The Wise Use of

Landscape
Resources in Road
Construction and
Maintenance:
Scotland

by M G Winter, TRL Limited

and
C Anderson, TJP

July 2002
 The Wise Use of
Landscape Resources in Road
Construction and Maintenance:
Scotland

Copyright TRL Limited/Viridis 2002. All rights reserved. This

report has been written and produced by TRL Limited and TJP.
Any views expressed in this research publication are those of the
authors and do not necessarily represent either the views or the
policies of any other body. Whilst every effort has been made to
ensure that the matter presented in this publication is relevant,
accurate and up-to-date at the time of publication, TRL Limited
and TJP cannot accept any liability for any error or omission.

2
The Project

This document has been written by Dr M G Winter and Ms C Anderson, based upon
input from the project team, the advisory group and consultees. The project team
comprised:
Dr M G Winter, TRL Limited C M Fry, TRL Limited
Ms C Anderson, TJP Dr A E Hargreaves, TRL Limited
Ms V Stephens, TJP Dr A B Hird, TRL Limited

The Project Advisory Group was directed by J M Head, Viridis.

The following individuals were consulted during the project:

D Bruce, Mouchel.
D Dingwall, West Lothian Recycling.
R Kent, Mouchel.
M Lancaster, ASH Landscape Architects.
D Macfarlane, Scottish Environment
Protection Agency.
D MacNeil, TRL Limited.
I Nettleton, TRL Limited.
Ms G Pearson, Young Associates.
D Pringle, West Lothian Council.
D Robertson, Abbey Holford Rowe.
C Curtis, Hanson Quarry Products.
J Truscott, ASH Landscape Architects.
D Welsh, M6 Joint Venture.
Dr S Young, Young Associates.

The work was funded by the Hanson Environment Fund under the Landfill Tax
Credits Scheme. The Credits were awarded to Viridis and the work carried out under
contract by TRL Limited and TJP within the Waste Streams Programme.

This report is available for download from www.viridis.co.uk.

3
Contents

Introduction 5

Part 1 - Guidance 8

1. Soil - Subsoil; Topsoil, Manufactured Topsoil, Soil Improvers; and Peat 9

2. Drainage - Ditch, Swale and Lagoon Sediments 24

3. Hard Elements - Rock, Gravel, Boulders and End-of-Life Fences and Walls 33

4. Existing Vegetation - Leaves, Branches, Tree Trunks and Stumps 51

5. New Planting - Trees and Shrubs, Seeding, Planting Sundries and Vegetated
Slope Systems 54

6. Maintenance - Weed Control; Arisings from Grass Cutting, Pruning and

Thinning; and Hard Elements 68

Part 2 - Associated Information 79

7. Contractual Context 80

8. Case Studies 83

9. Bibliography 98

4
Introduction

Policies outlined in Fitting Roads, Cost Effective Landscapes and the Trunk Roads
Biodiversity Action Plan (Scottish Executive, 1997b; 1998; 1999) have promoted the
adoption of measures which seek to minimise adverse effects on the environment in
the planning and detailed design of roads. These policies also, directly or indirectly,
minimise waste produced through both the construction of the road (by aiming to fit
new road alignments with the existing topography) and through the wise use of
resources in creating new landscapes associated with roads.

The former Scottish Office published Cost Effective Landscape: Learning from
Nature (CEL:LFN) in 1998. This sets out the principle of Bottom Dead Centre Design
(BDCD), in which the aim is to achieve design objectives as close to the natural state
as possible and thus to minimise the amount of time, money and resources required to
maintain the landscape.

The principal objectives to be satisfied in creating and maintaining the landscape of a

road, can be summarised as follows:
There must be demonstrable endeavour to make a positive contribution to the
landscape character, natural vegetation and wildlife habitats.
Visual amenity must be provided to both road users and those living close by.
It must give good value for money in whole life terms.
The road must remain safe and the verges must not present a hazard to road users.

CEL:LFN builds upon BDCD to develop a policy with three central themes as
follows:
The use of natural characteristics.
The exploration of alternatives.
The wise use of landscape resources.

These are then applied to five stages of the lifecycle of a road, as follows:
Understand the context and set objectives.
Prepare conceptual solutions.
Specify details.
Monitor implementation.
Manage the developing landscape.

The introduction of CEL:LFN was a significant step forward in terms of landscape

management in road construction and road maintenance. However, following its
publication, it was felt that useful improvements could be achieved by addressing the
wise use of landscape resources in more detail. This document is the result of those
efforts, its purposes being to develop and apply more effectively the wise use of
landscape resources theme and to stimulate interest and ideas for dealing with
materials produced by road construction and maintenance, so achieving improved
resource efficiency.

5
This document comprises two parts. Part 1 contains guidance on six material
categories, as follows:
Soil: Subsoil; Topsoil, Manufactured Topsoil, Soil Improvers; and Peat.
Drainage: Ditch, Swale and Lagoon Sediments.
Hard Elements: Rock, Gravel, Boulders and End-of-Life Fences and Walls.
Existing Vegetation: Leaves, Branches, Tree Trunks and Stumps.
New Planting: Trees, Shrubs, Grass and Planting Sundries.
Maintenance: Weed Control; Arisings from Grass Cutting, Pruning and
Thinning; and Hard Elements.

In Part 2 of the document, issues relating to construction and maintenance contracts

are explored and the findings from a number of case studies are also presented. The
Waste management Licensing Regulations 1994 (WMLR) (Anon, 1994a; 1994b) are
not specifically addressed. The primary reason for this is that the WMLR are
developing from both practice and case law. Notwithstanding this factor care has been
taken to ensure that the guidance offered does not conflict with the WMLR and
associated Exemptions.

Safety is a critical issue and more wide-ranging than simply maintaining safe verges.
The Construction, Design & Management (CDM) Regulations 1994 (e.g., Anon,
1995a; 1995b) place particular responsibilities on Designers and other parties to
construction contracts in respect of ensuring that they undertake assessments in order
to minimise the risks to which operatives and the public are exposed during
investigation, construction, maintenance and decommissioning. These aspects must
also form an integral part of any landscape design. The Client must be aware of his
duties in both that role and (potentially) as the conceptual Designer. Imposed
maintenance regimes need to be suited to the essential needs of the project, as
opposed to the landscaping needs.

Like CEL:LFN this document has been developed in the context of trunk road and
motorway construction and maintenance. However, it applies equally to any other
road.

The guidance highlights opportunities for improvements to current practice and it is at

this level that significant progress can be achieved. The primary audience comprises
Contractors, Consultants and Designers, but much of what is contained within the
document is also of relevance to statutory bodies and their advisors.

A Contractors Environmental Management System (EMS) has the scope to act as a

framework within which the Contractor can set out waste management objectives. It
can then act as a monitoring tool for both CEL:LFN and the wise use of landscape
resources. Ongoing experimentation with new techniques for improving plant growth,
for example mycorrhiza trials on the recent A830 contract, will be a useful means of
gauging new approaches. Such trials have potential for improvements to reduce waste
by optimising the conditions necessary for long term plant survival and health.

There is, however, a need for flexibility in the audit of the EMS to take account of
needs and opportunities to manage waste effectively and focus on opportunities to
reuse the materials available. There is only limited flexibility to respond to local
conditions once construction has begun. While a more flexible approach to the audit

6
of the EMS will improve this aspect, the Design and Build form of contract can also
be used to encourage flexibility if the contract documents are structured appropriately.

A common theme reported from the case studies is that elements of the contract
documents can, on occasion, be taken to be in disagreement. Particular care must be
taken to evaluate, review and remove potential contradictory elements in the contract
documents. In particular, the Employers Requirements should be used to include
elements that are specific to a particular contract and all other elements should be
incorporated within the Specification and other contract documents as appropriate.

The programming of landscape works tends to be compressed into the end of the
contract. Action by Contractors, Designers and Clients to allow landscape and
planting works to be undertaken at the optimum time could bring about rapid
improvements in the performance of landscape works and the resource efficiency
achieved.

7
Part 1

Guidance

The guidance covers a range of topics and materials and is intended to provoke and
stimulate thinking about alternative ways of addressing the wise use of landscape
resources. Prescriptive advice has been avoided in favour of outlining general
concepts and principles. Each project is different and specifically targeted advice may
not always be appropriate.

The guidance treats the construction process as a continuum and is thus aimed at
everyone involved in the planning, procurement, construction, maintenance and
improvement of rural roads.

8
1 Soil - Subsoil; Topsoil,
Manufactured Topsoil, Soil
Improvers; and Peat

Subsoil

Subsoil represents the largest contributor to landscape resources in road construction.

The balancing of cut-and-fill will often be a key component of environmental impact
mitigation, the timely completion of the contract and out-turn costs (Figures 1.1 and
1.2). Various studies have found that the majority of the financial and technical risk
involved in construction lies in the ground (Matheson and Keir, 1978; Anon, 1993;
1994c). A study of ten large traditional (i.e., client risk) road construction projects
showed that the final cost was 35% greater than the tendered sum, half of which was
due to soil related issues (Tyrrell et al., 1983).

Minimising waste at the design stage

There is a need to undertake careful surveys and assessments and to design

accordingly. This may include the following:
Design of new roads projects to fit with the landscape and thus minimise the
amount of generated material.
The use of generated material in forming screening bunds or new landscape
features close to the road. (As a sound general principle of good practice such
features should be required in the first place and not be used as a means of
disposing of waste.)
The use of the Observational Method in providing a flexible approach to cut-
and-fill and to enable a response to be made to various scenarios.

The availability of detailed and accurate soil data is limited at the initial design and
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) stage. This lack of detailed information can
lead to difficulties in preparing a strategy to deal with generated material and
adversely affect the relevance of the mitigation measures defined. It is recommended
that the Environmental Statement (ES) should be written with parameters that allowed
for flexibility in design. For example, a particular effect could be assessed in the
context of a road embankment being constructed at two metres or four metres above
ground level. Another method would be that a height of embankment above which a
particular parameter would materially change could be evaluated and given as a
contractual limit if appropriate.

Short construction timescales and financial penalties relating to contract overruns are
often cited as factors in preventing the economic use of soil in cut-and-fill operations.
However, disposal of all materials is expensive and landfill costs and landfill tax,
along with the costs of replacement materials, provide a powerful incentive for the
reuse of subsoil. Involvement of a Contractor from the very early stages of planning

9
will significantly aid the design of cut-and-fill operations. Such initiatives are
currently under trial in England.

Balancing cut-and-fill

The key to the successful execution of earthworks construction is to strike a balance

between the amount of cut-and-fill. This is achieved by moving the vertical alignment
so as to achieve equality between the anticipated quantities of each. However, cut
materials can be either acceptable or unacceptable by virtue of temporal changes to
the moisture condition. A means of forecasting the likely condition of a given soil at a
given location would significantly aid the estimation of the quantities of acceptable
and unacceptable material. Such a technique is available (Smith et al., 1998; Winter,
2001) and should lead to improved estimates of acceptable and unacceptable
quantities.

Uses for generated material

Generated subsoil is nonetheless frequently encountered during construction contracts

and there are a number of areas in which these materials may be utilised. Some degree
of flexibility in the design of earthwork features is thus desirable. In the case of
earthworks the flexibility may be built into the overall height, the lateral extent, the
slope angle and even the option of additional features. For example, if slopes can be
graded to 1:6 then at least part can be returned to agriculture. This requires a flexible
approach, which should be reflected in the EIA process. It is important to note that
there must be a genuine need for such measures rather than their creation being used
as a means of disposing of waste.

The observational approach

This process is analogous to the observational method that is often used to deal with
uncertainty at the design stage in geotechnical engineering (Peck, 1969; Nicholson et
al., 1997). A range of likely scenarios is identified and designs prepared for each.
Observations at the construction stage are then used to determine which design option
is most appropriate and construction proceeds accordingly. A similar approach is
proposed to limit the amount of generated material disposed off-site whilst ensuring
that satisfactory landscape features, which are required as part of the contract, are
constructed regardless of whether the generated material is greater or less than
anticipated at the pre-construction stage. The design options should, where
appropriate, allow for the possibility of much greater than anticipated volumes of
generated material being encountered. The opportunity for enhancing the constructed
landscape can then be incorporated into the design options. This fits well with the
regulatory requirement to undertake environmental mitigation and improvement as
part of road construction activities.

A good example of the benefits of a flexible approach to design and assessment has
recently occurred on the Ardrossan by-pass where the Compulsory Purchase Order
was extended to accommodate a new landform to use additional excavated material.
There was a strong environmental justification for purchasing the land identified and
thus reducing disposal of generated material off-site.

10
Acceptable and unacceptable materials

It is essential to ensure that the chemical and physical properties of soils used in
earthwork structures are compatible with any construction elements that they may
contain. Failure to do so can have serious consequences in terms of the longevity of
these components, particularly those of a metallic or cementitious nature (Figure 1.3).

