Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 46, No. 5 (2008), pp.

579597
doi:10.3826/jhr.2008.2986
2008 International Association of Hydraulic Engineering and Research

Research Papers

A new integrated, hydro-mechanical model applied to flexible

vegetation in riverbeds
Un nouveau modle hydromcanique intgr appliqu la vgtation
flexible dans les lits de rivires
D. VELASCO, Hydraulic, Maritime and Environmental Engineering Department, Technical University of Catalonia (GITS-UPC),
ETSCCPB, Av/ Gran Capitan s/n, 08034 Barcelona, Spain. Tel.: +34-93-4017013; fax: +34-93-4054194;
e-mail: david.velasco@upc.edu
A. BATEMAN, (IAHR Member), Hydraulic, Maritime and Environmental Engineering Department, Technical University of
Catalonia (GITS-UPC), ETSCCPB, Av/ Gran Capitan s/n, 08034 Barcelona, Spain. Tel.: +34-93-4017064; fax: +34-93-4017064;
e-mail: allen.bateman@upc.edu

V. MEDINA, Hydraulic, Maritime and Environmental Engineering Department, Technical University of Catalonia (GITS-UPC),
ETSCCPB, Av/ Gran Capitan s/n, 08034 Barcelona, Spain. Tel.: +34-93-4017064; fax: +34-93-4017064;
e-mail: vicente.medina@gits.ws

ABSTRACT
This paper suggests a simple new numerical scheme for calculating the vertical velocity profile, turbulent shear stress distribution, and canopy deflection
for flow in vegetated channels. The scheme is derived from the simplified, steady Reynolds equation (momentum balance) and its vertical integration.
This study includes an experiment that compares and calibrates the numerical model to flume data. Fourteen runs were performed in a laboratory
flume, of which nine involved natural grass (cultivated barley) and five involved plastic plants (PVC). Turbulent diffusion coefficient, mixing length,
and a resistance equation (drag coefficient Cd vs. Reynolds number) were the input parameters for the numerical model. Parameters with physical
meaning were calibrated. This scheme offers a low computation time and good estimation of plant deflection and velocity and stress profiles.

RSUM
Cet article suggre un nouveau schma numrique simple pour calculer le profil vertical de vitesse, la distribution de leffort de cisaillement turbulent,
et la dflexion par la couverture vgtale dans les coulements en canaux garnis de vgtation. Le schma est driv de lquation simplifie et
stationnaire de Reynolds (quilibre des quantits de mouvement) et de son intgration verticale. Cette tude inclut une exprience qui compare et
calibre le modle numrique aux donnes du canal. Quatorze essais ont t excuts dans un canal de laboratoire, dont neuf ont impliqu de lherbe
naturelle (orge cultive) et cinq des plants en plastique (PVC). Le coefficient de diffusion turbulente, la longueur de mlange, et une quation de
rsistance (coefficient de trane Cd en fonction du nombre de Reynolds) taient les paramtres dentre pour le modle numrique. Les paramtres
avec une signification physique ont t calibrs. Ce schma prsente un faible temps de calcul et une bonne valuation des profils de dflexion des
plants, des vitesses et des efforts.

Keywords: Drag forces, numerical modelling, riverine vegetationl, turbulent stresses

1 Introduction and natural canopy in their laboratories to obtain empirical rela-

When we study fluvial hydrosystems, we must not focus only
on the various isolated elements involved in the process (water,
sediment, vegetation, and fauna). Rather, we must deepen our
knowledge of their common relationships. We aim to study the
effect of flexible vegetation on flow. The presence of flexible
canopy (grass, bushes, and reeds) in the riverbed and along
the banks changes flow resistance and, in consequence, river
hydrodynamics. Many authors (Kouwen et al., 1969, 1973, 1980;
Petryk et al., 1975; Nepf, 1999) have experimented with plastic
tionships. The complexity of physical model studies and the
popularization of numerical schemes in hydraulics have led to
the development of applications focused on flow through veg-
etation. Three different lines of numerical research have been
followed. First, well-known 3D turbulent schemes have been
applied to special geometric boundaries to simulate obstruction
due to vegetation. Lpez and Garca (2001) and Fischer-Antze
et al. (2001) adjusted the two-equation closure model to flow
through vertical rigid cylinders. These simulations are quite well
adjusted. Cui and Neary (2002) compared the numerical results

Revision received June 27, 2007/Open for discussion until April 30, 2009.

579
580 D. Velasco et al.
Figure 1 Experimental set-up of sandy flume and images of tested plants
of Reynolds-averaged NavierStokes (RANS) and large eddy
simulation (LES) in order to reproduce the particular anisotropy
generated in flow through rigid, submerged cylinders. Stoesser
et al. (2006) also applied large eddy simulation (LES) scheme
to simulate the non-uniform turbulent shear stress distribution
with submerged canopy. Finally, Choi and Kang (2004) used
Reynolds stress modeling (RSM) to improve mean and turbulent
field results. High-accuracy numerical schemes will be developed
in the future, but the high computational cost is still a disadvan-
tage in terms of their practical application to large-scale hydraulic
problems. A second group of researchers (Klopstra and Barn-
eveld, 1997; Carollo and Ferro, 2002) has developed analytical
expressions for adjusting velocity profiles U(z) in very specific
conditions, but the input parameters involved in the problem are
hard to estimate. The third line of research is very interesting
because it considers the flexural properties of vegetation and cal-
culates the reduction in relative depth h/k (h water depth and
k deflected plant height) due to stem bending. Kutija and Hong
(1996) developed this line of research based on very simple tur-
bulent models applied to the 1D Reynolds momentum equation.
An implicit discretisation of the unsteady Reynolds equation was
used and solved to converge toward the steady solution. Two
different turbulence closure models were combined: eddy vis-
cosity equation and mixing length model. The vertical dominion
of application for every turbulent model was defined as an input.
The estimation of the resulting deflected plant height k was solved
using a function that reproduces the elastic behavior of a vertical
beam loaded by drag forces. Unfortunately, no data was avail-
able to verify the model with flexible vegetation, and the only
data used in the calibration were from Tsujimotos test with rigid
cylinders. Kutijas work is a well defined and very efficient code
that was applied later in a Quasi 3D hydraulic model (Erduran
and Kutija, 2000).
This paper tries to get deeper into this third line of research.
We develop a new explicit scheme to balance momentum above
Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 46, No. 5 (2008)
and inside the vegetation which takes into account not the
local, but the vertical integrated shear stress balance. A set of
integral equations has been proposed to describe the momen-
tum conservation at different depths of the flow. The mechanical
stem-deflection subroutine is able to reproduce large deforma-
tions. Also, a new concept is introduced in this paper that
clearly improves the previous models, and this is a variable resis-
tance law. Drag coefficients Cd are totally dependent of obstacle
Reynolds Number Red and the model evaluates the vertical varia-
tions of Cd as a function of the turbulent regime around the stems.
Finally, computational and resistance parameters are calibrated
and verified with our experimental data, which were measured in
a flume covered with flexible vegetation.
2 Experimental setup
Laboratory experiments were conducted in a rectangular flume,
where steady, recirculating flow was generated. The flume is 8 m
long, 2.5 m wide, and 0.4 m tall (see Fig. 1). Channel bed consist
in a D50 = 1.6 mm sand bed. Bed slope was very low (0.04%),
and nearly uniform regime was finally established. Test series
descriptions are presented in Table 1 and are next commented.
Series group T3. Plastic plants (PVC strips) were tested in
sand flume. The shape of the plant is similar to a bush or a palm.
Average plant height was h
= 15 cm, and frontal area Ao =
20.7 cm2 . Dimensions of plastic strips cross-section was 2
0.4 mm2 . Staggered pattern was used and the spacing was set up
in a = 7 cm. The plastic bushes were fixed in the sand bed in a
length of 2.5 m at the central area of the flume. Water levels were
controlled by a downstream movable gate and measured at 12
control sections along the flume. No strictly uniform regime was
established, but the analysis of convective term (U. U/x) in the
runs shows that it is not dominant and then, it can be neglected
in these particular conditions. Discharges of 32, 77, 90, 110, and
136 l/s registered submergence ratios from h/k = 1 to 2.7.
Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 46, No. 5 (2008) A new integrated, hydro-mechanical model applied to flexible vegetation in riverbeds 581

