What is hard facing?

Metal parts often fail their intended use not because they fracture, but because they wear by
abrasion, impact, metal-to-metal contact or some other form of wear, which causes them to lose
dimension and functionality. Hard facing, also known as hard surfacing, is the application of a
build-up or wear-resistant weld metal onto a part's surface by means of welding to extend the life
of the part. The weld metal may be applied as a solid surface or in a pattern, such as a waffle
pattern, herringbone or dot pattern, etc.
Hard facing is becoming increasingly important for many industries to protect equipment that is
exposed to wear and abrasion.. Hard facing can be used to recondition parts that have already
been exposed to wear and have lost their useful life, or used in the manufacture of new parts to
improve their life before they are put into service.

There are three main types of hard facing applications:

Build-up or Rebuilding/Buffering : Seriously worn areas should be rebuilt close to
working size using tough, crack-resistant welding materials which can be deposited in an
unlimited number of layers
Hard facing or Overlay: Wear resistant surfaces deposited on the base metal or on
build-up deposits extend service life. Hard facing is usually limited to one, two, or three
layers
A Combination of Build-up and Overlay
To avoid the risk of cracking in the hammer itself, it is advisable to apply a tough buffer
layer before hard facing low-alloy steel.
For this purpose, one layer of OK 67.45, OK 68.81 is applied.
Build up on manganese steel with OK 86.28 and hard face as for low-alloy steel. OK 86.30
combines abrasion and impact resistance.

2. What base metals can be hard faced?

Carbon and low-alloy steels with carbon contents of less than 1 percent can be hard faced.
Medium carbon and low-alloy steels are very common since they provide higher strength than
mild steels and better abrasion resistance. High carbon alloys may require a special buffer layer.
The following base metals can be hard faced:
Stainless steels
Manganese steels
Carbon and alloy steels
Cast irons
Nickel-base alloys
Copper-base alloys
Carbon and low-alloy steels are strongly magnetic and can easily be distinguished from
austenitic manganese steel which is non-magnetic. There are many low-alloy and higher carbon
steels that are used for manufacturing equipment and spare parts, especially equipment that
requires higher strength and abrasion resistance. They are not easily differentiated, but should be
identified in order to determine proper preheat and post heat temperature. As the alloy content
increases, the need for preheat and post heat becomes more critical.
3. What are the most popular welding processes used to apply hard facing?
In order of popularity, the following welding processes are used:
Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) with open-arc or gas-shielded hard facing wire
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) with gas-shielded wire
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
Submerged arc welding (SAW)
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
Oxy-fuel welding (OFW) or oxyacetylene welding
Plasma transferred arc welding, laser welding, thermal spray, and spray and fuse

Factors to be considered when selecting a suitable welding process:

Welding equipment availability, including size of power source
Weld with stick electrode or semi-automatic wire
Availability of hard facing consumables
Size of welding consumable
Gas-shielded wire, open-arc wire, or submerged arc wire
Operator skill available
Welding location indoors or outdoors
Component size, shape and the area to be hard faced
Thickness of deposit
Deposition rate
Welding position can the component be moved for welding in the flat position
Machining requirements if any
Desired finish (sub arc quality?)
Component preparation for previously hard faced parts
Preheat and post welding treatments (temper/slow cool/air cool)
Consumable Selection
Welding material selection depends upon three major factors:
1. Base Metal: - primarily affects the choice of build-up materials.
a. Manganese steel is used for components subject to high impact loading. Rebuild to size using
manganese steel weld deposits.
b. Carbon and alloy steel components are rebuilt to size using low alloy steel weld deposits.
2. Type of Wear: - The primary consideration in selecting the final hard facing layers is the type
of wear to be encountered in service. These include:
a. Metal to Metal Friction: - Wear from steel parts rolling or sliding against each other with little
or no lubrication.
b. Severe Impact: - Wear from severe pounding which tends to squash, gouge and crack the
surface. Manganese steel deposits, which work hardens in service, provide the greatest impact
wear resistance.
c. Abrasion plus Impact: - Wear from gritty material accompanied by heavy pounding which
tends to chip or crack, as well as grind, away the surface.
d. Severe Abrasion: - Wear from gritty materials which grind or erode the surface. Severe
abrasion is often accompanied by heavy compression or moderate impact. Hard deposits are
required to resist abrasion but they may also need substantial impact resistance.
e. Metal-to-Earth Abrasion :- Wear from earth-like materials accompanied by moderate impact
(pounding.)
f. Corrosion: - Chemical attack. In many, if not most cases, the effective wear is a result of a
combination of two or more of the phenomena described in this section.
3. Arc Welding Method: - The choice of arc welding method depends primarily upon the size
and number of components, available positioning equipment and frequency of hardfacing.
Available methods are as follows:
a. Manual Welding using stick electrodes requires the least amount of equipment and provides
maximum flexibility for welding in remote locations and all positions.
b. Semiautomatic Welding uses wire feeders and self-shielded, flux-cored electrodes increasing
deposition rates over manual welding.
c. Automatic Welding requires the greatest amount of initial setup, but provides the highest
deposition rates for maximum productivity. It can be done with combinations of:
(1) Neutral flux and alloy wire.
(2) Alloy flux and mild steel wire.
(3) Self-shielded flux-cored wire with or without flux.

6. Is there a convenient way to categorize the many hard facing alloys that are available
when determining which hard facing alloy to use?
Yes. Iron-base alloys can be divided into four main categories:
Martensitic This includes all hardenable steels with Rockwell hardness from 20 to 65
HRC. They are good for metal-to-metal and abrasive wear. They also can withstand a great
deal of impact. The alloys below 45 HRC are generally used for build-up prior to hard facing,
or to restore dimension and the part must be machined after welding. Higher hardness
martensitic alloys, above 50 HRC are used for abrasion resistance.