Subsoil can exist in three different forms in terms of its potential for reuse (see Figure
1.4) under the contract documents (MCHW 1 and DMRB 4.1.1):
1. Acceptable Material: Material excavated from the site comprising constituents
both:
a) allowed in the specification and
b) in a condition suitable for reuse in earthwork construction.
2. Unacceptable Material Class U1: Material excavated from the site comprising
constituents that are either:
a) not allowed in the specification or
b) allowed but are in a condition unacceptable for reuse.
3. Unacceptable Material U2: material having hazardous chemical or physical
properties requiring special measures for its excavation, handling, storing,
transportation, deposition or disposal.

Acceptable and U1 unacceptable

If the constituents of materials classified as either acceptable or U1 are allowed in the

specification then acceptability and unacceptability may be viewed as a temporal
state. The condition of acceptable and U1 materials is usually judged in terms of
moisture content or moisture condition. As these vary with climatic and vegetation
factors, acceptability parameters therefore vary with time (Figure 1.5).

A fill material deemed unacceptable for reuse at a given point in time may be
rendered acceptable later by either allowing it to remain in-situ or by excavating and
spreading it to allow evaporation, provided that the contract programme allows.

If the constituents of a U1 material are deemed unacceptable it may, in some cases, be

rendered acceptable. The addition of sand and/or gravel to high plasticity clay can, on
occasion, render the resulting material acceptable. Similarly, frozen materials will
often become acceptable once thawed. Such materials can, alternatively and
depending upon their condition, be used in non-structural earthworks.

Borderline, or marginal, materials are best used after periods of low rainfall and high
evapotranspiration. These periods usually occur in late summer and early autumn,
which further emphasises the need for careful planning of cut-and-fill operations. In
some cases materials that are marginal on the basis of their moisture content may be
used in conjunction with geotextiles and capping layers.

11
U2 unacceptable

U2 materials represent a special case and under normal circumstances are disposed of.
Methods to allow the reuse of petroleum (Anon, 1994d) and hydrocarbon (Kean,
1999) contaminated soil have been described. A number of authors have described
techniques and processes that use cement or lime to chemically fix contaminants
(Evans and Al-Tabba, 1999; McKinley et al., 1999; Reid and Clark, 1999). The
foregoing are examples of the types of clean-up techniques that are currently
available. A wider review of such techniques (e.g., CIRIA, 1995) is beyond the scope
of this report. However, it is important that the techniques employed are appropriate
to the type of contaminant(s) found in a given body of soil and that expert advice on
both technical and regulatory matters is sought at an early stage and prior to
embarking on such operations. Similar approaches can also be applied to
contaminated drainage residues where quantities are sufficient.

Practical measures

It is important that acceptable soils are treated in such a manner that their handling
does not render them unacceptable. Precautions generally revolve around the
prevention of moisture ingress and suitable precautions are as follows.

1. Prior to excavation (to protect the subsoil):

Leave vegetation and topsoil in place as long as possible and preferably until
just before excavation commences.
Plan to excavate the subsoil at a time of year at which the material is likely to
be acceptable. This may mean that the earthworks programme requires
modification from the constructional ideal, but can be a significant aid to
achieving cost-effective and sustainable earthworks.
2. After excavation:
Minimise the distance over which marginally acceptable materials are
transported.
Ensure that materials are placed in favourable weather conditions.
Do not stockpile materials unless they are unacceptable and weather
conditions are such that reductions in moisture content may be reasonably
expected.
3. After placement:
Compact the material as soon after placement as possible.
Ensure that water shed onto or otherwise entering the earthworks is rapidly
removed by means of compaction and the provision and maintenance of
appropriate falls and gradients.
Restrict construction plant movements to the minimum.

The construction of steep slopes may also lead to problems with localised shallow
failures. These may not be a safety or structural hazard, but are often unsightly and
create a need for periodic maintenance (Figure 1.6).

12
Topsoil, Manufactured Topsoil and Soil Improvers

Topsoil

Topsoil is a relatively small proportion of the material that must be moved as part of a
new road construction project. However, it is a valuable resource, often in short
supply and will always be required for reuse on-site for planting works, unless
severely contaminated.

In many new road construction schemes where widening of an existing carriageway is

being undertaken, topsoil is often in particularly short supply. However, importation
of topsoil should be avoided for both economic reasons and to ensure compliance with
the principles of CEL:LFN. Where on-site availability is limited, this should be
considered at an early stage so as to influence the design of planting.

Topsoil should be conserved for backfilling tree and shrub pits and for the
establishment of grassed areas adjacent to the carriageway and at junctions. However
where supplies are limited, the establishment of species rich grassland with native
wildflowers sown on subsoil should be considered. The contract documentation
should allow flexibility in topsoil thickness, even to the extent of none at all where
this can be demonstrated to be appropriate or similar to the local area. In some cases
subsoil can be mixed with topsoil to form verges, thus making the most of limited
topsoil resources.

Poor treatment of topsoil can have serious repercussions on plant establishment and
long term health. Key rules are:
Do not move topsoil in wet conditions and do not compact with vehicles.
Minimise transport distances in order to retain soil with specific/compatible
characteristics close to source. On the A74 upgrade to motorway a limit of 50m
was imposed.
Avoid repeated handling in order to retain the structure of the soil.
Aim to store topsoil in heaps no more than 2 metres high.
Stockpiles should always be soil-type specific and should not be mixed (e.g., at
A82 Base Camp Bridge, soil supporting a beech hedge and therefore rich in
mycorrhiza, was stored separately so that it could be used for re-establishing a
new beech hedge).
Once re-spread avoid compaction of the topsoil as this will prevent establishment
of plants (Figure 1.7).

Manufactured topsoil and soil improvers

Composts manufactured from green waste are a valuable resource to be used as

topsoil substitutes and soil improvers. Guidance is given on composting in later
Chapters concerning existing vegetation and maintenance.

However, soil improvers should only be necessary in special circumstances. Local

sources of soil improvers should be explored and this may include the use of materials
such as seaweed, potash and compost from recycled green wastes.

13
Fertiliser should not generally be added to tree pits as it is not necessary at an early
stage. However, flexibility to add fertiliser as a liquid feed at a later date during the
three year maintenance period should be accommodated.

Peat

Peat is formed from vegetative matter that has partially or wholly decomposed and is
almost entirely organic in nature with little or no mineral soil. There are essentially
two types of peat:
Fibrous - in which the vegetative matter has undergone only limited decomposition
and forms the structure of the material. Fibrous peat has a springy feel underfoot.
Amorphous - in which the vegetative matter is decomposed to the extent that it is
difficult to recognise within the soupy structure of the material. Amorphous peat
forms the classic peat bogs into which it is possible to sink when walking.

If the correct conditions exist then fibrous peat will decompose to form amorphous
peat as a saturated, black, amorphous ooze (Figure 1.8). Layers of peat will often
comprise fibrous material at the surface and amorphous material at the base, with a
gradual variation from top to bottom (Figure 1.9).

Opinion differs as to whether it is better to leave peat in place and construct over it or
to remove it and replace it with competent fill before construction. The irregularly
deformed and settled roads shown in Figures 1.10 to 1.12 illustrate the perils of
constructing roads on top of peat. In contrast the hazards of excavating peat and
replacing it with competent fill are illustrated in Figures 1.13 to 1.15. In this case the
road was being widened and peat has been removed and replaced to facilitate the
process, causing peat left under the road to drain into the fill and create a deep and
wide crack along the centreline.

Punching of large boulders into the peat mass can be successful, but is largely
dependent on the peat depth and how the boulders come to rest. Boulders can settle in
potentially unstable positions leading to further movements at a later date. Similarly
Hodgins and Wilson (1994) note that embankments can often be built on top of peat
to cause vertical compression and/or horizontal displacement. This may be an
acceptable practice for unpaved roads for which annual maintenance is a requirement
and any low spots can be infilled as part of this process. However, it is unlikely to be
acceptable for bound roads where that level of maintenance is not acceptable.

A more successful approach is often to build on top of the peat by floating the road
across the peat. There are a number of techniques available for such operations but
ample scope remains for further innovation.

While amorphous peat is highly unstable and faces cut into it rarely remain stable for
long or at a great height, faces cut in fibrous peat can remain stable for several days at
a height of a few metres (a relatively low height example is shown in Figure 1.9).
Inevitably there are exceptions and great care is required in designing such operations.

The above considerations impact upon the decision (or not) to excavate peat and thus
the availability of peat as a resource in the construction process and, potentially, for
sale off-site.

14
Fibrous peat can be useful as a soil improver for landscape works associated with new
road construction. It should be mixed in appropriate proportions of say 1:4
peat/topsoil or topsoil/subsoil mix. Local peat has been successfully used on the
Killicrankie section of the A9 to establish heather on steep slopes.

On the A74 upgrade to motorway, excavated peat was used to landscape one of the
abandoned carriageways of the original A74 and some of the newly-constructed
motorway slopes. The peat retained its moisture well and the plants have become well
established (see Figures 1.16 and 1.17).

Peat is a decomposing acidic material and leachates from piles of peat are acidic. This
may not be a problem if new drainage is to a peat bog as the ambient condition is
acidic. However, if new drainage is to a freshwater stream, pond or lake then the
effects can adversely affect the natural aquatic habitat.

Figure 1.1 - Cut operations - bucket-type excavation is essential to avoid mixing

of acceptable and unacceptable materials in the highly variable glacial tills that
predominate in Scotland.

15
Figure 1.2 - Fill operations - it is essential that earthworks are kept free of
excess water both during and after construction.

Figure 1.3 - If aggregates with adverse chemical properties are utilised

corrosion of metallic or cementitious elements may result. In the case above a
high sulphate content aggregate has been used leading to corrosion of a ferritic
stainless steel reinforcing material (from Winter et al., 2002).

16
Figure 1.4 - Flowchart illustrating the chain of utility and decision-making
process for acceptable and unacceptable earthworks materials.

Figure 1.5 - Forecast of the change in moisture condition of a soil (from Winter
2001). More accurate techniques of estimating the quantities of acceptable and
unacceptable fills can considerably enhance the efficient use of resources in
earthworks operations.

17
Figure 1.6 - Steep embankments were formed due to a lack of space for shallower
slopes. Slippages needing repeated rectification resulted (A75 The Glen).

Figure 1.7 - Compaction of topsoil resulting in poor establishment of grass.

18
Figure 1.8 - Spoil tip of amorphous peat (A85 west of Tyndrum). Such materials
are generally very wet and this combined with their lack of structure makes them
very difficult to handle.

Figure 1.9 - Excavated face in peat. The visible upper layer is formed of
fibrous peat, but towards the bottom of the visible face the transition to
amorphous peat can just be seen (A85 west of Tyndrum).

19
 Figure 1.10 - Settlement of a road constructed over
peat (west of Glasgow). Particular care is required
to construct a road successfully over peat.

Figure 1.11 - Settlement of peat and consequent road deformation (A835 Loch
Dromer). Particular care is required to construct a road successfully over peat.

20
Figure 1.12 - Settlement of peat and consequent road deformation (A835 Loch
Dromer). Particular care is required to construct a road successfully over peat.

Figure 1.13 - Removal and replacement of peat during road widening (A85 west
of Tyndrum).

21
Figure 1.14 - The consequences of removal and replacement of peat during road
widening (A85 west of Tyndrum). Peat has been removed and replaced to
facilitate the process, causing peat left under the road to drain into the fill and
create a deep and wide crack along the centreline.

Figure 1.15 - The reasons for the effects seen in Figure 1.14 are clear as water
has drained from the peat under the road into the rockfill replacing the peat in
the widened are creating a reduction in volume and associated movements (A85
west of Tyndrum).

22
Figures 1.16 - Excavated peat used to landscape one of the abandoned
carriageways of the original A74 carriageways (A74 Upgrade to Motorway).

Figures 1.17 - Excavated peat used to landscape one of the abandoned

carriageways of the original A74 carriageways (top). The excavated peat used
in landscaping retained its moisture well and the plants have become well
established (A74 Upgrade to Motorway).

23
2 Drainage - Ditch, Swale and
Lagoon Sediments

This Chapter identifies the common types of road drainage and treatment systems and
examines the interactions with landscape materials. Various materials are considered
and in each case a summary of existing management practices is given. Areas for
potential improvement to make better use of the resources within the roadside
landscape are then identified. It does not cover all aspects of road drainage systems. In
geographical terms a key boundary for these materials is beyond the kerbside.
Whilst this distinction is not wholly clear cut when dealing with the variety of runoff
collection, conveyance and treatment systems, it follows that materials associated
with drainage collection elements of the road infrastructure such as gully pot
liquor/sediment are beyond the scope. Conversely, arisings from swales, ditches,
ponds and wetland systems (including settlement lagoons) are particularly relevant.
The information given in this Chapter is broadly complementary to that generated by
the SUDS (Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems) project (CIRIA, 2001).