Table 1 Resume of experimental tests

RUN a h
M Ao Vegetation Q h/k Ao /a2

(m) (m) (Plants/m2 ) (cm2 ) model (m3 /s)

T3 0.07 0.15 205 20.7 Artificial PVC 0.1360.032 1.02.7 0.42

TN 0.006 0.09/0.125/ /0.18 22800 1.85/2.8/ /4.77 NaturalBarley 0.1360.026 1.02.89 4.110.6

Table 2 Mechanical properties of the tested plants. h
= initial plant height, D = mean diameter of the stem,
B = mean width of leaf, e = thickness of the leaf, I = Inertial modulus of the cross-section of the stem/leaf,
E = stiffness modulus
RUN type of plant h
D B e I E E.I
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m4 ) (N/m2 ) (N.m2 )

T3 0.15 0.0025 0.001 2.31E13 7.30E+07 1.69E05

TN 0.090.18 0.003 4.00E12 1.43E+07 5.72E05

Series group TN. The objective of testing with high density,
natural covers was accomplished in this series. Some previous
test about hydroponic growth adaptation were done in the sandy
substratum for different, common species of grass; the conclusion
was that barley shows the most efficient properties to resist high
humidity and poor-nutrient soil conditions. After seeding, barley
needs a short time of 912 days to grow in the zone of study with
a very dense, uniform grass cover. An important factor is to get an
elevated superficial uniformity of stems and leaves in the cover
to avoid inhomogeneous flow conditions along the flume. At the
end of runs TN, 5 control areas (0.4 0.4 m2 ) were detached
from the cover and the number of stems were counted. An aver-
age density of M = 22500 stems/m2 was measured, so spacing
a = 0.67 cm was estimated. Growing velocity of stems (2 cm per
day) controlled in some sense the test planning. Three different
plant heights (h
= 0.09, 0.125, and 0.18 m) were tested and 4 dis-
charges for each configuration. These stem lengths were chosen
in order to obtain adequate mechanical properties, because of the
high sensibility to the maturity degree. Longer and older barley
stems presented low stiffness modulus and undesirable flexibil-
ity properties because prone plant conditions were adopted from
the very low discharge condition. Individual frontal areas were
Ao = 1.85, 2.8, and 4.8 cm2 , respectively and maximum sub-
mergence ratios of h/k = 2.9 were registered. Barley geometry
presents a unique leaf with a very uniform width distribution.
Stem geometry was measured and averaged at the moment, as
well as stiffness modulus E. Deflected plant height k was mea-
sured optically with a thin gauge from water surface. Waving
plants were observed in the test, so k measurements present an
estimated error of 1 cm.
Mean (U, V, W ) and turbulent (u
, v
, w
) velocities corre-
sponding to the stream-wise (x), lateral (y), and vertical (z)
directions, respectively, were measured using 3D side-looking
acoustic doppler velocimetry (ADV). Once uniform conditions
were established in the flume, detailed vertical profiles (z =
2 mm) were recorded for series groups T3 and TN (see Table 2).
Vertical profiles were measured in the centerline of the chan-
nel, and just at the middle of the vegetated area, far enough
from the boundary disturbance region. Two-minutes records were
collected at 25 Hz (temporal series of 3000 data) so the series
are long enough to guarantee a correct estimation of second
order statistics (i.e., turbulent parameters). The ADV could be
used without disturbance to the vegetation array, except for TN
runs, were barley cover was too dense and stems could enter the
sampling volume. In consequence, some stems were removed
to create an empty region (15 8 cm2 ) to introduce the probe.
Local flow accelerations are registered for h/k = 1, but their
importance decrease for h/k > 1.
High accuracy results of vertical velocity profiles U(z) over
barley covers (runs TN) are shown in Fig. 2. Measurements
agree with the existence of a piston flow near the bed and the
development of a logarithmic law above the extreme of canopy.
Also, turbulent shear stresses profiles xz (z) are obtained from the
statistic analysis of velocity series. The peak of xz is registered
in the extreme of the deflected plants (z = k) and an impor-
tant reduction of turbulent stresses is observed. The development
of a shearless region is measured below the penetration depth
p (Nepf and Vivoni, 2000). Experimental Drag Coefficients Cd
within canopy are evaluated as Dunn and Lopez (1996), and
commented inVelasco (2006). The vertical profile of Drag Coeffi-
cients Cd (z) was calculated using the expression of Eq. (1), where
the vertical gradient of xz (Reynolds XZ turbulent stresses), the
mean plant width B, and the mean longitudinal velocity U were
experimentally measured.



2 .g.So + xz (z)
z
Cd (z) = . . (1)
B(z).M.U 2 (z)
From the analysis of experimental data (Velasco, 2006) the
vertical distribution of two different turbulent length-scales was
calculated: mixing length (l) and Integral Scale (L), above and
within the vegetation (Fig. 3). The mixing length (l) was evaluated
as the relationship between turbulent stresses xz and vertical
gradients of velocity U (see Eq. (2)), as described in the mixing
length turbulent model.
xz
l2 =  .
U  U 
(2)
. z . z
582 D. Velasco et al. Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 46, No. 5 (2008)

Figure 2 Dimensionless profiles of velocity U with barley covers (runs TN)

Figure 3 Comparison between experimental profiles of mixing length (dots) and Integral scale (circles) corresponding to run TNh
= 0.12 m

On the other hand, the Integral scale (L) was calculated taking steady-uniform conditions, driving forces are expressed in four
into account the frozen whirl Taylor hypothesis, which simpli- terms on the right side of the equation, which are gravity forces,
fies the relationship between the characteristic length-scale and viscous forces, Reynolds XZ turbulent forces and drag forces
time-scale in homogenous turbulence as: L = U.Te . The char- (fcd ) due to the presence of vegetation.
acteristic time-scale (Integral Scale Te ) is evaluated through the  
2 U(z) xz (z)
analysis of autocorrelation functions of the velocity fluctuation 0 = .g.So + .. + fcd (z) (4)
z2 z
u
(t) time series (Eq. (3)).

