ed ee as History and Approaches Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Behavior is anything you do that can be observed, Mental processes are your internal experiences such as thoughts, feelings, sensations, and perceptions. Scientific study involves systematic collection and examination of data (empirical evidence) to support or disprove hypotheses (oredictions) rather than depending on common sense. Psychology has long past, but a short history as a science. Although poople have thought about their own behavior for thousands of years, the thinking was not done in an organized and scientific manner. This chapter looks at highlights in the development of the science of psychology and its conceptual approaches, Key Ideas © Roots of psychology are in philosophy and physiology/biology. © Structuralism and Functionalism—Schools of Psychology © Behavioral Approach & Psychodynamic/Psychoanalytic Approach © Humanistic Approach © Biological Approach © Evolutionary Approach © Cognitive Approach © Sociocultural Approach © Sufields of Psychology44) STEP 4. Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High Roots of Psychology | Rocts of piychology can be traced to philosophy and physiclogy/biology over 2000 years | ago in ancient Greece. As a result of examining organisms, physician/philosopher! physiologist Hippocrates thought the mind or soul resided in the brain, but was not com- posed of physical substance (mind-body dualism). Philosopher Plato (circa 350 B.C.), who also believed in dualism, used self-examination of inner ideas and experiences to conclude that who we are and what we know are innate (inborn). On che other hand, Plato's student Aristotle believed chat che mind/soul results from our anatomy and physiological processes (monism), that reality is best studied by observation, and that who we are and what we | Kaow ate acquired from experience. About 2000 yeas later (crea 1650), similar ideas | persisted with Rene Descartes and John Locke. Descartes defended mind-body dualism (Cogito ergo sum" think, therefore 1 am") and that what we know is innate, On the other hand, empirical philosopher Locke believed chat mind and body interact symmetrically | (monism), knowledge comes from observation, and what we know comes from experience | since we are born without knowledge, “a blank slate” (tabula rasa). ‘The debate about the extent to which our behavior is inborn or learned through experience is called the nature- nurture controversy. Schools of Psychology By the late 1800s, psychology was beginning to cmerge as a separate scientific ‘Knowing Cf | discipline, Biologist Charles Darwin applied che law of natural selection to human beings, “here 5 | forwarding the idea chat human behavior and thinking are subject to scientific inquiry i fon the AP Physiologists Ernst Weber and Gustav Fechner showed how physical events are related | exam]. "Jen, to sensation and perception. Hermann von Helmholtz measured the speed at which AP student nerve impulses travel. Should their studies be considered under the heading of biology or === psychology? Structuralism Schools of psychology aren't schools the way we think of chem, but early perspectives | Wilhelm Wandk is generally credited as the founder of scientific psychology because in 1879 he set up a laboratory in Leipaig, Germany, specifically for research in. psychology, dedicated to the scientific study of the immediate conscious experiences of sensation. Using careful methodology, he trained his associaces and observers to objectively analyze their sen- sory experiences systematically through introspection (inward looking). He required that results be replicated, which means tested repeatedly under different condicions to produce similar results. ‘Wands focused om the structure of the mind and identification of che basic clements of consciousness (Sensations, feelings, and images) using trained introspection. G. Stanley Hall sec up a psychology lab employing introspection at Johns Hopkins University, helped found the American Psychological Association, and became its first president. Edward ‘Titchener brought introspection to his own lab at Cornell University, analyzed conscious- ness into its basic elements, and investigaced how these elements are related. Wunde, Hall, and Titchener were members of the School of Structuralism.History and Approaches < 45 Functionalism ‘American psychologist William James choughe che scrucucalists were asking the wrong questions. James was interested in che function ot purpose of bchavioral acts. He viewed humans as mote actively involved in processing their sensations and actions. James and other psychologists, such as James Cattell and John Dewey, who studied mental testing, child developmens, and educational practices, exemplified the School of Functionalism. Functionalists focused on the application of psychological findings co practical situations and the function of mencal operations in adapring ro che environment (scream of con- sciousness) using a variety of techniques. Their goal was to explain behavior. Functionalism paved