Purpose and Design of Road Drainage Systems

Road drainage systems are designed to convey water to prevent build up on the road
surface and store and treat the runoff to ensure that discharges to the environment are
of acceptable flow and quality. The primary polluting potential from road runoff is
from sediments contaminated with metals, hydrocarbons and de-icing agents. The
level of polluting potential and its effects are difficult to predict and current guidance
in DMRB 11.3.10 advocates a precautionary approach to its management. In
recognition of this gap in scientific understanding, the Highways Agency (in
consultation with the Scottish Executive and other DMRB Overseeing Organisations)
has recently commissioned research on the Improved Determination of Highway
Runoff (Highways Agency, 2001).

A variety of types of drainage systems are used to collect, convey, store and
treat/dispose of road runoff (see Table 2.1). These include traditional hard engineered
structures as well as more naturalised vegetative systems, the adoption of which is
increasing. In practice, elements of a number of types of facilities may be present in
hybrid systems designed to suit a particular road situation (SEPA/EA, 1999).

Table 2.1 summarises the maintenance requirements for the various types of system.
Maintenance cycles will vary from site to site as they depend on local factors such as
the design of the system, climatic conditions and traffic volumes using the road. In
practice drainage system maintenance routines tend to be undertaken less frequently
than required or neglected completely. Table 2.1 identifies the main landscape
materials associated with the maintenance activities for each type of drainage system.

24
Table 2.1 - Summary of landscape material inputs and outputs from UK drainage
collection and treatment systems (adapted from CIRIA, 1994, page 122 and DMRB
11.3.10, page A2/4).
Drainage/ Type Operational and Maintenance Landscape Materials
pollution Maintenance Requirements Inputs and Arisings
measure Costs

Wetland vegetation
Grass cuttings and
Routine Non-

(cuttings/die back)
routine

Contaminated

Shrub growth

Woody debris
Gravel filter

leaf litter
sediment
Informal Collection 0 L Regular grass cutting

verge
Swales Conveyance/ L L Regular grass cutting,

storage occasional silt removal
Gully pots Collection H H Regular contaminated
sediment (and polluted
liquor) removed
approximately every few
months
Filter Collection/ 0 H Replacement filter
(French) conveyance material (gravels)

drains approximately every 10-
20 years
Infiltration Disposal H H Replacement filter beds
basins (sand/gravel)

approximately every 5
years
Soakaways Disposal H H Replacement filter
and material (gravels)

infiltration
trenches
Storage ponds Storage L L De-silting (from inlet
(wet sump) approximately
detention) every 7 years
Detention Storage L L Regular grass cutting.
tanks (dry De-silting approximately
detention) every 7 years.
Catchpits and Conveyance M M Regular de-silting

grit traps
Oil separators Conveyance H H Regular de-silting
Sedimentation Conveyance H H Regular de-silting

tanks
Wetland Storage/ 0 M Dependent on design.
Vegetative disposal Regular vegetation
Systems cutting clearance.
Lagoons Storage M H De-silting approximately

every 5 years
Infiltration Collection/ M H Pavement surfacing
pavements storage maintenance/
replacement
Key: H - High, M - Medium, L - Low, 0 - None.

25
Inputs to Drainage Systems

Filter material and graded stone

Sands and/or gravels are usually used as filter materials within a number of drainage
system designs (e.g. filter drains, infiltration basins and soakaways, and infiltration
trenches). These materials are included in the original installation of the system and
may also be renewed during its working life.

Improvements can be made by the use of secondary aggregates. There is scope to

increase the use of secondary aggregates as a filter medium, subject to them meeting
the appropriate design specification (e.g., in terms of particle size and shape).
Examples of secondary aggregate materials include reused road and other
construction materials and alternatives such as recycled glass, mining wastes and
rubber. In particular, research into the use of scrap tyres as a filter material for road
drains (Carswell and Jenkins, 1996) has demonstrated its potential to:
utilise a waste resource and
minimise a potential hazard for the road user caused by filter stones being
displaced onto the road.

Arisings from Drainage Systems

Landscape materials arising associated with road drainage systems are identified in
Table 2.1 and include:
Contaminated and uncontaminated sediment;
Shrub growth;
Woody debris;
Grass cuttings and leaf litter; and
Wetland vegetation (cuttings and die back).

Contaminated sediments

The accumulation of sediments is common to all drainage systems that are designed to
settle or filter this material before the run-off is discharged. Depending on the system,
frequent de-silting may be necessary in order to maintain the operational efficiency of
the drainage system. This material is usually contaminated to some degree and as a
consequence, a precautionary approach is usually taken involving its removal for
disposal off-site. Where this material is captured in sludge form (e.g., in gully pots
and catchpits), it may be passed through a soakaway on-site to allow separation of the
sediments. Draft guidance from the Highways Agency is expected to suggest that
sediment accumulated over a number of years from discharges from roads carrying
about 15,000 vehicles per day or more is likely to comprise special waste requiring
appropriate disposal (Highways Agency, 2001).

The development of practical and cost-effective options for the treatment of

contaminated road runoff sediments is required. The basic distinction between in-situ
and ex-situ approaches for the treatment of contaminated land may be equally relevant
to the treatment of contaminated sediments from road drainage systems. Guidance by

26
CIRIA (1995) provides a comprehensive overview of treatment options. Those of
most potential relevance to this project are discussed below.

In-situ bioremediation: Bioremediation (also known as biofiltration) refers to using

the interactions between vegetation, soil and micro-organisms (usually bacteria) to
convert hazardous pollutants into less harmful ones. The main by-products of this
process are new micro-organisms and CO2. Bioremediation may occur naturally
within drainage systems to some degree. The process can be accelerated by
engineering the site in some way (e.g., to increase the supply of oxygen or nutrients),
most commonly by creating an artificial vegetative wetland system (e.g., a reed bed).
Advice should be sought on whether plant used in such processing operations may
need to be licensed before specifying their use.

Petroleum hydrocarbons are biodegradable and bioremediation has been successfully

used to treat soil contaminated by oil (Nies and Mesearch, 1996). However, current
guidance within DMRB 11.3.10 reflects the position that there is little evidence that
such forms of treatment are appropriate for the range of pollutants found in road
runoff, and are unable to remove metals. The guidance also establishes that based on
the state of current knowledge, there should be a strong presumption against the
introduction of bacteria into road drainage systems, although selecting designs to
encourage activity by naturally occurring bacteria is acceptable.

Ex-situ soil washing: Promoted in Canada as a possible way of dealing with

catchbasin material and road sweepings (Hodgins and Wilson, 1994) the process
involves washing the sediment for reuse and discharging wash water to foul water
sewers. In-situ soil washing processes are also promoted for the clean up of areas of
contaminated land. There is however no known experience of soil washing being
applied to contaminated sediments from UK roads. The process does of course give
rise to contaminated liquids and as such may achieve no more than to move the
contamination to a different form, albeit one which may be more easily managed and
treated in some situations. Certainly the agreement of the Water/Drainage Authority
would be required for any trial.

Ex-situ bioremediation via landfarming: Where soils cannot be remedied in-situ, for
example where they exhibit low hydraulic conductivity, landfarming techniques
(e.g. forms of composting) may be employed to bioremediate the soil (Nies and
Mesearch, 1996). This is a largely untested method for the treatment of contaminated
sediments from road drainage systems. It may not, in any case, be an efficient
application of this technique if contamination levels are low and small quantities of
material need to be collected from many locations, such as gully pots and catch pits.

Shrub growth and woody debris

Any road drainage system will be potentially vulnerable to the accumulation of debris
from fallen trees and branches. The risk of large quantities accumulating will be
dependent on the design of the system and the proximity to native and planted trees
and shrubs. Systems designed as normally dry facilities with a vegetated (usually
grassed) surface layer (Figure 2.1) such as swales (Ellis, 1998) and dry detention
ponds may also be susceptible to shrub and tree colonisation over time. This material
is often removed with other (man-made) litter or through de-silting operations.

27
In the interests of maintaining an efficient drainage system, the design objective is
likely to be to minimise the amount of woody debris or shrub growth building up in
the drainage system. However, there are still opportunities to promote efficient reuse
if material does build up.

Creation of Habitats: Providing the material has not become contaminated by the
runoff, larger woody material can be reused simply by sensibly re-locating it to a
suitable part of the roadside landscape. Such dead wood can serve an important role as
a wildlife habitat, particularly for invertebrates, fungi and small mammals.

Reuse as Mulch: An alternative approach for uncontaminated woody debris or

unwanted shrub growth is to process it into mulch, for re-application elsewhere on-
site where it can serve a useful purpose (e.g., in controlling weed growth around new
tree planting).

Grass cuttings and leaf litter

Grass cuttings from mown areas in proximity to drainage systems may accumulate
over time alongside leaf litter (Figure 2.2). Vegetated dry drainage systems will also
require mowing and give rise to their own grass cuttings. It is normally necessary to
regularly remove this material in order to prevent it clogging the conveyance or
treatment system. This material has the potential to be composted for use elsewhere
on-site.

Potential improvements in design, maintenance and management practices may

enable vegetation around the drainage system to grow and act as a natural shield,
reducing the amount of leaf litter and grass cuttings reaching the drainage system.
Where removal of leaf litter and grass cuttings is required, on-site composting and
reuse should be practicable.

Wetland vegetation (cuttings or die back)

Wetland vegetative systems (Figure 2.3) are a distinct type of drainage system and
combine some degree of treatment through the principles of in-situ bioremediation
with the wider ecological, landscape and amenity advantages over hard engineering
structures. Sub-types include surface flow and sub-surface flow wetlands. Wetland
vegetation also has the potential to be used as an optional add-on to improve the
performance or appearance of other types of drainage systems such as storage ponds.
Lagoons with reeds may be viewed as a simplified wetland system.

Current guidance in DMRB 11.3.10 warns that there are few design criteria at present
to reliably predict the performance of artificial wetlands for road runoff treatment and
suggests that long-term operational and management requirements are unknown.
Their potential has however been more widely exploited for road runoff treatment in
other countries (e.g., North America). The Highways Agency is involved in ongoing
research into the use of vegetative treatment systems for road runoff, with a view to
updating the DMRB.

Drainage systems incorporating wetland vegetation, other than lagoons, will normally
require more regular maintenance than other systems to ensure their effective

28
operation. Maintenance operations include cutting back the wetland vegetation and
removing die back (occurring in the winter months). Depending on the species and
degree of contamination of the runoff, this waste material may be contaminated and
require off-site disposal accordingly. Draft guidance (Highways Agency, 2001) is
expected to give limits for the classification of sediment and plant wastes as special
waste. However, no generic advice is provided regarding the status of vegetation that
is cut and removed regularly. Local factors such as the layout of the wetland system,
plant species and road design will also be potentially relevant in determining the
degree to which plant material is contaminated.

Potential improvements include the optimisation of wetland vegetation management.

Where drainage treatment systems incorporate wetland vegetation, particular attention
should be paid to establishing an appropriate design and practical maintenance
regime. The primary aim must be to ensure that the drainage system is able to
continue to operate efficiently but it should also be possible to consider the pros and
cons of various options in terms of the likely location, quantity and potential level of
contamination of wetland vegetation arising. Where it is established that some or all
of the vegetative material removed is uncontaminated, alternative on-site uses should
be considered such as on-site composting or mulching.

Recommendations

A variety of landscape materials are used within or arise from the maintenance of road
drainage systems. Whilst the quantities of material generated at each drainage site
location may be relatively small, cumulatively these material flows may be quite
significant and reuse must be considered.

A key consideration in developing alternative approaches for the use of materials

associated with drainage systems is their degree of contamination. This factor must be
included in assessments of the practicality and cost of processing and reuse.

A precautionary approach is currently used, whereby, in consultation with the

regulatory authority, materials are often classed as special waste and the lack of
certainty regarding the polluting potential of road runoff continues to be a potential
barrier to introducing approaches involving reuse.

An important future trend is likely to be increasing adoption of vegetative treatment

systems. This may cause the spatial shift of drainage systems beyond the kerbside
where their maintenance and resource management becomes increasingly intertwined
with that of the managed roadside landscape and the natural environment beyond.
Trials of such systems are recommended.

29
Figure 2.1 - While the concrete feeder to the swale
drainage system is visible the swale itself blends
very effectively into the surrounding landscape
(Bicester Fields, England). (Photograph Courtesy
of H Howes, Environment Agency.)

30
Figure 2.2 - Double siphoned rill/lagoon showing the
accumulation of leaf litter (A74 Upgrade to Motorway).
(Photograph Courtesy of T Bryson, Scott Wilson Scotland
Ltd.)

31
Figure 2.3 - Part of a wetland vegetative treatment system, which allows
settling and treatment of runoff from areas of hard-standing prior to outlet to
local water courses. (Hopwood Park Motorway Service Area). (Photograph
Courtesy of D Preston, Environment Agency.)