The next step is the vertical integration of the Reynolds x-equation
u (t).u
(t + ) (Eq. (4)) between water surface level and the riverbed level. The
L = U. .d. (3)
0 u
2 flow is separated into four different zones, as presented in Fig. 4.
The conclusion is that a linear tendency of l and L is registered The resulting equations are written as Eqs (5)(8):
above the penetration depth p and a constant value below this 0 = .g.So.(h z) xz (z)
point. Also, the values of l and L at z = p are similar. These  

G (z)
observations are general for all the analyzed runs. Discussion
about Integral Scale L in vegetated channels is also presented in ZONE 1. external region, h > z > k (5)
Velasco and Bateman (2003).
0 = .g.So.(h z) xz (z) cd (z)
ZONE 2. internal region, k z > p (6)
3 Governing equations
0 = .g.So.(h z) cd (z)
The numerical model is based on momentum conservation
equations. The Reynolds x-equation (Eq. (4)) shows that in ZONE 3. shearless region, p z > o (7)
Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 46, No. 5 (2008) A new integrated, hydro-mechanical model applied to flexible vegetation in riverbeds
U(z)
0 = .g.So.(h z) . cd (z)
z  k
ZONE 4. viscous region, o z
where is the water density, g is the gravity acceleration, So
is the channel slope, h is the water depth, xz is the verti-
cal Reynolds turbulent stress, cd is the drag stress (vegetative
stress), is the cinematic viscosity, U is the mean longitudinal
velocity.
This set of equation is reformulated here in the integral form.
Reynolds equations in x, applied to vegetation, can be found in
Dunn and Lopez (1996) and Nepf and Vivoni (2000), but in the
present paper these equations are integrated in vertical direction
z to obtain shear as a variable of the problem, and describe the
proposed conceptual model.
According to Fig. 4, Zone 1, the external region, corre-
sponds to heights z from h to k, above the canopy, and thus
has no drag forces. Integral Eq. (5) shows how the gravity shear
term is uniquely balanced to turbulent shear stress xz . Maxi-
mum turbulent stress is located, then, at z = k. Zone 2, the
internal region, is located below z = k. It is characterized by
the presence of canopy. The vertical integration of drag forces
fcd from the top of canopy k to height z is the amount of shear
stress that is absorbed by the plant (cd ). This vegetative stress
is defined in Eq. (9), where Cd is the drag coefficient, B is the
plant width, and a is the stem spacing. From Eq. (6), we can
deduce that gravity shear stress is balanced by both vegetative
and turbulent stress. Hence, turbulent stress xz is reduced at
z < k and, if cd is equal to gravity shear G , then turbulent
stress xz disappears (see Fig. 4). This means that the momentum
absorption capability of the canopy is greater than the hydraulic
gravity shear. Zone 3 is delimited by height z = p, which is
called the penetration depth (Nepf, 1999). This zone is called the
shearless region because the turbulent stress xz is negligible
(Eq. (7)). In this region, there is no vertical momentum exchange,
but turbulence is completely developed; the flow is governed by
drag forces that balance the gravity shear completely. Finally,
Eq. (8) represents the viscous region, where viscous forces are
predominant and velocity gradients are very high. Also, the lower
obstacle Reynolds number Red is present in this layer (laminar
regime).
Z
1
G = . g.So.(h-z)
h
2
xz Cd
k
p
3
4 X
Figure 4 Shear balance scheme for high vegetative momentum absorp-
tion capability
583
The shear due to drag forces is defined as:
 k
1 B(z)
(8) cd (z) = fcd (z).dz = ..Cd (z). 2 .U 2 (z).dz (9)
z z 2 a
Two different boundary conditions must be set in the compu-
tational domain: (1) xz = 0 at the water surface (z = h), and
(2) xz = 0 in the shearless region (0 < z < p). The applica-
tion of the latter to the x component Reynolds equation (Eq. (4)),
and neglecting viscous forces in the shearless region, leads to a
very simple balance between gravity and drag forces, as shown
in Eq. (10).
1 B
0 = .g.So ..Cd . 2 .U 2 . (10)
2 a
If average values of drag coefficient (Cd,o ) are assumed and
using plant width (Bo ) for the entire shearless zone (z < p), then
a constant value of velocity Uo is explicitly estimated as Eq. (11):
 1/2
2.g.So.a2
Uo = , (11)
Cd,o .Bo
where drag coefficient Cdo and plant width Bo are an estimation
of mean values in zone 3. This velocity boundary condition is
important because the general method is based on the hypothesis
that the shearless region (Zone 3 in Fig. 4) is developed.
In order to relate Reynolds turbulent stresses to velocity
gradients, we used Von Karmans turbulent mixing-length the-
ory (Rouse, 1946). This 1D-equation turbulence closure model
reflects momentum diffusion in a very simple way and could be
considered a low-accuracy method. However, for the purposes
of this work, the results are quite good as a first approach to the
problem of turbulence. The turbulence mixing-length equation is
expressed as follows:
 
 
2  U  U
xz = .l .   . , (12)
z z
where is the water density and l is the mixing length. Vari-
ous theories on vertical profiles of mixing length l(z), with and
without vegetation, are found in the literature. Kutija and Hong
(1996) used a potential law for l(z) inside and outside vegeta-
tion. Watanabe (1990) proposed an analytical model of l(z) for
canopy where an integrated exponential function is defined for
within canopy and a linear model l(z) = .(z d) for outside
canopy, where is the Von Karman universal constant and d is the
zero-plane displacement. The discussion is complemented with
our own experimental work in canopies which is briefly described
in this paper. It was analyzed the vertical distribution of mixing
length l(z) and Integral Scale L(z) from the experimental velocity
profiles (see Fig. 3). The integral scale L concept is analogous to
the mixing-length l of the Von Karman turbulence closure model
in the sense that both concepts reflect a characteristic turbulent
scale (eddy scale). Despite the dispersion of data in the vertical
profiles, it was found a clear linear tendency of l(z) and L(z)
functions above z = p, and a constant value below this point.
Then, based in laboratory experiences, it has been proposed a
different distribution of mixing-length l, expressed in Eq. (13).
l(z) = lo +
.(z p) for z > p, (13)
where lo is the mixing length in the shearless zone and
is a
diffusion coefficient. This model differs from Watanabe because
584 D. Velasco et al.
the linear distribution of l(z) is considered within the canopy,
above the penetration point p. Numerical parameters lo (bed mix-
ing length) and
(diffusion coefficient) are unknown and must
be calibrated. It is suggested in Velasco (2006) that the dimen-
sion lo is related to plant width B and
is much lower that the
Von-Karman constant = 0.41.
The observation of experiments with natural vegetation in
the flume, and the later analysis of measured data, showed
the importance of secondary currents and turbulent anisotropy
in the momentum balance. Turbulent structures in partly veg-
etated channels have been studied and characterized by Ikeda
(1996), Naot (1996) and Nezu and Onitsuka (2001) with high-
advanced measurement techniques (PIV, LDA) and they observed
that secondary currents are highly affected by density of vegeta-
tion and shear gradients at the boundary between vegetated and
non-vegetated zones. Some instability in the flow was detected
Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 46, No. 5 (2008)
the vertical gradients of xz above the top of the plants. In order
to describe secondary currents effect (the fall of xz close to the
surface and the reduction of peak xz in the extreme of plant) a two
parameters conceptual model is developed. The first parameter
represents the superficial portion of water depth where measured
xz is zero, and is the dimensionless parameter (ranges from
0 to 1) which modifies the slope of a linear distribution for xz
above the extreme of plant. A two parameters (, ) model would
fit the measured xz distribution as shown in Fig. 7.
A zero-level approximation of this conceptual model is devel-
oped in this paper, and there was assumed a low value of , it
is 0. Under this simplification, a one parameter (a) linear
model is derived (see Fig. 7) to represent xz distribution above
the extreme of plant, and it is implemented in the present numer-
ical model. The equation which relates (, ) and (a) is deduced
at z = k by Eq. (14):
during our tests: cellular secondary currents created preferential  