Austenitic Austenitic alloys include work-hardening manganese steels and stainless. This
group is generally soft when welded and hardens only after the weld metal is worked under
repeated impact. They have good impact properties and moderate abrasion resistance.
Austenitic manganese steel is generally found around crushers, railroad track frogs and
crossings, and shovel teeth. Stainless steels are good for corrosion resistance.
Metal carbide and soft austenitic matrix These alloys contain large amounts of metal
carbides in softer matrix and are good for severe abrasion applications. The alloys that
contain large amounts of chromium and carbon are known as the chromium carbide family
and are closer to a cast iron or white iron. They sometimes contain additional amounts of
niobium, vanadium and other elements. Their harnesses range from 40 HRC to 65 HRC.
Alloys that contain large amounts of tungsten and carbon belong to the tungsten carbide
family. Some contain small amounts of boron that form borides and are good for severe-
abrasion applications
Metal carbide in hard martensitic matrix The martensitic matrix is essentially a tool
steel with hardness in the range of 45 HRC to 60 HRC. These alloys contain additions of
niobium, vanadium, molybdenum or titanium. With proper procedures they can usually be
applied without stress cracks
7. Many hard facing alloys crack. Is this normal?
It depends on the hard facing alloy. Many chromium carbide alloys, check-crack when cooled to
moderate temperatures; this is normal. Others, such as the austenitic and martensitic families,
don't crack when applied with proper welding procedures.
8. What is check-cracking?
Check-cracking, or checking as it's sometimes called, occurs in the chromium carbide families
and can be identified as cracks that are perpendicular to the bead length. They generally occur
from 3/8 (8 mm) to 2 (50 mm) apart and are the result of high stresses induced by the
contraction of weld metal as it cools.
The cracks propagate through the thickness of the weld bead and stop at the parent metal, as long
as it's not brittle. In cases in which the parent metal is hard or brittle, you should select a buffer
layer of a softer, tougher weld metal. The austenitic family is a good choice for a buffer deposit.
9. What is meant by hard facing pattern?
When working in rocky earth, ore or slag, the goal is to not trap the soil on the surface, but to
protect the surface underneath from abrasion caused by the movement of the rocks over the
surface. This can be done by applying a series of ridges or weld beads parallel to the flow of
material, like rails. This will prevent the rocky soil from coming in contact with the surface.
When working in dirt or sand, apply hard face weld beads spaced from 1/4" (6.4 mm) to 1-1/2"
(38 mm) apart and perpendicular or against the flow of an abrasive material. Forcing the material
to compact between the weld beads works well for finely grained sands and soils.
Apply a dot pattern to areas that do not see heavy abrasion, but are subjected to wear, or when
weld areas are hard to reach. A dot pattern is also used on thin base metals, when distortion and
warpage may be an issue from overheating of the base metal.
When working in soil with some clay content, the goal is to use a hard facing pattern that traps
the soil on the surface, forming a layer of trapped soil that will protect the surface underneath.
This is best done with a crosshatch or waffle pattern. This pattern also works well when there is a
combination of fine and coarse soil.