32
3 Hard Elements - Rock, Gravel,
Boulders, End-of-Life Fences
and Walls

Rock (including End-of-Life Walls)

Excavation and reuse (cut-and-fill)

There are two main sources of rock in road construction: rock cuts and end-of-life
walls (and other stone structures). The volume of the former far outweighs the latter.
In common with subsoil, excavated rock is often key to ensuring the earthworks
balance by flexible methods of design. However, rock normally has a higher
economic value than subsoil and should be utilised wherever possible.

All rock masses are divided into discrete blocks by the discontinuities that they
contain (Harber et al., 2000). The spacing and orientation of the discontinuities
determine the size and shape of the blocks and taken as a whole these have a natural
block size distribution (NBSD) analogous to the particle size distribution of a soil.
The NBSD is modified by the act of excavation, which in Scotland is usually
preceded by blasting, to give the block size distribution (BSD) of the excavated
material.

The amount of explosive used in the blasting process can be varied to tailor the BSD
to a particular requirement (Lu and Latham, 1996). This allows for the possibility of
producing rock cut materials for specific applications either on-site or off-site.
Techniques of estimating both the NBSD (Figure 3.1) and BSD (Figure 3.2) are
described by Wang et al. (1992).

A major rock fall of around 400t of material (Figure 3.3) led to the need to reprofile a
rock slope on the A87 trunk road at Dornie. The reprofiling works generated a further
30,000t of rock material. The reprofiling works provided no opportunity for reuse of
the material within the road construction. However, as the site was located close to
Eilean Donan Castle an opportunistic approach was adopted to allow the use of the
material to construct a recreational area, including provision for car parking and a
picnic area, and the foundations for a visitor centre.

The generated material was also used in the bulk fill reclamation, which involved
construction outwards from the existing foreshore of Loch Duich, and associated rip-
rap wave protection works (Figure 3.4).

Excavated rock is usually used as part of the cut-and-fill balance as described in the
previous Chapter on soil. However, where additional excavated rock either exists or
can be created as part of the cut-and-fill design then there are opportunities for the
constructive reuse of such materials. These range from the reuse of the material in the

33
road structure to the use of larger blocks as decorative pieces (see section on gravel
and boulders below). Larger blocks may be used to form walls, and other structures
such as culvert cascades and structures required as part of the works. However, it
should be noted that in order to produce a grading suitable for use as aggregate in road
pavement construction some additional processing will normally be required after
blasting.

Reuse in other applications

Materials arising from construction such as excavated rock, end-of-life walls and
kerbstones all have potential secondary uses. Indeed, it has been stated that there is no
reason why building stone should ever go to landfill (Historic Scotland, 1997).

These materials may be reused for their original purpose (e.g., new walls required
under the contract) or in alternative applications such as facing for bridge wingwalls,
noise barriers, culvert headwalls, gabion fill, linings for artificial watercourses or
localised stabilising works, such as buttresses for rock slopes. A very wide range of
examples of such applications is given in documents published by the Scottish
Executive (1992; 1997a; 1997b; 1998) and the Welsh Office (1990; 1993) in recent
years, and in DMRB 10.5.1. Examples are given in Figures 3.5 to 3.12. The positive
contribution of stone walls to the visual appearance of a suitable road corridor should
not be underestimated (e.g., A74 Upgrading to Motorway), see Figures 3.10 and 3.11,
and Chapter 8.

Some degree of flexibility in the design of such features is desirable in order to enable
environmental improvement to be undertaken. This may take the form of increasing
the thickness, height or even of the length of walls constructed from end-of-life wall
materials and excavated rock, depending upon the amount of generated material that
proves to be available at the appropriate point in the construction project.

This process is analogous to the observational method (see Chapter 1) that is often
used to deal with uncertainty at the design stage in geotechnical engineering. A
similar approach is proposed to limit the amount of generated material to which the
intention to dispose is applied. Such alternative designs are intended to ensure that
satisfactory landscape features are constructed regardless of whether quantities of
material are greater or lesser at the construction stage. In addition, where much greater
volumes of material are encountered the opportunity for enhancing the constructed
landscape should be available within the design options.

34
Slope appearance

In forming an excavation the appearance of the final exposed face is an important

consideration. Blasting is by far the most common method of forming rock faces in
Scotland due to the generally hard nature of the rock. Hydraulic hammering or ripping
of already weathered or fragmented materials can be used but generally give relatively
poor control over the stability of the final face. Fragmentation blasting will only rarely
leave a final face that is acceptable from a stability and safety viewpoint. Techniques
such as presplit (Figure 3.13) and smooth blasting (Figure 3.14) are used to achieve
stable final faces and their selection and the design of blast parameters is based upon
the amount of material to be removed. A full review of these and the attendant safety
issues is given by Harber et al. (2000).

CEL:LFN refers directly to the construction of rock slopes in terms of their

environmental design and sets out the following requirements:
1. Understanding of the site and its natural characteristics.
2. The natural characteristics of established and natural outcrops in the vicinity
should be used for inspiration to design a rock cutting.
3. Niches in the rock face should be produced for pioneer plant species to create
locally appropriate vegetation diversity.

The DMRB 10.1.1 also gives advice on the environmental design of rock slopes.
Particular attention is paid to irregular terracing to prevent unnatural appearances
within deep cuttings. The design of terracing needs to be considered in conjunction
with the exposure of rock outcrops and the establishment of vegetation on steep
slopes, although trees growing on rock faces can lead to localised instability due to
root action. In common with CEL:LFN emphasis is placed upon the natural
regeneration of planting.

Rock outcrops also have an important role to play in providing a natural and attractive
aesthetic in the road environment. Much play is made of the need to work with the
natural bedding planes (DMRB 10.1.1), however modern rock slope design methods
operate in this way while balancing the stability of the resulting face (Matheson,
1989) with environmental factors. Care needs to be taken in the interpretation of some
comments in respect of the environmental design of slopes. The DMRB 10.1.1
describes good practice as creating the profile that might be found in a quarry .
As has been previously observed (Harber et al., 2000) this is unhelpful both in terms
of stability and aesthetics as quarry slopes are generally less stable and have a less
natural appearance than road rock slopes and would therefore not be acceptable.

In level exposures or small cuttings the profile may be varied in order to give both
visual character and encourage the establishment of vegetation. Some success has
been had by tipping small amounts of topsoil onto the upper parts of rock slopes thus
allowing the actions of water and gravity to place it in niches.

In terms of EIA the basic geological input required for a mineral extraction operation
(Wiltshire et al., 1987) has been adapted and summarised (Harber et al., 2000) for
rock slope excavations in Table 3.1.

35
The publics perception of the development is an important part of the EIA. The
benefits of the rock slope excavation should be discussed at a public meeting,
especially if the proposed construction is going to cause any inconvenience to the
local community, for example traffic congestion and noise from blasting. If necessary,
arrangements should be made to minimise disruption to the local community.
However, with adequate notice and explanation of the benefits of the development,
this may not be necessary.

Table 3.1 - EIA for rock slope excavations.

Procedure Action
1 A statement of the objectives, including a description of the area and a
project plan (with timescales). This will be provided by the
commissioner and include geological advice independent of the EIA.
2 A review of the present environmental conditions, including ecology,
hydrology, soils and agriculture, and issues such as landscape value,
visual aesthetics, historic buildings, protected sites (e.g., SSSIs), etc.
3 Requirements of planning policy should be considered. A dialogue
between the Contractor, Consultants and Planning Authority should be
established.
4 Systematic consideration of the environmental impacts of alternative
options. This requires a thorough description of the proposed
development actions, particularly those with potentially deleterious
consequences.
5 The likely environmental consequences of alternative schemes must be
investigated. The impact is assessed by predicting the likely changes in
the natural and human environments. The subsequent selection will
therefore take account of the possibility of refusal of consent on
environmental grounds and of any requirement for mitigating measures.
Therefore, geological factors must be assessed before advice on
minimum impacts is given.
6 The risk reduction, economic and environmental advantages of the
preferred scheme must be clearly stated so that the planning authority
can understand the basis for the selection of a particular option.
7 A detailed analysis of the potential impacts of the preferred scheme
should be made, if this has not been provided in Procedure 5.
Geological and/or geotechnical specialists may be required to provide
expert advice.
8 If the impacts are serious, then the viability of measures, which can
limit the potential for environmental damage, must be considered. This
may include additional temporary works.

Advice, advantages and practical tips to minimise the environmental impact of rock
slope excavations are given in Table 3.2. Innovative approaches are sometimes
required. A slope that is successful in terms of environmental impact is one that is
largely unnoticed within the surrounding landscape.

Examples of good practice for minimising the environmental impact of rock slope
excavations are shown in Figures 3.15 to 3.21. Disguising rock bolts is an issue that
requires very careful consideration. Clearly it is desirable to disguise the bolt heads in
order to minimise their visual impact. However, they also need to remain accessible

36
for the purposes of future maintenance. Recessing of the bolt heads and, where this is
not possible, painting in a colour to blend with the adjacent rock face are probably the
best options.

Table 3.2 - Practical advice and tips on minimising the environmental impact of rock
slope excavations (after Harber et al., 2000).
Options and Advice and Tips
Techniques
General Design Primary objective is to create an acceptable slope - environmentally and in
terms of risk to road users.
Use natural discontinuities to design the new slope, by observing slope angles
of local natural outcrops - important for producing both a stable slope and a
natural appearance.
If land-take allows, form an irregular face at a relatively low overall angle
(without compromising the safety of the road).
Place a layer of soil/peat on berms and vegetate with appropriate* native
varieties - vegetation also helps dissipate the energy of any rock falls.
Consider forming longitudinally inclined berms to avoid horizontal lines
(note: berms must be a minimum of 4m wide and must not dip out of the
slope).
Rock colour weathers quickly to natural colour.
Use planting of appropriate* local vegetation and/or encourage the growth of
existing plant species.
Rock Traps Use ditches/bunds constructed of local, natural materials (rather than fences)
(Verges, wherever possible and encourage vegetation growth.
Ditches/Bunds Paint fence posts, anchors, attachments, etc, an appropriate colour or where
and Fences) structurally appropriate use local timber for the fence posts.
Use green coloured netting for any fences.
Remove the minimum amount of established vegetation, for example by
altering the fence line to avoid mature trees (vegetation also complements the
effect of rock traps) and encourage growth of local plant species.
Plant shrubs and small trees in rock fall ditches.
* Appropriate vegetation is vegetation (such as aspen, birch, rowan and Scots pine) that does not have
invasive deep root systems that could loosen or exacerbate existing failure geometries.

Gravel and Boulders

Gravel has a range of potential applications in road construction ranging from use in
road foundations through drainage media to more decorative applications in central
reserves and verges. Any generated material has a market value and should be suitable
for recycling as aggregate and other applications.

Boulders also have a range of applications, including the construction of walls and
similar features as discussed above, particularly where the supply is plentiful.
Depending upon their size they may also be suitable for applications such as the
prevention of erosion in watercourses and as rip-rap wave protection. In smaller
numbers boulders may be heaped at suitable locations to provide adder habitats and to
provide decorative features. In such cases it is essential that boulders are placed in
physically stable locations and that placement does not present a hazard.

Other potential uses for rock and boulders include the following:
Placement along river and stream banks to create suitable habitat for otters and
riverside rodents, in addition to providing additional stability or erosion protection
to the banks.

37
 Larger rocks and boulders can be placed in river or stream beds to create fish
pools and enhance natural appearances.
Heaps of rocks or boulders can be placed on wider expanses of grass or at the toe
of slopes to give a natural appearance. These may also provide additional habitat
for wildlife.
Rock may be used to create attractive and fitting sign bases for villages, tourist
attractions and picnic sites.

End-of-Life Fences

Generated wood may be composted or chipped for use in horticulture or burned on-
site. The latter practice is undesirable and the former seems somewhat wasteful of
materials that may be viewed as a valuable resource. In respect of the metal elements
of fences, such as nails, staples and wire, recovery in a form suitable for immediate
reuse is difficult. However, many of the processes to which wood is subjected require
recovery of metallic fixings and efforts to put these to commercial recycling
operations should be encouraged.

In Canada processes including the reclamation of creosote and woodchip from treated
wood, encapsulation of wood fibre in concrete signposts, fast pyrolysis of treated
wood to create clean woodchip and incineration (waste to energy) are used (Hodgins
and Wilson, 1994). Some caveats are made in relation to potential contamination from
the process by-products and the unproven nature of some of the processes.

Practice in Canada allows the stripping of the treated layer of utility poles and
treatment of the resulting woodchip. This process leaves the poles ready for re-
treatment and use as, for example, fence posts. Figure 3.22 shows how tree logs can
be used in the construction of small rock catch fences. There is no reason why the
UKs redundant telegraph poles, treated as described above, could not be used in a
similar fashion, provided that their cross-section and condition provide adequate
structural capacity.