flow corridors above the plants. A steady, transversal pattern in = . 1 . (14)
hk
the deflection of plants was clearly observed (regular waves in
As a consequence, is lower than as a function of depth .
the bended vegetative cover). In Fig. 5, a picture of the waves
Obviously, both conceptual models are equivalent in the case of
above the vegetated cover is shown. The existence and mag-
0, and then = . The (, ) conceptual model will be
nitude of secondary currents were measured in terms of the
used in the future, instead of the ( ) linear model in order to
vorticity generation parameter (v
2 w
2 ). This term (understood
increase the accuracy of secondary currents effect in the general
as an anisotropy between transversal and vertical velocity mean
flow. In consequence, effective gravity stresses in Eqs (5) and
squared v
2 and w
2 ) is the driving force for the secondary cur-
(6) are modified by the parameter . (namely sc ) and the new,
rents as well as for the flow gradients and the mean velocities
equivalent expressions are Eqs (15) and (16).
(U, V, W), as documented by Nezu and Nakagawa (1993), but not
for the Primary Shear Stresses (xz , yz , yx ). In Fig. 5, the peaks 0 = sc .g.So.(h z) xz (z)
of (v
2 w
2 ) above and below the top of the plant are shown. ZONE 1. external region, h > z > k (15)
This vertical distribution denotes the presence of convective cells
within the flow. 0 = sc .g.So.(h z) xz (z) cd (z)
The consequence of secondary currents in the flow is the
ZONE 2. internal region, k z > p (16)
reduction of the measured xz values compared to those expected
from Eqs (5) and (6) (convective terms and secondary forces are Additionally, special care must be taken in the estimation of
neglected in the 1D conceptual model). Figure 6 shows the devia- drag coefficients Cd,j because they are closely related to the resis-
tion of the measured xz from the linear, theoretical profiles. Two tance to flow over vegetated covers. The value of Cd is very sensi-
effects are observed, the fall of the shear stress xz close to the tive to changes in the flow turbulence regime, which is governed
surface (xz 0 near the water surface), and the reduction of by the obstacle or stem Reynolds number Red (= U.B/),

Figure 5 Anisotropy of turbulence. (Left) Picture of the steady waves at the barley cover. (Right) Vertical distribution of (v
2 w
2 ) for Run
TN-h
= 0.12 m. h/k = 1.84
Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 46, No. 5 (2008) A new integrated, hydro-mechanical model applied to flexible vegetation in riverbeds 585

Figure 6 Dimensionless vertical profiles of measured Reynolds xz-turbulent stress. The red line defines the theoretical vertical distribution

100
Z
Cd {Re(1), Cd(1)}

10
xz = .g.So.(h-z)
.So h
xz= g.So.(h--z) 1 {Re(i), Cd(i)}
.So
0.1

0.01 {Re(n), Cd(n)}

k

0.001
X 1 10 100
U .B
1000 10000

xz
Re d =

Figure 7 A two parameters (, ) conceptual model and a one parameter Figure 8 Proposed Cd(Red) law using n degrees of freedom
(a) model to fit the measured xz vertical distribution (dotted line)

degrees of freedom. The calibration process will fit the optimal

where is the water kinematic viscosity. Therefore, a resistance
function of the type Cd (Red ) is added to the model to take this
important factor into account. The discussion here is what type
of function Cd (Red ) is suitable for canopy resistance. Unfortu-
nately, the classical resistance laws Cd (Red ) of 2D rigid bodies
that have been widely studied in the past are not applicable to
the heterogeneous shape of stems and leaves. New relationships
must be researched. In order to further the fitting-optimization
procedure, the estimation of the Cd (Red ) law was introduced
as a linear approximation between a series of generic discrete
points {Red (i), Cd (i)}, for i = 1, . . . , n, in a loglog graph.
Figure 8 shows an example of resistance law as a function of n
drag coefficients Cd .
Each canopy element is modeled as a vertical, isolated beam
or cantilever in order to simplify the structural problem. The
forces on the stem are imported from the hydrodynamic subrou-
tine and are applied to every calculation node in order to obtain
an approximation y(z) of stem deformation. Classical, analytical
expressions of deformation on beams are not valid here, because
they are only derived for small deformation conditions. Natural
canopy elements bend easily in river floods. Brushes and aquatic
species also bend easily in normal flows. The deformation of
the top of the canopy is often of the same order as the deflected
plant height (y(h
)
= k). In the simulation, large deformations
586 D. Velasco et al. Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 46, No. 5 (2008)

are required to adequately estimate the vertical deflected plant

height k. The classical beam elasticity equation (Timoshenko and
Young, 1975) is applied in the stem (z coordinate is adopted as the
vertical, longitudinal direction of the stem) and an explicit for-
ward finite-difference scheme is computed to solve the transversal
deformation profile y(z), as in Eq. (17):
2 y Mf
= , (17)
z2 E.I
where y is the transversal deformation, Mf is the moment (N.m),
E is the stiffness modulus (N/m2 ) and I is the cross area inertial
modulus (m4 ). In large deformation conditions the total stem
length h
must be conserved, so a vertical load (drag forces)
re-distribution algorithm must be used to reach the convergence
(equilibrium) of the system.