Fig 1 Dot Hard facing Pattern

Fig 2 Cross Hatch Hardface Pattern
10. Can cast iron be hard faced?
Yes, but you consider preheat and interpass temperatures. Nickel and nickel-iron products
usually are suitable for rebuilding cast iron. These products aren't affected by the carbon content
of the parent metal and remain ductile. Multiple layers are possible. If further wear protection is
required, metal carbide products can work well on top of the nickel or nickel-iron build-up.
These frequently asked questions only begin to address hard facing. Hard facing product
manufacturers and specialists can contribute to a greater in-depth understanding of hard facing
and help assist you in product and process selection for your application.

Hard facing procedures

Cleanliness: The first requirement is that the workpiece be clean and free of rust or heat scale.
Wire brushing, grinding and/or solvent washing may be required to remove dirt, grease, rust, etc.
The degree of cleanliness required is greater when gas hardfacing is to be used and for this
process the job should always be dressed back to clean, shiny base metal.
A sound base is required and this may necessitate removing fatigued or rolled-over metal, high
ridges, or other major surface irregularities. This may be done by grinding, machining or arc
gouging.
Cracks in the base metal should be arc gouged or ground out and repaired using compatible
electrodes.
Surface Preparation badly cracked; deformed or work hardened surfaces should be removed
by grinding, machining or carbon-arc gouging.
Deposit Thickness Avoid excessive build-up of hard facing deposits or they may crack and
break off rapidly in service. If thick deposits are needed, use the appropriate build-up materials
before hard facing.
Job Positioning: Wherever possible, the job should be positioned so that hard facing can be
performed in the down hand position (work piece horizontal). An uphill inclination of about 10
can sometimes be of assistance in laying down heavier weld passes.
If work must be done out of position, detailed attention will have to be given to selecting suitable
consumables and welding processes.
Preheat and Interpass Temperature: The combination of alloy content, carbon content,
massive size and part rigidity creates a necessity to preheat in many build-up and hardfacing
operations.
Slow cooling may also be needed. Low or minimum preheat, low heat input, and low interpass
temperature are used on Manganese steels.
Caution Manganese steel becomes brittle if overheated. While a 100F to 200F preheat
may be required, do not allow interpass temperatures to exceed 500F.
The effect of preheating reduces the tendency to:
1. Develop cracks. Moisture may be brought into the molten weld metal by electrode coatings or
fluxes. The hydrogen that is created from the moisture increases the chance of weld or heat
affected zone cracking. Preheating slows down the cooling rate which allows the hydrogen to
escape.
2. Develop shrinkage stresses. Molten weld metal contracts while it cools, which causes stress to
build up between the contracting weld metal and the cooler base metal. This can cause cracking
during or after welding. By preheating the base metal, the temperature differential between the
base metal and the weld metal is reduced.
This will diminish the susceptibility to cracking.
3. Develop porosity. Again, hydrogen is the culprit. Moisture can be present on a non-preheated
surface. During welding, hydrogen can be trapped in the weld metal and can cause porosity as it
solidifies. Preheating will eliminate moisture on a base material.
4. Develop hard zone adjacent to welds. Some alloy steels have a tendency to become hard and
crack in the heat affected zone due to the fast cooling rates during welding. Preheating slows the
cooling rate and provides a more ductile microstructure.
5. Develop distortion. As weld metal cools, it contracts and develops stresses between the weld
metal and the cooler base metal. The base metal then can become permanently distorted.
Preheating can help minimize distortion by reducing the temperature differential between the
base metal and the weld metal.
How are preheat temperatures determined?
Base material chemistry must be known before an accurate preheats temperature can be selected.
The carbon content and alloy content of the base metal are two major factors that affect preheat
temperatures.
Normally, the higher the carbon content and/or the higher the alloy content, the higher the
preheating temperature. During welding, the interpass temperature should be the same as the
preheat temperature.
Another major factor in determining preheat temperatures is the base metal thickness. As the
base metal increases in thickness, a higher preheat temperature is needed. When preheating, a
soaking preheat is required to bring the entire component to the given preheat temperature.
Usually all components that are preheated should be slow cooled.
Austenitic Manganese Steels
These steels, which contain 11 to 14% manganese, are very tough and strong with excellent
resistance to impact. In fact, they have the ability to work harder under load which makes
them very suitable for use in crushing equipment. They are almost inevitably encountered in
the form of castings which will be non-magnetic or very feebly magnetic even after prolonged
use.
 Austenitic manganese steels should not be preheated except in very cold climates, when a
warming to about 50C may be used.
To avoid the possibility of forming brittle phases in the weld zone, heat input must be kept to
an absolute minimum.
Components made from 11-14% manganese steel should be kept cool during hardfacing either
by immersing all but the working area in water or by welding intermittently. Frequent hosing
with water is advisable where there is a danger of the weld zone exceeding a temperature of
300C for any appreciable amount of time. Also, low amperages should always be used. The
embrittlement of manganese steels is a time/temperature reaction . Higher carbon and lower
manganese accelerates this reaction.
Manganese steels should never be hard faced by gas flame processes due to the high heat
input.

