October
Northeast monsoon (amihan) strongest from November to February

Public storm warning signal (PSWS)

PSWS #1
All preschool classes in affected areas are automatically suspended
Winds 30-60kph may be expected in at least 36 hours
PSWS #2
Classes in preschool, elementary and high school are suspended
 Winds of greater than 60kph up to 100kph may be expected in at least 24
hours
PSWS #3
There are areas that are easily affected by flooding, suspension of
classes is now upon the discretion of officials in affected areas
Wind of greater than 100kh up to 185kph may be expected in at least 18
hours
PSWS #4
Very strong winds of more than 185kph may be expected in at least 12
hours

Weather map
Basic tool of weather forecasting
Shows the pattern of pressure, temperature, humidity and wind speed at different
levels of the atmosphere
Two kinds of weather map:
Surface map made four times a day at 6-hour intervals
Upper air map constructed twice a day at 12-hour intervals
Barometer pressure measurements are done for plotting isobars
Isobars lines on a weather map indicating places around the world that have the
same pressure
Thermometer used for recording the minimum and maximum temperatures
Thermograph a recording thermometer
Sling psychrometer used to measure relative humidity
Two thermometers:
Regular thermometer
Has a water-soaked cotton cloth or muslin wick around its bulb
Hygrograph continuously records relative humidity
Rain gauge measures the amount of rain
Radiosonde measures weather conditions at upper levels of the atmosphere
Radar detects weather conditions at high altitudes

Humidity amount of water vapor in air