Wooden fencing elements that have not rotted can, with care, be reused in the
construction of new boundary fences as for end-of-life walls above and, if suitable, in
environmental barriers as described in DMRB 10.5.1. Those that have rotted can be
composted as described above. Those that have not rotted but are not required for
temporary or permanent construction may, if suitable, be recycled for domestic fuel.
Public relations may be enhanced by making such wood from old fences and from the
construction process available to the local public on a free-of-charge to collect basis.
Care is required to ensure that those collecting the wood are not put at risk by site
activities during collection. Deliveries of such materials to the local elderly would
also enhance public relations, although this may not be viable within the constraints of
a construction project. Clearly the success of such operations requires a co-operative
Contractor and the willingness of the workforce to put effort into such an exercise
during slack periods created by, say, inclement weather.

38
Safety fencing materials may be useable as stock pens and field boundaries. Although
such materials have been used as temporary trench shoring this is not recommended
other than as part of a properly designed and evaluated temporary works solution.

Figure 3.1 - Schematic example of block size distribution before (NBSD) and
after blasting (BSD). The size distribution of the blastpile can, to some extent,
be tailored to suit the intended application.

Figure 3.2 - A typical blastpile with the block size distribution tailored to suit
the intended application.

39
Figure 3.3 - Rockfall at A87 Dornie providing a ready source of material, after
the removal of plant debris, from both the rockfall itself and from the associated
remedial works.

Figure 3.4 - Recreational and car parking area with associated rip-rap wave
protection near Eilean Donan Castle. Material was sourced from the rockfall
and associated remedial works at Dornie.

40
Figure 3.5 - Gabion scour protection (A835 Loch Dromer) constructed using
locally won stone.

Figure 3.6 - Gabion scour protection and culvert headwalls (A835 Loch
Dromer) constructed using locally won stone.

41
Figure 3.7 - Stone from demolished buildings on or near the route has been
used to construct realistic wall shapes and patterns within gabion baskets
(M876 Junctions 1 to 2).

Figure 3.8 - Drainage works constructed from rock (A74 Upgrade to

Motorway).

42
Figure 3.9 - Crushed rock was used in the construction of open channel drainage
(A74 Upgrade to Motorway).

Figure 3.10 - Stone from end-of-life-walls was reused in the construction of new
walls (A74 Upgrade to Motorway).

43
Figure 3.11 - An example of reuse of stone from
demolished dry stone walls and supplementing this
with new stone to make up a short wall that fits with
the landscape character of the surrounding area
(A75 The Glen).

44
Figure 3.12 - Local stone used to improve the
appearance of concrete bridge abutments (A720
Dreghorn Link).

45
Figure 3.13 - Successful presplit slope (A83 Erines).

Figure 3.14 - Smooth blasted rock slope (A9 Garry Weir).

46
Figure 3.15 - Rock slope with a retaining wall above. The rock slope is
dominated by the retaining wall, which is out of character with the landscape
(A9 Killiecrankie, northbound view)

Figure 3.16 - Rock slope with a retaining wall above. The rock slope is
dominated by the retaining wall, which is out of character with the landscape
(A9 Killiecrankie, southbound view).

47
Figure 3.17 - Rock slope during construction. The large expanse of the slope has
been broken up using embayments, creating an irregular horizontal profile
(A830 Polnish).

Figure 3.18 - Box cut slope formed on natural planes, vegetation becoming
established in natural niches to break up the flat expanse and soften the edges
of the slope (A835 Garve, northbound view).

48
Figure 3.19 - Box cut. The slope in view is formed across natural planes, good
contrast with opposite side of cut, see Figure 3.19 (A835 Garve, southbound
view).

Figure 3.20 - Presplit slope during construction. The excavation has broken
back to persistent and widely spaced discontinuities, which dip into the
cutting and which are clearly visible forming natural rock outcrops in the
area (A830 Loch Nan Uamh).

49
Figure 3.21 - Presplit slope during construction. Contrasting with natural
rock outcrops on the hillside above, this contrast was later decreased by
vegetation restoration (A830 Loch Nan Uamh).

Figure 3.22 - Rock catch fence constructed from tree logs (A74 Upgrade to
Motorway).

50
4 Existing Vegetation - Leaves,
Branches, Tree Trunks and
Stumps

The clearance of existing vegetation often forms an integral part of providing access
for new road construction and routine maintenance operations. The volume of
material generated will depend upon the type and extent of existing vegetation.
However, volumes of material will be small in comparison with the quantities of
subsoil or rock generated during new road construction.

The type of material produced will include, stumps, stem wood, branches and brash
from new roads schemes while grass clippings and weeds will additionally be
produced in the maintenance of roads landscapes.

Where on-site composting is not feasible, existing vegetation should generally be

taken away for composting to a local recycling plant. While chipping of vegetation
can be undertaken on-site, it is unlikely that road construction will have either the
space, volume of green waste, or programme to enable the manufacture of compost
on-site. Having said that, it is the case that uncomposted, shredded green waste can be
used in farmland to give a more open structure to clay soils.

Clearance of Vegetation

Burning cleared vegetation is generally considered to be bad practice as it destroys

resources that could be better utilised and generates pollution and, potentially,
nuisance. Where possible, a proportion of trunks and brash should be left on-site in a
suitable woodland location to encourage invertebrates and lichens etc in accordance
with CEL:LFN. This not only reduces the volume of material to be taken off-site but,
more importantly, has benefits for wildlife. However, in more urban locations the
sensitivities of local residents should be considered in the siting of such eco-piles
and care taken in their arrangement so that they do not attract the dumping of
domestic or commercial waste.

Removal of tree stumps should only be undertaken where necessary, for example,
where plant health is an issue or where clearance is necessary to accommodate a new
road.

Grass clippings should be left on-site while pernicious weeds should either be
composted or burned off-site depending on the species and composting methods
involved.

51
On-Site Composting

Large projects with construction periods of 18 months or longer, may be able to

accommodate composting of cleared vegetation on-site and thus reduce the
transportation of cleared vegetation off-site. However, the manufacture of compost
from chipped green waste requires specialised chippers, a clean storage area with
appropriate drainage arrangements and time. The scale of operation involved may also
not be efficient in the use of resources, in that intermittent use of chippers for small
amounts of green waste may equate with the fuel savings made in not having to
transport material off-site. This may inhibit Contractors from manufacturing compost
within the site.

Green, uncomposted waste, also has potential to be used as a mulch to suppress weeds
and reduce water loss. However, care should be taken to screen such materials for
diseases and pernicious weeds that would otherwise be killed by the composting
process. Also, as green wood chips absorb nitrogen in the decomposition process
supplementary nitrogen would have to be added to the soil for use by the plants.
Chipped wood does not compost well and may be best reserved for off-site
composting.

Off-Site Composting

A preferable arrangement to deal with green waste is to set up partnerships between

Contractors/Local Authorities to establish a network of recycling plants in strategic
locations that minimise the distance of transportation. This has been achieved in the
West Lothian Recycling operations at Addiewell (Figures 4.1 and 4.2) amongst
others, see also Chapter 8.

Figure 4.1 - Green waste for composting at West Lothian Recycling.

52
Figure 4.2 - Composted green waste prior to
screening and reuse at West Lothian Recycling
(hard hat for scale).

53
5 New Planting - Trees and
Shrubs, Seeding, Planting
Sundries, and Vegetated Slope
Systems

The principle of wise use of resources applies to new planting in that considerable
waste can occur in connection with the following:
Poor establishment of plants resulting in failure and replacement being required.
Use of resources connected to the transportation of plants.
The use of packaging and planting sundries.

General Establishment

Programme for planting works

Tight timescales are often required under both traditional and design and build
contracts and there is often a financial incentive for the contractor to reduce
timescales further. This can restrict the time available for landscape works which
come at the end of the road construction programme and may result in earthworks and
planting not being undertaken during optimal weather conditions/planting periods -
thus affecting plant establishment. While it is technically possible to deliver the
completed planting scheme concurrently with the finished road, this is dependent
upon road construction being programmed and completed ahead of those seasons
favourable to planting bare root trees and shrubs.

However, there may be considerable advantages to be gained by delaying the planting

till the next planting season or 12 months, whichever is longer, after the road opens.
This fallow period coincides with the settlement period for the earthworks during
which time the water table adjusts to its new level, wetter and dryer sections of
embankments become apparent and new drains bed in and begin to run. Remedial
works to install additional drains where water breaks out of slopes also tend to take
place during this period. Thus by delaying planting 12 months it is possible to fine
tune the planting scheme so that species are located in their optimum position: e.g.,
willows in wetter areas and Scots pine in dryer areas. This approach also means that
the likelihood of disturbing trees and shrubs because of remedial drainage works is
reduced.

The 12 month delay to planting also has the advantage of allowing the Landscape
Contractor to strim and apply herbicides to weeds within the planting areas without
damaging trees and shrubs. This effectively reduces pernicious weeds and the need for
weed control during the plant establishment period. Clover should be sown on
landscape areas during the fallow period to prevent weeds and thus minimise the

54
need for the use of herbicides. Clover can also aid in the prevention of erosion on
sloping ground.

It is appreciated that on the majority of schemes contractual constraints, including

time, and the potential difficulties of undertaking planting works 12 months after the
completion of the road on an operational carriageway will inhibit the use of a fallow
period. However, there may be some schemes where this method of establishment
would be appropriate.

The establishment of Holly

The requirement to include native evergreen shrubs within plant mixes can be a
problem as Holly is the only native shrub suitable for planting in many road schemes.
Holly is adapted to thriving as an under-storey plant in shady woodland thus it
requires shelter from day one (Figure 5.1). A recent study of the performance of
evergreens on trunk roads (Scottish Executive, 2000) has shown that shrub shelters
tend to be ineffectual because once the Holly emerges from the shelter it is knocked
back by wind. Ideally Holly should be planted during the final year of the
maintenance period, when it is guaranteed shelter from surrounding established trees
and shrubs.

Maintenance of new planting is described in Chapter 6. However, the maintenance of

planted areas should be carefully planned and developed as part of the contract. This
will ensure that money invested in planting is not wasted through lack of ongoing
maintenance until planting is well established.

Trees and Shrubs

Selection and sourcing of plants

Where practicable, existing vegetation within the confines of the road corridor should
be retained in-situ to provide the basis for any new planting scheme. This was
achieved successfully at the A720 City Bypass despite a restricted construction
corridor being available for the works (Figure 5.2), see also Chapter 8.

Procurement problems have been encountered with prescriptive specifications for the
supply of large numbers of plants (e.g., specific sizes/species of plants of particular
provenance). It is therefore important that future specifications are examined carefully
to ensure that their requirements are appropriate to the location.

Where timescales are short it may be preferable for the Main Contractor to secure
plants at an early stage of the contract, rather than leaving this to the landscape sub-
Contractor thus running the risk of encountering problems with supply at a much later
stage.

Where plants with a more rigorous specification as regards provenance, age or size
are required and the time required for growth is beyond the contract period, then
consideration should be given to separate growing contracts. This involves the Client
in procuring the growth of suitable plants prior to the award of the main construction

55
contract. The growing contract may then be either the sole responsibility of the Client
or be transferred to the successful tenderer by a process of novation. An alternative
approach is to use an extended end-of-contract period for all planting to ensure good
establishment. However, some contracts allow the Contractor to set the programme
(usually within a maximum period set by the Client). The Contractor should be aware
of the potential landscaping difficulties created by a shortened programme and take
account of these post-construction.

Transportation of plants uses resources and this can be significant when plants must
be brought to a scheme from a number of different sources. The supply of plants, as
for all materials, should be procured with an eye to environmental considerations.
This may mean that transport distance is an issue, although it must be clear that UK
suppliers cannot be favoured over those from other EU countries and the constraints
imposed by EU procurement rules must be adhered to.

Storage of plants

The storage of plants over long periods in poor conditions prior to planting can result
in a low establishment rate, particularly with evergreens. Thus, either deliveries must
be at the appropriate time (including phased deliveries) or the process of ground
preparation should be complete prior to the delivery of plants.

Adequate storage areas should be allowed for close to the site and these should be
sheltered with windbreaks and preferably an area of ground for heeling in where
large quantities of bare root plants are involved. Unless plants are being grown-on in-
situ in designated nursery areas, they should only be brought to the site once the
ground is ready and the contractor is able to start planting immediately.

Natural regeneration

Creative mitigation measures should be considered at an early stage during the initial
assessment and design of a new road scheme. These may include direct or indirect
ways of mitigating the environmental impacts of a road by the establishment of new
woodland or improved management of existing woodland including the
encouragement of natural regeneration. Such methods have been utilised on the A830
where existing SSSI oak woodland has been fenced to prevent deer access, thus
improving the age diversity of the woodland.