Crusher Hammer

Material Process for Build-Up for Hardfacing

Hammer crusher Manual arc OK 86.28(E7-UM-200-KP) OK 84.78 for abrasive wear
( manganese steel) welding OK 86.30 (E7-UM-200- OK 84.58 (E7-UM-50-ST) for abrasive
KR) + impact
OK 67.45 86.30 (E7-UM-200-KR)
Ok 86.08(E7-UM-200-K)
cast steel (magnetic) OK 68.81 OK 83.50
OK 67.45 OK 83.53
Comments: Hammers for crushing and grinding operations are normally made of manganese steel and
sometimes of cast steel. To increase their service life, hardfacing should be carried out directly on new hammers.
Worn hammers frequently need to be built up before hard-facing. The buildup alloys are OK 83.28 for cast
steel and OK 67.45 or OK 68.81 for manganese steel. When semi-automatic welding is required, use OK
Tubrodur 15.40 for cast steel and OK Tubrodur 14.71 for manganese steel.

To Obtain the Desired Wear Resistance,

Control Alloy Content
Cooling Rate
How to Control Alloy Content
Carbon and alloy content are controlled by both procedures and admixture. Admixture of the
electrode metal to the base plate has a very important effect on the wear resistance of the weld
deposit.
 How to Control Cooling Rate
Although cooling rate affects wear resistance of some deposits, it is much more important for
the control of spalling, cracking and distortion. Therefore, a slow cooling rate may be
required even if it reduces wear resistance.
Methods of controlling cooling rate include the following:
1. Preheating is the most effective way of slowing the cooling rate.
2. Heat input from welding slows cooling by raising the temperature of the part.
3. Insulating the hot part immediately after welding with dry sand, lime, glass fiber blanket,
etc. slows cooling. This method helps minimize residual cooling stresses, weld cracking and
distortion but does not affect wear resistance of most deposits. Remember also, large parts
pull heat away from the weld more quickly than small parts. They naturally cool the weld
faster.
To Avoid Weld Spalling
Spalling is the breaking of weld metal particles away from the base metal or previous hard
facing layers. Particle size varies from small chips to large pieces right down to the base
metal. Spalling normally occurs only in service.
To avoid spalling:
1. Prepare the Surface: As in production welding, hard facing welds must have a sound crack-
free bond with the base metal.
Therefore, clean the surface and repair cracks and surface damage.
2. Avoid Under bead Cracking: Rapid cooling from welding temperature can cause brittle,
crack-sensitive, heat-affected zones in some types of base metal. These zones tend to crack in
service causing spalling. To avoid this problem, preheat as specified.
3. Apply a layer of austenite before depositing hard facing.
4. Limit Deposit Thickness: Thick hard facing deposits build up shrinkage stresses resulting
in a greater tendency for spalling. Do not use more hard facing layers than specified for each
type deposit.
If thicker deposits are required, utilize more buildup before hard facing. Peen each layer of
thick buildup deposits to relieve stresses.
To Avoid Under bead Cracking
Under bead cracks are small cracks that can occur in the heat affected zone of the base metal
under the weld. The cracks do not usually show on the surface, but can cause spalling or
cracking of the part in service.
Occurrence of under bead cracking depends primarily upon the carbon and alloy content of
the base metal..
The easiest way to prevent under bead cracking is to slow the cooling rate by preheating.
Always be sure the part is at least up to room temperature [70-100F (20-40C)] before
welding.
When the base metal analysis is known, you can determine recommended preheat more
closely.
Completing all buildup and hard facing without long delays is recommended to keep the part
hot. This minimizes danger of cracking and eliminates need for additional preheating.
Heat treatment
Low Carbon Steel: to 0.30%C approx.
1. Slightly hardenable. Preheat 70-300F (21-149C).
2. Preheat heavy parts of over .20%C to 200-300F (93-149C). Use the higher temperature
for massive, rigid or complex parts.
Medium Carbon Steel: 0.30 to 0.45%C approx.
1. Moderately hardenable, especially in large parts and heavy sections. Preheat to 300-500F
(149-260C). Use the higher temperature for higher carbon contents and for large, rigid or
complex parts.
High Carbon Steel: over 0.45%C approx.
1. Highly hardenable and crack sensitive in all sizes and shapes.
Preheat to 500-800F (260-427C). Use the higher temperatures for the higher carbon
contents and for large, rigid or complex shapes.
2. When carbon content is near .80%, deposit a buttering layer with Excalibur 7018 or a mild
steel submerged arc flux and electrode prior to depositing buildup or hard facing layers. The
buttering layer minimizes under bead cracking danger and provides a good bond between
base metal and hard facing deposits.
Low Alloy Steel:
1. Varies from medium hardenable to highly hardenable depending upon carbon and alloy
content. Preheat to 100-500F (38-260C).
Use the higher temperatures for higher carbon and alloy contents and for large, rigid or
complex shapes.
2. Preheat temperatures up to 800F (427C) or a buttering layer may be required if the
carbon content is over .35%C.
Manganese Steel: 12-14% Manganese
1. Not hardenable or crack-sensitive. Preheat is not required for thinner sections.
2. Preheat massive or highly rigid parts to 100-200F (38-93C).
Prolonged heating over 500F (260C) can cause embrittlement of the manganese steel.
3. On small parts, avoid high localized heating by using a skip welding technique.
Cast Iron
1. Extremely crack sensitive. The heat affected zone may be full of cracks even with preheat
temperatures of 1200-1400F (650-760C). Therefore, hard facing cast iron is often
uneconomical.
To Avoid Stress Failure of the Part
Some parts contain high retained internal stresses. When the welding stresses are added to
these retained stresses, the part can break.
Such failure can occur near the weld or at any weak point in the part.
Look for this possibility when hard facing the following types of parts:
a. Highly rigid parts. Massive parts and complex shapes are inherently rigid.
b. Shrink-fit parts.
c. Some large castings, particularly when they are made of medium to high carbon steel or
medium carbon low alloy steels.
d. Parts hardened by heat treatment.