4 Description of the numerical procedure

4.1 Computational domain
The vertical computational domain is uniformly discretizied with
a z step, as shown in Fig. 9, and all of the variables are cal-
culated at these nodes. Water depth (h), undeflected plant height
(h
) and deflected plant height (k) are denoted as ih, ihp, and
ik indexes, respectively. Finite-difference approximations (for-
ward differences) are used in the explicit method when vertical
velocity U profiles are computed, and first-order integral meth-
ods (Simpsons rule) are applied in integral operations. Because
the scheme is explicit, the number of nodes must be considerable
(z/ h < 0.02).
4.2 General iterative scheme
This numerical model aims to create an iterative succession of
well-balanced flow solutions that can generate the final stabi-
lization or convergence of the deflected plant height k. Figure 10
shows the computational flowchart of the model. At each iteration
i, the deflected plant height ki is calculated and, as a consequence
of the geometric change, a new flow solution U i (z), xz i
(z) is
obtained. At this point, the plant deformation is recalculated using
the aforementioned flow conditions and a new deflected plant
zih=h
zihp
h
zik
k
z
zi
z1
Figure 9 Vertical discretization scheme
Figure 10 General flowchart
height ki+1 is incorporated at iteration i+1. The computation fin-
ishes when a convergence in {ki } is a set (\ki+1 ki \ < tolk ). The
flow solution is then considered dynamically and mechanically
balanced.
The input data consists of hydraulic variables: water depth h,
energy slope So and the vegetations geomechanical properties
(undeflected plant height h
, plant spacing a, vertical distribution
of plant width B(z), thickness of stems e, stiffness modulus E,
the resistance law {Re(j), Cd(j)} and three turbulence parameters
[bed mixing-length lo , diffusion coefficient
and secondary cur-
rents factor sc ]). The results of the model (output data) are unit
discharge q, velocity U(z), Reynolds stresses xz (z), deflected
plant height k, and stem deformation y(z).
The model can estimate the unit discharge q given an initial
water depth h and an energy slope So, which is equivalent to
solving the flow resistance equation for any kind of vegetation.
Friction factors (the DarcyWeisbach f or the Manning n) can
easily be deduced from the hydraulic results.
The general scheme is very simple in its conception, but the
most important and critical part is the creation of adequate mod-
ules to calculate velocity profiles and stem deformation. The
hydrodynamic subroutine calculates flow profiles {U(z), xz (z)}
for a particular plant height k and the mechanical subroutine esti-
mates the deflected plant height k as a function of drag forces
F(z), which are obtained from the computed velocity profile
U(z). The next section briefly explains the numerical methods
used in these two subroutines.
4.3 Description of the hydrodynamic subroutine
The numerical strategy used to estimate well-balanced velocity
profiles is based on a predictor-corrector technique for Reynolds
stresses xz which converges into a well-balanced solution.
Figure 11 shows a flowchart and a schematic diagram with
predicted xz and corrected xz profiles. A minimization algo-
rithm is applied to converge toward the optimal xz solution.
In the first minimization level (denoted by the supraindex i) an
Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 46, No. 5 (2008) A new integrated, hydro-mechanical model applied to flexible vegetation in riverbeds 587

The deformation profile yi (z) is calculated from Eq. (17). The

Moment law Mf (z) is obtained as the sum of moments due to
punctual loads (drag) at every computational node. The total
stem length is measured along the deformed stem to define the
deflected plant height ki . New nodes are defined according to
ki . A new distribution of forces F is used. Then, yi+1 (z) and
ki+1 are calculated. And an iterative scheme is established in
{yi (z), ki } to converge to the large-deformation deflected plant
height k. Figure 12 presents a diagram of the iterative proce-
dure. The convergence into the solution is fast enough (less than
15 iterations, in general). In calculating large deformations, the
additional bending due to second-order moments in the beam
must be taken into account. New moments Mf
appear in the
beam due to non-orthogonality between loads F and the lon-
Figure 11 Flowchart of the hydrodynamic subroutine gitudinal direction of the deformed beam(s). The second-order
moment Mf
is calculated from the load F (drag) as Eq. (19):
approximate solution for the deflected plant height ki is supposed.
Mf
= F(z s. cos(2 )), (19)
Under the ki assumption, a second minimization level (denoted
by the supraindex j) is established where an initial condition where geometric angles , are defined in Fig. 13. The pro-
for the penetration depth pi,j is proposed and a linear distribu- cedure is as follows: (1) first-order moments Mf are used and
i,j
tion of turbulent stresses xz,pred (z) is predicted from z = pi,j a deformed profile y(z) is obtained; (2) secondary moments
to z = ki (as presented in Fig. 11). At the third minimization Mf
are calculated from derivatives y
(z), vertical distances and
level, Eqs (12) and (13) are used to calculate explicitly the veloc-
ity profile U i,j (z) with a boundary condition U i,j (pi,j ) = Uo
i,j
defined by Eq. (11). Drag stresses cd are calculated using Eq. (6),
where the drag coefficients Cd are obtained from the resistance
law Cdi, = n (Red,i ) as a function of the calculated obstacle
i,j
Reynolds Number Red (showed in Fig. 8). At this point, Eqs (15)
and (16) are used to calculate the new, corrected turbulent shear
i,j
stress profile, which will be called xz,corr (z). The area which
i,j
exists between the predicted and corrected stress profiles, Areaxz
(see Fig. 11) is calculated by Eq. (18).
 k
 i,j 
=  i,j 
xz,corr (z) xz,pred (z) .dz.
i,j
Areaxz (18)
0
i,j
The value of Areaxz is a function of the penetration depth pi,j . Figure 12 Numerical discretization and iteration process for the
An iterative scheme is proposed to find the optimal value of pi,j mechanical subroutine (large deformations)
i,j
which minimizes function (p) = Areaxz , and, in consequence,
a well-balanced solution for xz = xz,corr (z) and U(z) profiles. h y i(h)
An iterative, first-order minimization method is applied to (p)
and the solution (penetration depth pi , velocity U i (z) and stresses
i
xz (z)) is sent to the main program. The algorithm of optimization
T
for (p) is a Quasi-Newton Method, where derivates d/dp are yi
numerically obtained by incremental quotient in p + p. In con- F zi
xi
sequence, the accuracy of the solution basically depends on the F
definition and smoothness of the numerical function (p). The N
analysis of this function shows that the search methods behavior i
and efficiency are sufficient.
si
4.4 Description of the mechanical subroutine
The mechanical subroutine consists of a numerical code that i
reproduces load-deformation processes in a stem. As commented
before, Eq. (17) is included as the elastic load-deformation equa-
tion, but an iterative process is created to reproduce the real, large Figure 13 Diagram of the normal and tangent components of the drag
deformations. force R to estimate secondary moment Mf

588 D. Velasco et al. Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 46, No. 5 (2008)

Figure 14 Comparison of computational stem deformation with (solid line) and without (dashed line) the calculation of secondary moments

0 0

-0.01 Load step n6 -0.01 Load step n9

k/h=0.64 k/h=0.50
-0.02 -0.02
Deformationy (m)

Deformation y(m)