Natural regeneration can create its own problems if it is not carefully managed. These
include establishment in areas where it is not required: e.g., visibility splays, planting
failing to establish through natural regeneration, planting becoming so well
established that it becomes difficult to manage, monocultures establishing with
aggressive pioneer species crowding out other species. While natural regeneration
should be encouraged, monitoring and management will be needed beyond the three
year maintenance period. This may necessitate careful design of growing mediums,
the omission of topsoil or reducing total depth of soil to 35mm to 50mm and
providing a stony sub layer for example to restrict or inhibit growth in defined areas.

56
Seeding

Tree seeding

Direct tree seeding onto roadsides is rarely successful with the exception of broom
and gorse, which are undesirable species in this context as they have a tendency to
self-propagate to an inappropriate degree and gorse can be a fire risk. Growing trees
from seed requires controlled nursery conditions, as has been done in the case of the
A830 by collecting seed from local woodlands and commissioning a nursery to grow
trees for the scheme.

Heather seeding

In some situations it may be appropriate to establish heather to match existing

vegetation. There are a number of ways in which heather can be established. The key
to establishment is ensuring that the ground conditions are correct, for example an
acid soil is required. Means of establishing heather include the laying of cut branches
directly on peaty soils or stripping existing areas of heather (only if within the road
line) and re-using turves.

Alternatively, local soil known to contain heather seed can be spread on verges or
landscape areas. Topsoil containing heather seed must be carefully identified,
separated and stored for spreading later in the contract. Soils should be stored close to
their original location and reused in a similar area where possible.

Grass seeding

Species should be selected carefully to minimise maintenance problems. In central

reservations and on verges the species used need to be salt and pollution tolerant, low
and slow-growing (see Treatment of verges and central reservations below).
Monocultures, such as Yorkshire Fog, should be avoided.

Wildflowers/meadow grasses

Wildflower mixes can be unreliable in their performance and are difficult to source.
At the survey/assessment stages, an ecological survey should be undertaken to
identify species indigenous to the locality and suitable for use in the creation of
species rich grasslands. The ecological survey needs to take account of the fact that
road construction alters the environment and that grass/wildflower species growing in
a shady area prior to site clearance may not thrive in the open. Preservation of the
local topsoil and its placement in similar locations may encourage germination of
wildflower seed held in the soil.

Harvesting of seed from local species may also be possible in special circumstances
and where time allows, although quantities of seed may be restricted. This approach is
particularly effective if the seeds can be harvested, grown on, re-harvested and sown
in increased quantities over a period of three years. Species rich grasslands should be
used in areas where existing soil has low fertility. Where topsoil is scarce the

57
establishment of species rich grass can be an alternative to amenity grass seeding or
planting which requires deeper soils.

Treatment of verges and central reservations

A grass sward established in the central reserve can be difficult to maintain, often
requiring lane closures. Stone chippings similarly require regular maintenance as
weeds colonise (Figure 5.3). A current study, on a new works contract in East
Lothian, has implemented a number of trial plots using a variety of growing mediums
and species mixes with the aim of establishing whether maintenance can be reduced.
Seed mixes need to be salt tolerant and able to withstand drying out during the
summer months and have the capacity to form a sward.

Low growing ryegrass, bents and fescues have generally been used, with one plot also
including the native hawkbit, which is related to hawkweed, a natural wildflower
commonly found in central reservations. The growing medium in each of the six plots
comprises a 50mm depth of various proportions of topsoil and sand on a subsoil base.
The plots are in their first season of establishment and will be monitored over two full
growing seasons (Figure 5.4).

Hydro-seeding

Hydro-seeding is a resource and energy intensive process. While the creation of

continuous steep soil slopes should generally be avoided, it is recognised that space
constraints may make these features unavoidable (Figure 5.5). Oil based fixatives are
rarely used in hydro-seeding and should be avoided as they present a pollution risk.
Biodegradable fixatives are manufactured and should be used in preference. Where
possible, rock faces should have local topsoil drizzled down from above to catch on
ledges.

Packaging and Planting Sundries

Plant containers and packaging

A balance needs to be struck between adequate protection of roots and plants to

ensure good establishment of plants and reducing the amount of waste in the form of
pots and ties ultimately going to landfill. The use of plant packaging materials,
especially those comprising non-biodegradable materials, should be minimised and
where their use is necessary efforts should be made to reuse the products or recycle
the materials.

Where possible, plants should be supplied bare root or as cell grown plants (which are
delivered without their cells) and planting undertaken between November and March.
They should be brought to site with their roots protected from drying out with
biodegradable materials such as hessian. Where containerised plants need to be used,
in the establishment of ornamental or evergreens species (such as holly, pine, etc) it is
recommended that there should be an obligation within the Employers Requirements
for Contractors/Suppliers to ensure that non-biodegradable containers be reused or
recycled.

58
Plant protection measures

Tree tubes, protective fencing and guards are an important part of the wise use of
landscape resources and should be used to improve the establishment of plants by
preventing damage from rabbits where necessary (Figure 5.6).

Excessive and good examples of the use of tree protection methods are illustrated in
Figures 5.7 and 5.8.

Timber posts or steel pins should be used for rabbit fencing. The former will rot if left
long enough or can be recovered for reuse in the shorter term, while the latter can be
recovered for reuse.

Mulch mats

These are typically one metre square mats available in biodegradable and non-
biodegradable materials. They are installed around newly planted transplants to inhibit
competitive weed growth and reduce evaporation, thus preserving soil moisture levels
close to the surface and therefore aiding the uptake of nutrients to the trees surface
feeder roots. Larger sheets of mulch matting can also be obtained.

While biodegradable mats (made of coir/jute type materials) also permit the exchange
of soil gases and air and eventually degrade to release nitrogen they may need to be
replaced if they have degraded before the trees have had a chance to out-compete
weed growth. Mulch matting can significantly reduce the use of chemical weed
control during the establishment of plants. Non-biodegradable mulch mats can be
recycled, although the use of large areas of black polymer mulch matting should be
avoided because of their adverse visual impact.

Vegetated Slopes

Bio-degradable and synthetic woven fabrics (geotextiles) and vegetative layers are
frequently used in engineering applications such as in slope retaining systems to
reduce erosion and prevent slope slippage, thus aiding the establishment of vegetation
which will stablise slopes in the longer term. Particular advantages of such systems
are that they form versatile and effective alternatives to hard engineering solutions,
with the potential to reduce environmental impact, and give a range of benefits
including financial, aesthetic and ecological benefits (Figures 5.9 and 5.10). In
particular, such systems can allow subsoil resources to be used to produce relatively
steep slopes and also to ensure that erosion effects are minimised.

Such systems usually comprise four main elements, as follows:

1. Steel facing mesh (or panel) - to aid construction.
2. Vegetation fabric - required to hold soil in place and to enable establishment
of vegetation.
3. Reinforcing fabric or soil nailing - to provide the main source of stability to
the slope.

59
 4. Face vegetation (can be either established or seeded during or after
construction) - to provide a green finish to the slope and ensure the long term
stability of the front face.

Live willow poles can also be used to both improve the appearance of steep slopes (or
ditches) and provide mechanical slope reinforcement (Figures 5.11 and 5.12). These
allow rapid construction as well as providing a means of establishing vegetation on
steep slopes (Figures 5.9 and 5.10).

Geotextiles can be used to control erosion and aid the establishment of vegetation
along watercourses. A variety of biodegradable and synthetic materials can be used -
from coir logs, willow faggots to synthetic polyamide filament matting - their
selection being determined by the location and nature of the job. Biodegradable
geotextiles can also be secured to gabion baskets to contain soil, aiding the
establishment of vegetation on a stepped face, in locations where a green bank would
be more appropriate than stone filled baskets (Figure 5.13).

Factors leading to potential problems in the establishment of vegetation on steep

slopes are detailed in Table 5.1. Particular advantages of such systems are that they
allow for the greater use of site-won resources.

Table 5.1 - Factors contributory to the problems of establishing vegetated steep

slopes (after Barker, 1996).
Wrong or Inappropriate: Lack of:
Design or layout. Soil moisture due to:
Soils in face or body of wall. Steep face.
Plant types and species. Face orientation (South and West are
System components inhibiting face worst).
plant growth. Exposure at crest.
Time of construction. Interception by upper vegetation.
Aftercare practices - irrigation, Heat due to shade.
fertilisation, pH. Heat due to exposure to cold wind.
Maintenance - clipping, pruning,
chopping.
Failure to: Excess of:
Prevent excessive soil compaction. Moisture - heavy rainfall.
Prevent or cure plant diseases or pests. Heat - face orientation (South and West
are worst).

60
Figure 5.1 - Problems occur with establishing Holly before other shrubs
and trees have grown up to provide shelter (A75 The Glen).

Figure 5.2 - Existing roadside planting retained within a

narrow working corridor (A720 Edinburgh City Bypass).

61
 Figure 5.3 Use of stone chippings in the central
reservation can involve the use of chemical herbicides
and access problems for maintenance as weeds colonise
(A75 The Glen).

Figure 5.4 Central reservation sward trials (A1 SpottDunbar Upgrading).

62
Figure 5.5 - Site constraints resulted in steep slopes
requiring hydro-seeding (A720 Edinburgh City Bypass).

63
Figure 5.6 - Inadequate protection from rabbits results in set backs, poor
establishment of plants and wastage due to the need for replacement planting
(A75 The Glen).

Figure 5.7 - Overkill on protection measures - rabbit fences and tree shelters
(A720 Edinburgh City Bypass).

64
Figure 5.8 - Holly well protected against rabbit attack (A720 Edinburgh City
Bypass).

Figure 5.9 - Geotextiles used as part of soil nailing works to help establish
vegetation on steep stabilised slopes (A7 Colterscleuch).

65
Figure 5.10 - Established vegetation on soil nailed slope using mulch mats (A7
Colterscleuch).

Figure 5.11 - Live willow pole trials after three years growth.

66
 Figure 5.12 - Willow pole roots after three years
growth.

Figure 5.13 - Use of biodegradable geotextiles to face gabion wall and aid
growth of vegetation (Photograph courtesy of Maccaferri).

67
6 Maintenance - Weed Control;
Arisings from Grass Cutting,
Pruning and Thinning; and Hard
Elements

The principal objective of Landscape Maintenance is to ensure that new plants

establish and thrive. Secondary to this is the aesthetic requirement of presenting a tidy
landscape to the road user. However within the terms of CEL:LFN the aim also
should be to reduce the use of polluting chemical herbicides and pesticides in
achieving these objectives. In locations where aesthetic considerations are less
important the base of plants only should be kept weed free.

The standards for plant establishment, the appearance of the site and the use of
chemicals are set out within the Employers Requirements and the landscape
specification. The maintenance inputs to achieve these standards cannot be accurately
predicted in advance as this depends on soil type, the timing of planting, weather
conditions post planting and infestations. Thus key considerations for Landscape
Maintenance are that the standards required by the Employer are clear, balanced and
understood at the outset and that the Contractor allows adequate time to undertake
inspections in order to observe and to respond to the changing maintenance
requirements of the landscape scheme.

Weed Control

The reuse of topsoil exposes seeds that have lain dormant for many years to sunlight,
and the germination of undesirable perennial weeds is inevitable in the early years of
most landscape schemes. Eradicating weeds is fundamental to the establishment of
desired plants. Pernicious weeds compete with the desired species for nutrients, water
and light and without adequate weed control the desired species invariably struggle
and establishment is slow and uneven.

Given the scale of most road schemes, hand weeding is not a cost effective option
although this method of weeding removes the risk of mechanical damage (strimmers)
and chemical damage (drifting herbicide spray) which ultimately leads to the loss and
replacement planting. Leaving the planting beds fallow for twelve months is
recommended as it provides the Contractor with an opportunity to clean up the soil by
strimming down and applying chemical herbicides to emergent weeds without
damaging the desired plants. Programme and operational pressures make this a little
used option.

Once pernicious weeds have been eradicated from recently formed landscape verges,
ground cover species such as ivy and dense shrub planting can be used to suppress
weeds and thus reduce the use of herbicides.

68
Mulches and mulch mats

Organic mulches and mulch mats inhibit weed growth and reduce to the minimum the
regular use of herbicides. They are particularly useful in warm, wet climatic
conditions and/or areas with fertile soils (e.g., former agricultural land). In drier, less
fertile areas increased hand or chemical weeding would make more efficient use of
materials and resources.

Mulches can include materials such as wood chips, grass clippings and composted
paper. However, random weeds will still emerge through mulches often close to the
desired plant where nutrient levels are higher. Thus chemical or mechanical weed
control still needs to be carried out. Organic mulches need to be well composted in
order that they do not remove nitrogen from the soil whilst they continue to
decompose. They are also not practical on steep slopes because they are readily
washed out, burying plants at the foot of the slope and leaving those at the top with no
protection against weeds. Well composted mulches are only recommended for use on
shallow gradients no steeper than 1:20.