the way for behaviorism and applied subfields of psychology. Principal Approaches to Psychology Major modetn perspectives or concepcual approaches to psychology are behavioral, psycho- dynamic, humanistic, biological, evolutionary, cognitive, and sociocultural. Behavioral Approach The behavioral approach focuses on measuring and recording observable behavior in relation to the environment, Behaviorists think behavior results from learning. Russian physiologise Ivan Pavlov trained dogs co salivace in response to the sound of a tone, demon- scrating stimulus-response learning. Pavlov’ experiments at che beginning of the 20ch cen- tury paved the way for behaviorism, which deminated psychology in America from the 1920s to che 1960s. Behaviorists examine che ABCs of behavior. They analyze antecedent environmental conditions that precede a behavior, look ar the behavior (the action to understand, predict, and/or conctol), and examine the consequences that follow the behav- jor (its effect on the environment). Behaviorists have cejected the study of consciousness! mental processes because such privace events cannot be verified or disproved. American behaviorist John B, Watson said that psychology should be the science of behavior. B. F Skinner worked mainly with laboratory rats and pigeons, demonstrating cha organ- isms tend co cepeat responses that lead so positive consequences and not to tepeat responses thac lead to neutral or negative consequences. He thought hac free will is an illusion Like Ariscorle and Locke before chem, behaviorists such as Watson, E, L. Thorndike, and B. F Skinner took the position that behavior is determined mainly by environment and experience rather than by genetic inheritance. In Germany, Gestalc psychologists seudying perception disagreed with structuralists and behaviorists, maintaining that psychologists should study the whole conscious experience. Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Approach In Austria, Sigmund Freud also disagreed wich behaviorists. He treaced patients wich menral disorders by talking with them over long periods of time to reveal unconscious conflicts, motives, and defenses in order to enhance each patient's self-knowledge. His psychoanalycic theory focused on unconscious internal conflicts to explain mencal disorders, personality, and motivation. Freud thought the unconscious is the source of desires, choughts, and memoties below the surface of conscious awareness, and that early life experiences are important to personality development. Variations of psychoanalysis by Carl Jung, Alfred ‘Adler, Karen Horney, Heinz Kohut, and others ate collectively known as the psychody- namic approach.EEE EEE EEE EE Ee EEE Ee EEE EEE eee eee 46 > STEP 4, Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High Humanistic Approach By che middle of the 20th century, in disagreement with both behaviorists and psychoana- lysts, Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and other psychologists thought thac humans have uunique qualities of behavior different from other animals. The unique qualities of free will and potential for personal growch guide behavior and mental processes. Humanists empha- size che importance of people's feelings and view human nature as naturally positive and growth seeking. Using interview rechniques, humanists believe that people have the ability | to solve their own problems. Biological Approach ‘At about the same time, research on the physiological bases of behavior flourished. Technological advances cnabled biologists ro extend knowledge far beyond Weber's, Fechner's, and von Helmhole’s work ta examine how complex chemical and biological processes within the nervous and endocrine systems are related to the behavior of organ- isms. Many biological psychologists think chat the mind is what the brain does Evolutionary Approach ‘An offthoot of the biological approach, evolutionary psychologists, returning to Darwin's Theory of Narural Selection, explain behavior parterns as adaptations naturally selected for, because they increase reproductive success. Cognitive Approach Technological advances also permitted psychologists co renew their study of consciousness (thinking and memory), currently called cognition. Cognitive psychologists emphasize the importance of receiving, storing, and processing information; of thinking and reasoning; and of language to understanding human behavior. Sociocultural Approach In the second half of the 20ch century, travel and the econamy became more global, greatly increasing interactions among people from different culvures, Psychologiscs recognized that people from different cultures interpret gestures, body language, and spoken language dif. ' ferently from one another. Psychologists began co study social and environmental factors that influence these cultural differences in behavior. The sociocultural approach examines cultural differences in an attempt ro understand, predict, and concrol behavior. Most psychologists adopt ideas from multiple perspectives, Psychologists who use techniques and adopt ideas from a