-0.03 -0.03

-0.04 -0.04
Calculated
Measured
-0.05 -0.05

-0.06 -0.06
Measured Measured
Calculated Calculated
-0.07 -0.07
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
X (m) X (m)

Figure 15 Comparison between measured and calculated deformations of a barley stem (length h
= 0.125 m) for increasing loads. (Left) Load step
no 6 (k/ h
= 0.64). (Right) Load step no 9 (k/ h
= 0.50)

angles , ; and (3) a new calculation of the beam is performed
for the total moments Mf + Mf
. The final result is a decrease
from the first-order calculations in the deflected plant height k
and an increase in the bending curvature (observed in real elastic
materials). Figure 14 demonstrates the importance of including
secondary moments in order to more accurately reproduce the
bending of elastic stems.
Stress strain tests were prepared and run in the laboratory
under strictly controlled conditions to: (1) estimate the stiffness
modulus E of canopy and (2) to verify the accuracy of the numer-
ical solutions from the new mechanical model. Initially, PVC
cylinders were tested with well-known geomechanical properties
to check the deformation hypothesis and numerical algorithm.
The methodology was adopted to directly estimate the geome-
chanical properties of the canopy (PVC palms and natural barley
stems), including length, average width and thickness, stiffness
modulus E and inertial modulus I. These properties were intro-
duced as input data in the mechanical model. The results agreed
with the experimental ones at each load step. The adjustment
between the measured and calculated deformation profiles pre-
sented the lowest accuracy for larger deformations (k/ h
< 0.6),
where the error on total deflection k was 12% (as presented in
Fig. 15 (Right).
5 Model verification
The numerical results of the integrated model were compared to
experimental data in order to verify the accuracy of the code.
Figure 16 shows two examples. First, the experimental data
obtained by Tsujimoto and Kitamura (1990) in flow through rigid
cylinders was used in the verification. Tsujimotos runs involved
vertical cylinders 4.59 cm tall and 1.5 mm in diameter, arranged
in a staggered pattern with 2 cm spacing. The second example
in Fig. 16 used experimental data from one of our tests with
barley cover (run TNh
= 0.18 m, Q = 0.136 m3 /s). The flex-
ible barley stems were 18 cm tall. The spacing between stems
was a = 6.7 mm and the submergence ratio was h/k = 1.83.
Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 46, No. 5 (2008) A new integrated, hydro-mechanical model applied to flexible vegetation in riverbeds
Figure 16 Comparison between the measured and calculated velocity profiles. Top: run A11 for vertical rigid cylinders from Tsujimoto and Kitamuras
experiments (1990). Bottom: flexible barley run (TN-h
= 0.18 m) from our own experiments
The vertical distribution of plant width B(z) was defined as a
constant for Tsujimotos cylinders and it was variable for barley
(calculated from a frontal image). The drag coefficients Cd (z)
were set as a constant for Tsujimotos cylinders (Cd = 1.5), but
for barley, the measured, experimental values of Cd (z) were used
in the computation.
Computational input parameters such as mixing length lo,
momentum diffusion constant
, and the secondary current factor
sc were adjusted for each run manually. For Tsujimotos run
they were lo = 2.5 mm,
= 0.17, and sc = 1.0. For the bar-
ley run with TN-h
= 0.18 m, the parameters were lo = 10 mm,

= 0.08, and sc = 0.78. Figure 16 shows very good agree-
ment between the measured and calculated velocity profiles, and
the velocity profile curvatures were reproduced quite well. Dif-
ferences in the model parameters between Tsujimotos run and
barley run are probably due to the geometrical properties of the
obstacles: cylinders are rigid and rounded obstacles while bar-
ley leafs are flexible, with non-uniform shape and they become
stream flow oriented for medium-high discharges. Also, values
of bed mixing length lo is related to plant width B and spacing a,
so different vegetative configurations lead to different model
parameters.
In this study, we were able to calibrate and verify the model
in an accurate, controlled way due to a previous experimental
study. Our own data was vitally important. Although the tests
were limited in number (a greater variety of plant density and
shapes would be desirable), we obtained detailed measurements.
Thought it was concluded above that different canopy config-
urations require different computational parameters, the aim of
the next work was to check the case that plastic tests (T3 runs)
and Barley Tests (TN runs) would share a unique group of model
parameters. The main idea was then to group the model parame-
ters from particular adjusts to a general fit. The goodness of that
objective is concluded later. A particular, unique group of general
computational parameters needed to be searched to fit all different
tests. The list of unknown parameters included drag coefficient
points, {Re(j), Cd(j)}, j = 1, 5, mixing length lo , momentum
diffusion constant
, and the secondary current factor sc . A
589
multi-parameter optimization technique was developed by the
authors and applied to 14 runs with vegetation (T3 and TN runs)
in which the canopy was deflected and totally submerged. Table 3
shows the basic properties of runs used in the calibration process.
The measured data used in the optimization routine was the
unit discharge qmea (m2 /s) and the velocity profiles Umea (z).
Some discrepancies were obtained between the measured unit
discharge qmea and the vertical integral of Umea (z) due to 3D flow
characteristics. Both measurements were integrated in the opti-
mization function. This function  was defined as a eight vari-
ables quadratic function of the difference between the calculated
output data and the measured data, as defined in Eqs (20) and (21):
 = (lo ,
, sc , Cd1 , Cd2 , Cd3 , Cd4 , Cd5 )
= (X1 , . . . , X8 ) (20)
14
(qi qadv
i
)2 i
(qcalc qweir
i
)2
= calc
+
i=1
error(qadv )2 error(qweir )2
5
(Cd,calc (j) Cd,exp (j))2
+ , (21)
j=1
(Cd,exp (j))2
where qcalc is the calculated
 unit discharge from calculated veloc-
ity profile Ucalc (z)(q = U(z).dz), qadv is the experimental unit
discharge calculated from the ADV velocity profile, qweir is the
experimental unit discharge estimated from the weir, Cd,calc is
the calculated drag coefficient, Cd,exp is the experimental drag
coefficient. The three terms in  function are normalized using
the measurement error of ADV discharge (error qadv ), of weir
discharge (error qweir ), and the standard deviation of the experi-
mental drag coefficient. (s(Cd,exp )). The complexity of Eq. (21)
is the result of the imposition of known, coherent limits or
boundaries to the search method.
A first-order, two steps, conjugate-gradients technique was
developed and implemented to find the minimum of  (for more
details, Velasco (2006)). Due to the strictly numerical definition
of  (there is no analytical expression for ), the search strategy
is complex and the unicity of solution is non demonstrated. In
590 D. Velasco et al. Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 46, No. 5 (2008)

Figure 17 Optimally adjusted resistance law (red, dashed line) compared to experimental data of runs T3 and TN

Table 3 Resume of experimental runs used in the optimization process

RUN Q h U (N/m2 ) Re k p h/k qmea qcalc

(l/s) (m) (m/s) (N/m2 ) 104 (m) (m) (m2 /s) (m2 /s)