Inorganic, biodegradable mulch mats are a practical alternative to organic mulches,

particularly on steep slopes where they can be fixed in situ. However, mulch mats are
visually prominent and the speed at which they decompose varies. They have the
advantage over loose laid mulches of preventing weed growth across their area and
chemical or mechanical (strimmers) weed control is less likely to damage the plant.

Arisings from Grass Cutting

Maintenance regimes should be minimised in rural and semi-rural locations. Here a

variety of lengths of grass can be accommodated - a short grass sward cut up to six
times annually within visibility splays and longer, species rich, grass further away
from the carriageway will reduce maintenance. Arisings from grass cutting should
generally be left on-site or used as a mulch over areas of planting.

Where large areas of species rich grass are cut twice annually there may be scope for
arisings to be taken off-site for composting.

Pruning and Thinning

Pruning and thinning of woodland areas should be minimised through the adoption of
natural characteristics in the planting of woodlands where a mix of open and denser
areas of tree cover are a feature. In this way dense planting can be established in areas
well away from the carriageway, in which a hazard for road users is not presented,
and managed with minimal intervention.

Where pruning and thinning are required for safety reasons, timber and brash should
be either:
Chipped/shredded/mulched on-site and left in piles, where small volumes are
produced.
Taken off-site for composting.

69
Hard Elements

Rock slopes are subject to geological processes such as weathering and erosion and
even the most stable slope can develop elements of instability over a period of time.
This presents risks to road users in the form of both large and small amounts of
material reaching the road. Accordingly, risk management and consequent
maintenance of rock slopes is a priority (McMillan et al., 2000).

Many of the issues raised in respect of rock slope construction in Chapter 3 are
pertinent. It is emphasised that the nature of many remedial works is that they are
carried out on an emergency works basis. In addition, the primary concern of the
designer of remedial works is the reduction of risk from rock fall. The most
appropriate approach must be arrived at by the consideration of alternatives that
achieve the same reduction in risk.

Ideally, once constructed, rock slope remedial works would never require further
intervention. However, remedial works are often required and these, in turn, can
require maintenance (e.g., removal of debris from rock traps). There is a balance to be
struck in maintenance terms. If the energy input is reduced, because maintenance is
reduced or stopped, the remedial works become less effective, however, the less
intervention or maintenance that is required by rock slope remedial works, then the
more likely it is that their whole-life cost will be low.

Remedial works constructed from natural materials, for example rock traps formed by
earth bunds or ditches, are generally more cost-effective and self-reliant than
artificial materials. However, even these systems require maintenance: i.e., the
clearance of fallen debris that reduces the capacity of the rock trap.

Using natural, locally-won resources for the construction of remedial works should be
most sustainable. For example, a rock trap formed by a bund of local material and/or a
ditch should be more environmentally acceptable than the construction of a rock catch
fence. The use of alternative techniques is dependent on other factors, for example the
size of verge available. The potential for the reuse of landscape resources won from
the maintenance works is largely dependent upon the volume of material that has
created the need for remedial works. The use of rockfall material for the remedial
works in the car park and recreational area at Eilean Donan Castle (see Chapter 3) is a
good example of what may be achieved. Equally the material could have been used in
the construction of earth bund rock traps, if that particular solution had been
appropriate.

Advice and practical tips to minimise the environmental impact of various rock slope
remedial works options and techniques are given in Table 6.1. Innovative approaches
are sometimes required. At Stirling Castle, in areas where concrete support was
required, resin mouldings of the original rock face were taken. The mouldings were
used to cast concrete facings for the support and so keep the natural form of the rock
(Price et al., 1988).

70
Examples of (largely) good practice for minimising the environmental impact of rock
slope remedial works are shown in Figures 6.1 to 6.12.

Figure 6.1 - Anchored concrete beam - the beam is disguised by its colour and
form (A9 Drumochter Pass).

Figure 6.2 - Inappropriate masonry faced anchored concrete buttress (A82

Urquhart Castle, Loch Ness).

71
Table 6.1 - Practical Advice and Tips on Minimising Environmental Impact for Remedial Works (after
McMillan et al., 2000).
Options and Advice and Tips
Techniques
Containment
Netting Use of dark coloured or green netting to help it blend in with the natural environment.
(Draped and Paint metal attachments to blend with environment: i.e., green (see above).
Contoured) Netting is rapidly disguised by natural vegetation growth through it.
Rock Traps Paint fence posts, anchors, attachments, etc, an appropriate colour or where structurally appropriate
(Fences and use local timber for the fence posts.
Ditches/Bunds) Use green (see above) netting for the fence.
Remove the minimum amount of vegetation, for example by altering the fence line to avoid mature
trees (vegetation also compliments the effect of rock traps).
Use ditches/bunds (rather than fences) wherever possible and encourage vegetation growth.
Use gabion walls constructed with local rock-filled baskets and consider landscaping and vegetating.
Removal
Scaling Good method as not adding materials to the rock mass and producing a more natural looking rock
face.
Scaling scars weather to become indistinguishable from the natural face of the rock mass.
Reprofiling Primary objective is to create a stable face or create space for a rock trap.
Use natural discontinuities to design the new slope, by observing natural slope angles.
Design the face to be relatively irregular, as long as this does not affect stablility.
Vegetate berms by adding a soil/peat layer (will also dissipate falling rocks energy).
Consider using inclined berms to avoid horizontal lines (berms must not dip out of the slope).
Rock colour weathers quickly to natural colour.
Strengthening
Reinforcement Use reinforcement with heads recessed in the rock, however, this is potentially expensive and good
records of the position, design, specification and construction details of the reinforcement must be
kept.
Consider the use of alternative techniques: e.g., containment by rock traps.
Avoid the use of fixed netting systems.
Support and Use natural stone facings of local material: i.e., same rock as face.
Protection Avoid the use of undisguised concrete beams, etc.
Use a pigment to colour concrete to the colour of the natural rock.
Use sprayed concrete as it weathers quickly and looks more natural in right surroundings.
Consider the use of alternative techniques if too unsightly.
Produce mouldings of the natural rock face before support and use to cast concrete with the
formation of the natural rock.
Use sculpture to produce concrete facings with the form of natural rock.
Create recesses, niches and ledges and plant to establish areas of vegetation
Avoidance
Re-alignment Good as not adding materials to the rock mass and producing an irregular, more natural rock face.
Probably need to incorporate rock trap ditch/berm into scheme.
By-pass Avoid as there will be a large environmental impact to create a totally new route.
General
Erosion protection, to stop soil or superficial deposit erosion and to encourage vegetation growth
(itself limiting erosion) should be used wherever necessary. Where vegetation is used it should be of
native species, suitable to the location.
Local natural materials should be used in the construction of remedial works.
Other remedial work approaches or techniques may become feasible, if the cost of using the
preferred option is too great because it has been modified for environmental reasons.

72
Figure 6.3 - Masonry buttress and dentition -
both blend well with the natural rock face (A720
Dreghorn Link).

73
Figure 6.4 - Rockfall netting - the netting is rapidly disguised by natural
vegetation regeneration. The use of green coloured netting would aid this
process (A82 Loch Ness).

Figure 6.5 - Rock catch construction, with green painted posts. Vegetation
cover of the upper fences is almost complete some three years after
construction (Abbey Craig, Stirling).

74
Figure 6.6 - Rock catch construction, with green painted posts. Vegetation
cover is rapidly disguising the fences (Abbey Craig, Stirling).

Figure 6.7 - Scaled rock slope - recently scaled areas

have a natural appearance and blend well with the
slope (A835 Ullapool).
75
Figure 6.8 - Rock slope with irregular face - rough slope profile using the
rocks natural characteristics and with an adequate rock trap. The straight
barrier draws the eye and spoils the visual effect (A887 Glen Moriston).

Figure 6.9 - Rock slope with berms - the trees are becoming established and
beginning to soften the regularity and decrease the visual impact of the berms
(A9 Crubenmore).

76
 Figure 6.10 - Rock slope with inclined berms - the inclined, large (>4m)
and vegetated berms decrease the visual impact of the slope (M90 Perth).

Figure 6.11 - Dentition - local natural stone has been used and blends in
exceptionally well with the surrounding exposed rock (A720 Edinburgh City
Bypass).

77
Figure 6.12 - Gabion retaining wall - the visual impact could have been
decreased by softening the steps at the top of the wall (A9 near Perth).

78
Part 2

Associated
Information

79
7 Contractual Context

New Road Construction

Historically roads in Scotland were procured using separate contracts for design and
construction. This type of contract generally retained risks with the client/employer.
Specifications were generally prescriptive and the appointed Engineer (or his
Representative) was required to both inspect and approve all work undertaken by the
Contractor.

In the last ten years or so there has been a strong move towards the use of Design and
Build (DB) contract procurement for road construction. This type of contract largely
transfers risks from the client/employer to the contractor where these can be better
managed. The successful tenderer is responsible for both the design and construction
of the road. The fixed-price nature of DB contracts provides incentives for
Contractors to propose innovative solutions.

However, another change of great significance in terms of landscape resources is that

of the role of the Employers Representative. This is a much more distant relationship
of observation by quality auditing, as opposed to the closer observe-and-approve role
of the Engineer on traditional contracts. This means that the Employers
Representative cannot reject the Contractors work or materials, although the required
quality system should highlight non-compliances. For innovative solutions the state of
knowledge may be relatively limited and the Employers Representative may on
occasions find it difficult to challenge a Contractors methods.

Contract documentation

The main documents produced for a DB contract are as follows:

1. Conditions of Contract.
2. Employers Requirements.
3. Specification.

In addition there is a myriad of secondary design and construction documentation,

including the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB), Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) and Environmental Statements (ES).

Where an EIA has been undertaken for a project, the ES is available to the tenderers.
In a DB contract the ES is part of the tender documents because there is a requirement
for the designer to use it and comply with it. In a traditional contract situation the ES
would be made available to the Contractor only through the public domain and is not
generally part of the contract documents because its requirements are already
incorporated in the Employers-contract design.

The ES will outline measures to mitigate the environmental impacts of the road
construction project. Some of these mitigation measures may be repeated in the
Employers Requirements, although this is not always the case.

80
The Design Manual for Roads and Bridges provides comprehensive advice on all
aspects of construction and maintenance. HA44/91 (DMRB 4.1.1), for example, sets-
out detailed requirements for landscape and planting in earthworks construction.

By reusing generated materials, Designers and Contractors can bring significant

innovation to road construction, with consequential environmental and cost benefits.
However, many such innovations are stifled by the Specifications used for road
construction. For example, the reuse of timber fence posts and of relatively new safety
barriers is not currently allowed. This is an area that needs to be addressed if the
industry is to provide economic and environmental value to society.

Inclusion of CEL:LFN principles in contract documentation

As from January 2001, all contracts for any trunk road construction scheme in
Scotland require landscape design and management to fully comply with the
procedures set out in CEL:LFN. While CEL:LFN has not yet been adopted in full for
any completed or current road construction scheme, some of the CEL:LFN principles
have been used on the A74 Upgrade to Motorway, A75 The Glen and for later
sections of the A830 Lochailort- Mallaig.

The procedure with new projects is that one of the Employers Requirements is for the
project landscape architect to demonstrate that CEL:LFN procedures and principles
have been considered in the landscape design at tender stage. Regular progress
meetings are also held to appraise ongoing compliance, while the Employers
Representative who has the services of landscape architects, environmental scientists
and ecologists available on request also carries out monitoring during construction.

Road Maintenance

In April 2001 Scotland was divided into four discrete geographical areas for the
purpose of managing and maintaining trunk roads: namely South West Unit; North
West Unit; North East Unit and South East Unit.

Following an extensive tendering process, responsibility for managing and

maintaining the trunk roads, including motorways, in the Units was awarded in
February 2001 to BEAR Scotland for both the North West and North East Units and
to Amey Highways for both the South West and South East Units. BEAR is a
consortium company comprising the Babtie Group, Ennstone Thistle and Ringway.

The two private companies will each undertake the role and responsibilities of an
Operating Company in their respective Units. Scottish Ministers retain their
responsibilities as the trunk road authority in accordance with the Roads (Scotland)
Act 1984.

81
Contract documentation

CEL:LFN principles are included in the trunk road maintenance contracts. In this
regard Landscape Action Plans (LAPs) have to be produced, taking into account the
requirements of CEL:LFN (Scottish Executive, 1998) and the Trunk Roads
Biodiversity Action Plan (Scottish Executive, 1999). The LAPs are updated on an
annual basis for each Maintenance Area. Based on a five-year strategy, the LAP
contains a landscape inventory, a maintenance plan, a landscape development plan
and an annual programme of landscape operations. Monitoring of the implementation
of the Plan is required within the framework of the contractors Environmental
Management System.

82
8 Case Studies

The case studies presented in this Chapter represent the state of existing practice.
They do not necessarily reflect the policies that may prevail in the future. The case
studies incorporate elements of good or best existing practice.

A mix of new road construction schemes and an off-site recycling operation have
been used as case studies. These are as follows:

A74 Upgrade to Motorway Standard.