Stress failure can be avoided with the following steps:

1. Preheat slowly to the high side of the temperature range as previously specified for the
particular type of base metal. As much as possible, this preheat should be uniform throughout
the part.
a. Shrink-fit parts must be preheated to expand them until they are loose. Manganese steel
requires a lower temperature because it has a high coefficient of expansion.
b. Parts which were hardened by heat treatment should be pack or controlled atmosphere
annealed. Slow cool until the specified preheat temperature is reached.
2. Arrange the welding schedule so it can be completed without any interruptions.
3. The part should be slowly and uniformly cooled. This can be done by covering the part
with a glass fiber blanket or some other insulating material or by cooling in a furnace.
To avoid weld cracking special precautions should be taken with any buildup or hard
facing product on applications that are inherently cracking sensitive.
These applications include the surfacing of high carbon or alloy steels, previously surfaced
parts and highly stressed parts. The surfacing of heavy cylinders, massive parts and parts
having complex shapes are all examples of applications producing high internal stresses that
may result in delayed cracking.
The Use of Buffer Layers
The term buffer is used to describe the presence of an intermediate deposit laid between the
base metal and the actual hard facing weld material.
There are a number of cases where this practice is necessary.
1. Hard facing on soft material for high load service.
When the harder hard facing materials are used on a soft base material, e.g. mild steel, there
will be a tendency for the hard facing layer to sink in under high load condition. This may
result in spalling off of the hard facing material under extreme conditions.
2. Hard facing on components subject to heavy impact or flexing.
Many hard facing deposits contain relief checks.
When a component is subject to heavy impact or flexing, there is the risk that even deposits
which do not relief check during welding will develop fine transverse cracks. These are not
detrimental to the hard facing but there is a danger that under such service conditions, the
cracks will act as stress concentrators and progress through into the base metal. This tendency
is most pronounced where the base metal is a high strength steel.
The use of a suitable buffer layer between the base and hard facing deposit will prevent this
crack propagation from occurring.
Reducing the rate of forward travel between weaves increases the deposit thickness. The
width of the weave should be reduced to one or two times the diameter of the electrode nd
travel speed increased when heat input is to be kept to a minimum or when a high degree of
relief checking is required.
Protection for the Operator
When welding the operator should observe all the general safe working procedures required for
thermal processes, some specific to MMA welding are as follows:
Arc-welding produces heat, sparks, ultra-violet & infra-red rays and harmful fumes
Wear approved head, hand and body protection, which help to prevent injury from
radiation, sparks and electrical shock. This would include wearing welders gloves and a
protective face shield and may include arm protectors, apron, hats, shoulder protection, as
well as dark substantial clothing
Ensure that there are no areas of exposed skin as ultra-violet rays from the weld arc will burn
the skin.
Face masks are designed to deflect fumes and should therefore be held close to the face.
Ensure that the correct shade 11 EW filters are fitted in the face mask for manual metal arc
welding
Gas welding goggles do not afford protection for the face against the light intensity or the
radiation and must not be used.
Always wear protective goggles when chipping slag.
Ensure adequate ventilation at source, when welding inside buildings.
This is a requirement by law and is there to protect the operator and others. Welding of
some materials (i.e. galvanised steel) produces highly toxic fumes
Check your surroundings, when you are welding behind a dark face mask you will be
unaware of what is happening around you. Clear the surroundings of flammable material and
ensure there is a fire extinguisher available.
 Check all welding cables for any loose connections that would cause arching thereby creating
a hazard. Ensure your surroundings are dry and where possible stand on a timber duck-
board.
Do not wells over Paint/Oils/Grease/Solvents as striking the arc will prove difficult and
toxic fumes will be produced
Respiratory Protection: Use respirable fume respirator or air supplied respirator when
welding in a confined space or general work area where local exhaust and/or ventilation does