variety of approaches are considered eclectic. | Subfields of Psychology Scientific psychology developed in universicies with research laboratories where basic research was conducted. After World War II, many opportunities for applied psychologists developed outside of these institutions. The number of clinical, counseling, and school psy- chologists mainly involved in treatment grew enormously. Specialties treating children, ado- lescents, seudents, older people, and athletes emerged. Industries and organizations hired psychologists to help them prosper. The field became more fragmented and specialized. Research and applied psychologists deal with a huge number of topics. Topics can be grouped into categories known as subficlds. Psychologists specializing in different subfields identify themselves wich many labels. Examples include the following:History and Approaches < 47 Clinical psychologists evaluate and creat mental, emorional, and behavioral disorders. Counseling psychologists help people adapt to change or make changes in their lifestyle. Developmental psychologists scudy psychological development throughout the lifespan. Educational psychologists focus on how effective teaching and learning take place. Engineering psychologists do research on how people function best with machines. Forensic psychologists apply psychological principles co legal issues. Health psychologists concentrate on biological, psychological-and social factors involved in health and illness. Industrial/ Organizational psychologists aim to improve productivity and the quality of work life by applying psychological principles and methods to the workplace. Neuropsychologists explore the relationships between brain/nervous systems and behavior. ‘Neuropsychologists are also called biopsychologists, behavioral geneticists, physiologi- cal psychologists, and behavioral neuroscientists Psychometricians, sometimes called measurement psychologists, focus on methods for acquiring and analyzing psychological data Rehabilitation psychologists help clients with mental retardation, developmental Aisabilicies, and disabilities resulting from scroke or accidents adapt co cheir situations. School psychologists assess and counsel students, consult with educators and parencs, ancl perform behavioral intervention when necessary. Social psychologists focus on how a person's mental life and behavior are shaped by interactions wich other people. Sports psychologists help athletes cefine their focus on competition goals, increase moti- vation, and deal with anxiety and fear of failure, > Review Questions Directions: For each item, choose the lecter of the choice chat best completes the statement or answers the question. 1. Wilhelm Wunde and the structuralists studied 3. The question “Is intelligence more influenced by questions still asked coday primarily by (A) behavioral psychologists (B) cognitive psychologists (© psychodynamic psychologists (D) humanistic psychologists (B) socivculvucal psychologists 2. With which definition of psychology would John Watson and B. F Skinner most agree? {A) Psychology is the science of behavior. (B) Psychology is the science of mental processes. (C) Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes. (D) Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes specific to contexts. hevedity or experience?” deals with a big issue in psychology known as {A) stability vs. change (B) mind-body dualism (© sationalicy vs. irrationality (D) structure vs. function (B) nacure vs. nurcure If Aristotle and Locke, who both believed thac what we know is acquired from experience, were alive coday, they would best agree with the {A) behavioral approach {B) psychoanalytic approach {©) humanistic approach (D) biological approach (2) psychodynamic approach ee etcetera RESer Which prychologial approach is mostconcemed 6, Dr. Didden was hired by dhe TLC Company to 48 > STEP 4. Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High with the importance of encoding, storing, and help chem retain their employees without lowering retrieving information? the firm’ profits. After TLC removed cubicles (A) information technology and permitted employees to decorate their worke {B) behavioral approach toom as recommended by Dr. Didden, the ( psychodynamic approach absentee rate declined and no employees lef for (D) biological approach jobs elsewhere. Ds. Didden is most likely ro be (E) cognicive approach (A) a forensic psychologise (B) an industrial/organizational psychologise (©) a counseling psychologist (D)a clinical psychologist (E) an engineering psychologist > Answers and Explanations 1B Wilhelm Wande, Hall and Titchener 4. A-Bchaviosiw think chat what we kaow is studied the basic elements of consciousness gained through learning. The other approaches Consciousness is currently called cognition, accept thar some of our behavior is inborn, Cognitive psychologists examine thinking, memory, ete. using different methods 2. A—John Watson and B. F Skinner rejected the study of consciousness/mental processes because they are private events that cannot be verified sci- entifically. These behaviorists focused on the antecedents of a behavior, the behavior, and the consequences of the behavior, 5. E—Cognitive psychologists focus on how we acquire, maintain and use information, 6. B—Industrial/organizacional psychologists exam ine and assess the conditions, methods and Procedures in the workplace and apply psychological principles to help improve the | working environment to increase productiviey and job satisfaction. 