T3 M = 205 48 0.136 0.14 2.6 1.59 0.136 0.136 1.00 0.019 0.009
T3 M = 205 77 0.184 0.17 2.8 2.55 0.111 0.072 1.66 0.031 0.031
T3 M = 205 90 0.206 0.17 3.1 2.98 0.110 0.054 1.87 0.036 0.032
T3 M = 205 107 0.230 0.19 2.9 3.54 0.112 0.057 2.06 0.043 0.038
T3 M = 205 136 0.275 0.20 3.8 4.50 0.102 0.051 2.70 0.054 0.077
TNh
= 0.09 50 0.136 0.15 4.5 1.67 0.085 0.039 1.60 0.020 0.009
TNh
= 0.09 93 0.193 0.19 4.5 3.06 0.092 0.033 2.10 0.037 0.024
TNh
= 0.09 135 0.255 0.21 5.9 4.46 0.088 0.025 2.89 0.054 0.052
TNh
= 0.12 72 0.171 0.17 9.8 2.37 0.118 0.060 1.45 0.028 0.019
TNh
= 0.12 109 0.217 0.20 8.6 3.61 0.118 0.072 1.84 0.043 0.032
TNh
= 0.12 136 0.255 0.21 8.7 4.50 0.122 0.063 2.09 0.054 0.064
TNh
= 0.18 71 0.173 0.16 12.4 2.35 0.128 0.072 1.35 0.028 0.012
TNh
= 0.18 111 0.221 0.20 10.7 3.67 0.127 0.084 1.74 0.044 0.037
TNh
= 0.18 136 0.257 0.21 10.4 4.50 0.140 0.086 1.83 0.054 0.069

Table 4 Adjusted parameters of the drag coefficient law adjusted parameters Red (j) and Cd(j) (see Table 4), is consistent
and turbulence parameters with the measured data, as shown in Fig. 17. The optimization
lo (m) 0.0125 procedure of parameters Red (j) and Cd(j) proposed in this paper

0.082 takes into account the minimization error of the measured and
sc 0.45 calculated flow discharge (Fig. 21), that is more complex than a
Red Cd simple fitting procedure.
10 4.0 Extrapolation of drag coefficients out of the range of Red was
90 1.0 necessary because the numerical model evaluates the existence
630 0.011 of solutions even beyond the limits of experimental Red .

consequence, a set of searches with different initial conditions 6 Numerical results

were run to verify that the convergence collapse toward a similar
solution. Table 2 shows the optimal adjusted parameters. This section discusses the results of the numerical model which
These adjusted parameters are consistent with the physical has been run using the optimized, global group of computational
measurements. The resistance law, which is defined by the parameters for all the tests (see Table 4). Figures 18, 19 and 20
Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 46, No. 5 (2008) A new integrated, hydro-mechanical model applied to flexible vegetation in riverbeds 591

Figure 18 Comparison between calculated (green line) and measured (blue circles) velocity U(z) and turbulent shear stress xz (z) profiles,
corresponding to run T3
592 D. Velasco et al.
Figure 19 Comparison between calculated (green line) and measured (blue circles) velocity U(z) and turbulent shear stress xz (z) profiles
corresponding to run TNh
= 0.09 m
show all runs and compares experimental data to computed data.
Velocity U(z) and Reynolds turbulent stress xz (z) profiles are
presented. In general, the goodness of the results in velocities and
turbulent stress xz are acceptable, with a limited accuracy. It is
important to note that the more the discharge and submerged ratio
increases, the more the calculated profiles are well fitted. Agree-
ment is observed for the penetration depth p, and the shearless
zone becomes well defined in terms of velocity and shear. Veloc-
ity Uo in this zone is calculated as a constant profile in the range of
the measured Uo . We therefore conclude that the proposed veloc-
ity boundary condition (Eq. (11)) is efficient. In Zone 2 (internal
zone p < z < k), the calculated stress xz shows some deviation
from the measured data, but vegetative momentum absorption
Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 46, No. 5 (2008)
seems to be accomplished in general. The top of the canopy in
Figs 1821 corresponds to the peak of calculated stress (xz,max )
and approximately agrees with the peak of measured xz . In the
external zone (z > k), the slope of calculated xz does not fit the
data. The calculated velocity U(z) reproduces the gradients in
the internal zone quite well, but there is some discrepancy close
to the free surface (the dumping effect of secondary currents in
shear stresses xz. toward the water surface is modeled in a too
simple way).
Figure 22 shows the calculated Red and Cd vertical pro-
files and resistance law for a barley run, and compares them
to the experimentally measured data. The obstacle Reynolds
number shows good agreement (plant shape B(z) controls Re
Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 46, No. 5 (2008) A new integrated, hydro-mechanical model applied to flexible vegetation in riverbeds 593

Figure 20 Comparison between calculated (green line) and measured (blue circles) velocity U(z) and turbulent shear stress xz (z) profiles
corresponding to run TNh
= 0.12 m

distribution), and computed drag coefficients agrees quite well
with the experimental resistance law Cd (Red ).
The next step in the results analysis is mass conservation. In
Fig. 23, the unit discharge (an output of the numerical model) is
compared to the experimental unit discharge. For all 14 tests, the
comparison between the calculated unit discharge qcalc (m2 /s) and
the measured qmea shows certain dispersion. The model is under-
estimating discharges for low flow conditions and overestimating
for the higher submergence conditions. The average estimation
error is 25%, but the experimental error between qmea and the
vertical integral of experimental Umea (z) was set at 10%. We
conclude that the data on discharge q is not much more accu-
rate than typical laboratory work involving vegetation covers.
Figure 23 also shows the results for deflected plant height k
and penetration depth p. Some dispersion of data is detected,
but the estimations of k are generally in a sufficient error range
of 7%. More experiments are needed to check that the calcu-
lated deflected plant k is adjusted to reality (especially in large
deformation conditions, h
/k > 0.6). The global minimization
procedure consists in adjusting a set of parameters to all the
experimental data sets (Figs 1821), and it is expected that some
experimental data do not agree with the model. Figure 15 shows
the results of a particular run in which it is possible to adjust
perfectly the parameters using the optimization procedure.
7 Limitations of the model
The integrated vegetation model is very useful for reproducing
vegetative covers in submerged plant conditions. Due to its low
594 D. Velasco et al. Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 46, No. 5 (2008)

Figure 21 Comparison between calculated (green line) and measured (blue circles) velocity U(z) and turbulent shear stress xz (z) profiles
corresponding to run TNh
= 0.18 m