not keep exposure below the threshold limit value.
Ventilation: Use plenty of ventilation and/or local exhaust at the arc, to keep the fumes and
gases below the threshold limit value within the workers breathing zone and the general
work area. Welders should be advised to keep their head out of the fumes.
Identification of Metals
The ability to recognize different types of metals is of considerable importance in welding
and/or hard facing. Different metals often require different welding techniques and in some
cases careful selection of hard facing products.
In many cases, a metal can be identified by machine drawings or specifications. There will,
however, be a number of occasions when there will be a reasonable doubt as to what metal a
certain item is made from. The following is a guide to the identification of most common
metals and should prove adequate for most welding purposes
File Test
It is often possible to distinguish mild steel and wrought iron (which are welded in the same
manner) from other steels by filing, using a known piece of mild steel for comparison
purposes.
Holding the unknown piece of steel firmly, in a vice if required, take one firm cut at it using
the corner of a large file. The file should only be pushed in the forward direction while in
contact with the metal. Do a similar cut, using similar speed and pressure on the known piece
of mild steel.
If they behave in a similar manner, that is, they both cut to similar depths and if the file feels
to have the same amount of drag, etc., it is very likely that the unknown piece is either mild
steel or wrought iron and can be welded as such.
If they do not behave in a similar manner, it is almost definite that the piece is either high
carbon or alloy steel. It is possible to differentiate between these two using a spark test.
Spark Test
Different types of steels will react differently when held against the wheel of a power grinder.
For distinguishing between different types of steels by this technique, it is advisable to have
some pieces of known types to use as comparisons.
The piece of steel is held firmly against the rotating wheel in such a manner that the sparks
can be observed as they leave the wheel. The appearance of the spark pattern is then
compared with those obtained from pieces of steel of known types. It is important when
comparing pieces of steel by spark test that the same pressure is used to hold the specimen
against the wheel in each case
Magnet Test
It is possible to distinguish between austenitic steels and the ferritic and martensitic types by
their magnetic properties.
Many items subject to impact such as crusher jaws, impact bars, swing hammers, etc. are
made from 11 - 14% manganese steels.
These appear in many respects to be similar to mild steel or low alloy steels and are difficult
to distinguish by normal visual inspection, file tests and spark tests. Their main feature is that
they will not be attracted by a magnet. Hence, any doubtful steels should be checked with a
magnet and, if they are not strongly attracted, treated as manganese steels.
 Stainless steels also can be magnetic or non-magnetic. Always check with a magnet prior to
welding. If non-magnetic (no attraction), they are the austenitic type. If they are magnetic,
they are either ferritic or martensitic and should be treated as such.
Chisel Test
It is often difficult to determine whether a machine component is cast iron or cast steel simply
by appearance. One of the most reliable tests is to try and remove a small piece with a sharp
cold chisel.
Cast iron will come away in distinct chips when the chisel is hit with a hammer. Cast steel, on
the other hand, is more ductile and will peel away in slivers.
Table 2. Identification of Common Metals
Metal Appearance of the metal Appearance of Appearance of fractures Further test
surface in its common freshly filed metal and relative toughness of required to
rough condition metal identify type
Grey cast iron Dark grey or rusty, Light grey, fairly Dark grey, rough granular Chisel test
rough, sandy surface smooth surface. Very brittle
White cast iron As above Generally too hard Medium grey colour. Very Nil
to file. Shiny white tough to quite brittle
when ground depending on type and
condition
Mild steel, wrought Dark grey or rusty. Can Bright grey, very Fine grey surface may be File test
iron, cast steel, be smooth or rough smooth surface. tough to quite brittle Spark test
alloy steels, high depending on Some alloy steels Magnet test
carbon steel, 11- application are too hard to file Chisel test
14% manganese
steel
Stainless steel Bright silvery grey if Bright silvery grey.
polished. Smooth surface.
Rough dull grey if not Some are too hard
polished to file