3. E—The narure-nurture issue deals with the rela tive contribution of genes and experience to the expressions of psychological erats and behaviors. > Rapid Review * Peychology—the science of behavior and mental processes * Moniem—seeing mind and body as different aspects of the same thing * Dualism—sccing mind and body as two different things hat interact * Natmre-Nurture Controversy—the extent to which behavior resuls from heredity or experience i Plato and Descartes believed behavior is inborn (nature). Aristotle, Locke, Watson, Skinner believed behavior results from experience (nureure) * School of Structuralism—early psychological perspective that emphasied units of Consciousness and identification of elements of chougit using introspection Wilhelm Wund—founder of scientific psychology in Leipzig, Germany, studied con- sciousness using introspection | Stanley Hall—broughe introspection co his lab a Johns Hopkins Univetsiy in the U.S Faward Ticchener—studied elements of consciousness at his Comnell Unversiy labHistory and Approaches < 49 * School of Functionalism—early psychological perspective concerned wich how an organism uses ics percepeual abilities co adapt co its environment William James—wrote Principles of Prychology. *+ Behavioral approach—psychological perspective concerned with behavioral reactions co stimuli learning as a resule of experience Ivan Pavlov—known for classical condicioning of dogs John Watson—known for experiments in classical aversive conditioning B, F Skinner—known for experiments in operant conditioning + Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic approach—psychological perspective concerned with how unconscious instincts, conflicts, motives, and defenses influence behavior Sigmund Freud—"Facher of psychoanalysis” Jung, Adler, Homey, Kohur—psychodynamic psychologists + Humanistic approach—psychological perspective concerned with individual potential for growch and the role of unique perceptions in growth towards one’s porencial Catl Rogers, Abraham Maslow—humanistic psychologists * Biological approach—psychological perspective concerned with physiological and bio- chemical factors thae determine behavior and mental processes * Cognitive approach—psychological perspective concerned with how we receive, store, and process information; think/resson; and use language * Evolutionary approach—psychological perspective concerned with how natural selection favored behaviors that coneribured co survival and spread of our ancestors! genes; evolutionary psychologists look at universal behaviors shared by all people * Sociocultural approach—psychological perspective concerned with how culcural differ ences affecc behavior + Eclectic—use of techniques and ideas from a variety of approaches Psychologists specialize in differene subfields: * Clinical psychologists evaluace and treat mental, emocional, and behavioral disorders. * Counseling psychologists help people adape to change or make changes in cheit lifeseye, *+ Developmental psychologists study psychological development throughout che lifespan, + Educational psychologists focus on how effective veaching and learning cake place. + Engineering psychologists do research on how people function best with machines. + Forensic psychologists apply psychological principles co legal issues. + Health psychologists concentrate on biological, psychological, and social factors involved in health and illness + Industrial/Organizational psychologists aim to improve productivity and the quality of work life by applying psychological principles and methads to the workplace. + Neuropsychologists explore the relationships between brain/nervous systems and behavior. Neutopsychologists are also called biopsychologists, behavioral gencticiss, physiological psychologists, and behavioral neuroscientists.SPEER EEE EERE EEE Ee EE ee Ee Ee Ee Ee ee EEE eee 50 ) STEP 4. Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High | + Poychometricians (a.k.a, measurement psychologists) focus on methods for acquiring and analyzing psychological daca. * Rehabilitation psychologists help clients with mental retardation, developmental disabilities, and disebilites resulting from stroke or accidents adap to their situations. + School psychologists assess and counsel students, consult with educators and parents, and perform behavioral intervention when necessary. + Social psychologists focus on how a person's mental life and behavidr are shaped by interactions with other people. i + Sports psychologists help athletes refine their focus on competition goals, increase motivation, and deal wich anxiety and fear of failure,