Figure 22 Measured and calculated values of Red and Cd

Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 46, No. 5 (2008) A new integrated, hydro-mechanical model applied to flexible vegetation in riverbeds
Figure 23 Numerical results for unit discharge q (left) and deflected plant height k and penetration depth p (right)
computational cost, this model can easily be incorporated into
any general 1D or 2D hydraulic code to estimate friction fac-
tors in riverbeds and floodplains. However, the numerical code
has certain limitations. The governing equations are only defined
for the existence of the shearless zone (Zone 3), so vegetation
must be able to absorb the total gravity shear G . This model is
therefore recommended for high-to-medium plant density (high
Ao /a ratio). The model should be modified for flooding scenar-
ios in which the canopy is totally prone, friction factors are low
and an effective shear stress is acting on the river bed. Finally,
a more intense experimental campaign is needed to verify the
proposed drag coefficient law Cd (Red ) for new plant shapes and
configurations.
8 Summary and conclusions
This paper presents an experimental and numerical study that
provides deeper knowledge of resistance to flow over flexible
vegetation. A numerical model was computed to simulate vertical
velocity profiles and plant deflection. Kutija and Hong (1996)
have used in the past the 1D Reynolds equation in uniform
regime and simple turbulence closure models to create an implicit
model to reproduce vertical profiles of velocity and shear over
canopy covers. With a similar point of view, this paper presents
a scheme that is derived from the simplified, steady Reynolds
equation, which was vertically integrated above and below the
deflected plant height k. A mechanical module was computed
to estimate large elastic deformation in stems. A new, modified
mixing-length theory was used in a turbulence closure equa-
tion for the hydrodynamic subroutine. Also, drag coefficients
Cd estimation is based on the obstacle Reynolds number Red ,
in order to represent properly the resistance to flow due to veg-
etation. We proposed an iterative convergence scheme for plant
deformation k as a function of balanced drag forces. Finally, the
well-balanced vertical velocity profile U(z) was calculated using
a simple, explicit finite-difference scheme.
In the experimental chapter, two different experimental flumes
were used. Both natural (barley) and artificial (PVC strips)
595
vegetative covers were fixed on the channel bed. Vertical veloc-
ity profiles U and turbulent shear stress xz (obtained using ADV
measurement techniques) provided valuable experimental data on
every flow and vegetative configuration. Fourteen experimental
runs were performed to verify and calibrate the numerical model.
Turbulent diffusion coefficients, mixing length and a resistance
equation (drag coefficient Cd vs. Red ) were the input parameters
of the model. Parameters with physical meaning were calibrated.
A multi-parameter search algorithm was used to adjust the com-
puted profiles to the experimental data. Finally, the parameters
were estimated. The use of a global, optimized group of compu-
tational parameters to simulate different shapes and configuration
of canopy shows a sufficient but limited accuracy; we think that
particular model parameters in the calculation of every type of
canopy would better adjust data. In practice, the uniqueness of
this set of general parameters should be verified in the future
using different species of vegetation.
This integrated model offers a low computation cost and a
reasonable estimation of plant deflection, velocity, and stresses.
Vertical profiles are obviously less accurate than any 3D-turbulent
scheme. However, the approximation errors are quite small and
would therefore be easily dealt with in a general floodplain calcu-
lation. This quick model is therefore very suitable and fast enough
to be included in a future general 1D or 2D hydraulic model as a
resistance function for vegetation.
Notation
a = Spacing between plants
Ao = Frontal area of plant
b = Channel width
B = Average plant width
Cd = Drag coefficient
E = Stiffness modulus
h = Water depth
h
= Undeflected plant height
I = Second-order geometrical momentum
k = Deflected plant height
596 D. Velasco et al. Journal of Hydraulic Research Vol. 46, No. 5 (2008)

l = Mixing length Erduran, K.S., Kutija, V. (2000). Quasi-three-dimensional

L = Integral scale numerical moldel for flow through flexible, rigid, submerged
M = Density of vegetation (plants/m2 ) and non-submerged vegetation. J. Hydroinformatics 5(3),
Mf = Moment 189202.
p = Penetration depth Fischer-Antze, T., Stoesser, T., Bates, P. (2001). 3d numerical
q = Unit discharge (= Q/b) modelling of open-channel flow with submerged vegetation.
Q = Discharge J. Hydraul. Res. 39(3), 303310.
Re = Reynolds number (= U.h/) Ikeda, S., Kanazawa, M. (1996). Three-dimensional organized
Red = Obstacle Reynolds number (= U.B/) vortices above flexible water plants. ASCE J. Hydraul. Eng.
Rh = Hydraulic radius 122(11), 634640.
Sf = Energy slope Klopstra, D., Barneveld, H.J. (1997). Analytical model for
Somaxshear = Experimental energy slope obtained from hydraulic roughness of submerged vegetation. Proceedings of
the xz, vertical profile the 27th Congress of the IAHR, San Francisco (USA).
So = Geometric slope Kouwen, N., Unny, T.E., Hill, H.M. (1969). Flow retardance
U, V, W = Longitudinal, transversal, and vertical in vegetated channels. ASCE J. Irrigation and Drainage Div.
mean velocities, respectively 95(IR2), 329342.
u
, v
, w
= Longitudinal, transversal, and vertical Kouwen, N., Unny, T.E. (1973). Flexible roughness in open
velocity fluctuations, respectively channels. ASCE J. Hydraul. Div. 99(HY5), 713727.
u = Shear velocity Kouwen, N., Li, R. (1980). Biomechanics of vegetative channel
, sc = Secondary current factor linings. ASCE J. Hydraul. Div. 106(HY6), 10851103.
= Secondary current factor Kutija, V., Minh Hong, H.T. (1996). A numerical model for
d = Secondary current parameter assessing the additional resistance to flow introduced by
do = Viscous layer depth flexible vegetation. J. Hydraul. Res. 34(1), 99114.
= Specific weight of water Lpez, F., Garca, M.H. (2001). Mean flow and turbulence struc-
= Von Karman universal diffusion constant ture of open-channel flow through non-emergent vegetation.

= Diffusion coefficient ASCE J. Hydraul. Div. 127(HY5), 392402.
= Kinematic viscosity Naot, D., Nezu, I., Nakagawa, H. (1996). Hydrodynamic behav-
= Water density ior of partly vegetated open channels. ASCE J. Hydraul. Eng.
xz , xy , yz = Reynolds stresses 122(11), 625633.
cd = Vegetative drag stress Nepf, H.M. (1999). Drag, turbulence and diffusion in flow
= Bed shear stress through emergent vegetation. Water Resour. Res. 35(2),
479489.
Acknowledgments Nepf, H.M., Vivoni, E. (2000). Flow structure in depth-limited,
vegetated flow. J. Geophys. Res. 105, 2854728557.
This research was supported by a UPC per la recerca grant (Tech- Nezu, I., Nakagawa, H. (1993). Turbulence in open channel
nical University of Catalonia) and projects REN2000-1013/HID flows. In: Balkema (ed.), Monograph Series IAHR.
and BTE2002-0375. We are especially grateful to Prof. J.M. Nezu, I., Onitsuka, K. (2001). Turbulent structures in partly
Redondo, who was very helpful in the initial phase of the vegetated open-channel flows with lda and piv measurements.
experimental work. J. Hydraul. Res., IAHR 39(3), 629642.
Petryk, S., Bosmajian, G. (1975). Analysis of flow through
vegetation. ASCE J. Hydraul. Div. 101, 871884.
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