A75 The Glen.
A720 Edinburgh City Bypass.
A830 Lochailort Mallaig Trunk Road.
West Lothian Recycling.

The location of each case study is shown in Figure 8.1.

Case study information was also collected from one of the All Purpose Units formerly
engaged on trunk road maintenance. However, given the recent changes to the nature
of the trunk road maintenance regime the information gathered has been placed in the
appropriate Chapters of this report and not presented as a separate case study.

83
Figure 8.1 - Map showing the locations of the case studies.

84
A74 Upgrade to Motorway

The project:
The A74 upgrade to motorway encompassed a 30km length from Beattock
Summit to Johnstonebridge. Work commenced in mid-1997 and the road was fully
opened to traffic in Spring 1999. An All-purpose road was also required in the
same corridor.
Approximately 11km of the new construction followed the line of the old A74
through a narrow river valley. The most northerly 9km is offline, rising up from
the river valley to the peat moorland of Beattock Summit. The most southerly
10km is also offline, through rolling farmland. This allowed one carriageway of
the A74 to be used as the new all-purpose road for a total of 21km at the north and
south ends, requiring construction of just 9km of new all-purpose road in the
central portion.

The contract:
Type: DBFO.
Client: Scottish Executive.
Clients Agent: Scott Wilson Scotland Ltd.
Main Consultants: Gibb (North) and Babtie Group (South).
Landscape Architects: ASH Landscape Architects.
Main Contractor: M6 Joint Venture.
Concessionnaire: Autolink Concessionanires (M6) plc

Key issues:
CEL:LFN policy was issued midway through the project, but the principles
were adopted where possible. The sympathetic landscape form and planting
design resulted from a combination the Employers Requirements and the
design.
Independent landscape architect carried out a bi-monthly review of the
principles as the construction work progressed.
Employers Requirements required a high quality final appearance for the
landscaping work. Extensive slope relaxation and return of these to agriculture
was undertaken.
Consultation with environmental groups, relevant authorities, and concerned
organisations and individuals affected large elements of the design and
construction giving a more immediate emphasis than would have been possible
in a traditional contract.
Table 8.1 lists the Employers Requirements and what was done in practice on
the site in terms of the landscape materials identified in the study brief.
The Contractors design proposed around 120 changes to the original design.
Most were accepted. Some 20 of these related to landscape issues.

85
Table 8.1 - Summary consultation data from A74.
Materials Employers Requirements Practice on-site
Topsoil Stripped topsoil had to be replaced Although in general this was adhered to, in places
within 50m of original location and no topsoil was available particularly for the
used on top of subsoil. redundant A74 carriageway. Imported topsoil had to
be used due to the topsoil deficit, and this
encouraged weed growth/visiting species.
Topsoil depths specified in Some flexibility accepted, though not as much as
Employers Requirements. proposed by Contractor / Designer. Possible missed
opportunity to reflect type/depth of topsoil in local
adjacent natural state.
No Requirement. Soil used to in-fill rock cutting crevices to
encourage development of plants.
This was proposed by the Contractor / Designer and
the initiative was welcomed by the Employer.
Uniform specification for stone In some areas the opportunity to reflect local
picking from soil. environmental differences could have been lost:
e.g., retention of scree missed due to uniform stone
pick specification.
Subsoil Flexibility in road design (DBFO) Allowed the road levels to be altered within 1-2m to
within ES limitations. achieve a balance of earthworks. Restrictions were
placed on road levels in ES.
Generated material - some missed opportunities to
reduce noise/visual disturbance due to the
Regulators requirements.
Peat Top 150mm put aside for reuse as As Employers Requirements. Excavated peat used
same in landscaping in other areas of road project. The
peat retained its moisture and plants were
successfully established.
Rock Consultation with otter and fishing Consultations resulted in construction of an otter
experts was required in the holt and fish pools.
Employers Requirements. Crushed rock used in new construction, in dry-stone
wall pitching, particularly to form stream channels,
cascades, fish pools in river, pitching, headwalls of
culverts, to construct artificial otter holts, drainage
bedding, bottoming material.
Gravel and No specific requirements. Possible missed opportunity to create adder habitats
boulders from boulders/stone pickings.
End of life No specific requirements. Stone saved from walls and reused.
walls
End of life No specific requirements. Temporary fences passed on to the landowner or
fences reused on the project.
End of life No specific requirements. Existing pavement crushed and used as capping
paving layer for new construction, also as core of landscape
bunds. Old kerbs used in construction of fish pools.
End of life No specific requirements. No examples.
drainage
materials
Tree stumps, Recycling was not a requirement of Removed by Forestry Commission or shredded in
trunks the project. tub-grinder for planting mulch and soil improver.
Branches and No specific requirements. Existing vegetation shredded in tub-grinder.
leaves
Shrubs and Specific criteria for plants regarding Difficulties experienced in sourcing large number
plants provenance, age, height, proportions, of plants to specification required. The need for
state (e.g., containerised), seed early organisation of supply is evident, particularly
origins, wildflowers to be local, etc. where the contract encourages the swiftest possible
completion of the work. The early (pre-contract)
establishment of a site nursery may have assisted.

86
Figure 8.2 - Crushed rock used in the construction of four culverts for
watercourse flow (one slightly lower than the others to ensure fish passage at
low flows). The one to the left of the picture is an otter tunnel, as the main
culvert diameters were too small to allow the construction of otter ledges. On
the far left the motorway drains to an outfall leading to a lagoon and the
Upper Evan Water in turn. The substantial headwalls are constructed from site
won stone (A74 Upgrade to Motorway).

Figures 8.3 - Stone from end-of-life-walls reused in the construction of new

walls (A74 Upgrade to Motorway).

87
A75 The Glen

The project:
Improvements at A75 The Glen commenced early in 1998. The construction
works were completed in mid-1999. Planting works were completed the
following spring.
The works involved a realignment of the road to eliminate some dangerous
bends and the introduction of crawler lanes and sections of dual carriageway to
alleviate congestion caused by road haulage vehicles on what is a designated
Euroroute.
The works involved a significant cut into a hill slope at the western end of the
scheme. Otherwise, the road followed the natural contours as much as
possible. Extensive slope relaxation and return of these to agriculture was
required.

The contract:
Type: Design and Build.
Client: Scottish Executive.
Employers Representative: Halcrow Crouch.
Main Consultants: Carl Bro Group.
Landscape Architects: Turnbull Jeffrey Partnership.
Main Contractor: Farrans Contractors Ltd.

Key issues:
The site works coincided with publication of CEL:LFN, which did not form
part of the Employers Requirements. Even so the principles were considered
within the works, including:
1. Accelerating approvals.
2. Topsoil depths to match surrounding areas.
3. Omission of fertiliser in some areas to mimic existing conditions.
4. Plant sizes.
5. Plant densities.
6. Habitat Creation.
Items 1, 2, 3, and 5 were not approved.
Design amendments reduced cut requirements (omission of over bridge) and
the need to move fill from one part of the site to another (omission of GSJ).
Table 8.2 illustrates key issues from the Glen Improvement project.

88
Table 8.2 - A75 The Glen Improvements.
Item Employers Requirements Specification Practice on-site
Topsoil Reclaimed from site and stored on As per Employers Requirements
land leased by employer for
duration of the works.
Re-spread topsoil depths: There was an overall topsoil
100mm grass seeded area deficiency and topsoil depths
300mm planting areas were ultimately reduced in areas
to be seeded around Nunlands to
match surrounding thin topsoil
depths.
Stone content / picking Generally stoney soil throughout
requirements not the site. It was accepted that there
included within Planting would be no benefit to the scheme
Specification if all the stones were removed. It
was agreed that large stones
should be removed where they
were a hazard or unsightly
otherwise stones could remain in-
situ.
Subsoil Earthworks: Steepening slopes to There were no opportunities to do
protect mature trees where this on this site.
appropriate
Creation of earth banks for Excess subsoil was used to create
screening and noise attenuation screen bunds around Nunland
Holiday cottages.
Grading out slopes to return land The site was too restricted to
to agriculture wherever possible permit this other than in the
leased area used for topsoil
storage.
Peat Not applicable Not applicable There was no peat on this site
Rock Rock cuttings: Generated material All rock was utilised in the road
to be disposed or re used. construction and/or for making up
levels in landscape areas.
Gravel and Not referred to Not referred to Large boulders were retained as
boulders landscape features where safe.
End of life Stone from existing dry stone Not referred to Stone reclaimed and reused as
walls walls to be reclaimed and used in required.
the new walls.
End of life To be disposed off-site. Not referred to Disposed off-site.
fences/paving/
drainage
materials
Tree stumps Not referred to Not referred to Stumps and some trunks retained
and trunks on-site to create wildlife habitats,
in accordance with CEL:LFN
Branches and Not referred to Not referred to Initial consideration given to
leaves chipping branches and twigs and
composting these with leaves.
However inadequate time
available and inadequate space to
stockpile

89
Table 8.2 - A75 The Glen Improvements (Continued).
Item Employers Requirements
Shrubs and Protection from rabbits/livestock
plants
Protection of existing vegetation
from works.
Planting densities were set at 1m
c/c.
Proportion of evergreens to
deciduous plants was based on
screening requirements.
Proportion of smaller to larger
planting stock was based on
screening requirements.
Figure 8.4 - Rabbit damage to trees (A75 The Glen).
90
Specification Practice on-site
Rabbit netting to British British Standard has a range of
Standard options some of which provide
inferior protection but which are
cheaper to install. This resulted in
rabbits getting into the beds until
secondary action was taken.
Design requirements for planting
next to paddocks resulted in larger
livestock consuming plants.
To British Standard As per British Standard
Plants were planted at ER centres
but in some areas where large
numbers of larger plants were
required this was too close and
closed canopy was achieved in
year one. Wider centres would
have been more appropriate.
Implemented as required
Implemented as required
A720 Edinburgh City By-pass Widening (Dreghorn to
Baberton)

The project:
The A720 Edinburgh City By-pass has been adopted as a trunk road, having
previously been under the control of The City of Edinburgh Council.
The heavily trafficked Dreghorn to Baberton section is the second length to
have been widened adjacent to the busy area to the South of the City.
CEF:LFN was an important and crucial element of the contract documents.

The contract:
Type: Design and Build.
Client: Scottish Executive.
Employers Representative: Scott Wilson.
Main Consultants: Babtie Group.
Landscape Architects: ASH Consulting Group.
Main Contractor: Barr Construction.

Figure 8.5 - Very close planting of trees (A720 Edinburgh City Bypass).

91
Key issues:
Woodland Management: No timber was taken off the site. Two main
methods of distribution of the remaining materials were employed chipping,
and eco-piles which formed wildlife habitats. The timber was chipped on site
where access for the chipping machine was possible, and the chippings were
used as a thin mulch. No composting of the chips took place due to lack of
space and time.
The eco-piles are formed of piles of logs of 100mm diameter and above, and
were arranged so that the logs did not roll down the slope. The more twiggy
timber (brash) was formed into windrows arranged down the slope.
Provenance of plants: Much time was expended in sourcing plants of the
correct provenance when the benefits may not be proportional to the effort.
The local sub-region of species provenance (as described in CEL:LFN,
Appendix 1, Figure 4) can be taken as a standard for contracts. Where a more
rigorous specification for provenance is required then this should be defined
and adequate time and resources allowed. Inflexible specification of plant
provenance can have implications for the sustainability of the construction as a
whole, by influencing the amount of transport movements and overall distance
required to source the basic materials.
Grass Cutting: The contract required the grass to be cut twice a year. The site
staff proposed that it would be cheaper and more effective for this work to be
undertaken six times a year. If grass is allowed to grow longer than 150mm
then it falls over and becomes more difficult to cut, tearing can occur, and the
grass becomes yellow, rather than retaining its green colour. If it is cut every
six weeks then it can be incorporated into a rolling programme (which is going
on through the summer anyway) rather than taking the operators off other jobs.
Contract Documentation: The fragmentation of the Contract Documents can
cause problems. For example, the planting specification was in a completely
different part of the documents from the seeding specification, when it would
be simpler if they were together.
The overall effect is that it can be difficult to find the relevant information
within the documentation, giving plenty of scope for mistakes to be made and
for conflicts to arise. This situation may also stifle innovation as the risk of
getting something wrong may be perceived as outweighing any benefits it may
bring, and a culture can be generated in which it is seen as easier not to do it in
the first place.
Dispersal solutions that needed intervention from the Regulator were found to
be problematic. This related to an element of inconsistency in the
interpretation of the Regulations. However, the major problems relate to the
need to plan in advance and to consult well ahead of urgent needs to make
decisions on issues in relation to disposal. This was seen as a significant risk
balancing the time lost waiting for the Regulators decision against the cost of
disposing of the waste more conventionally.
In practice the situation could arise where the main contractor specifies the
bare minimum required in landscaping terms, and if the landscaping contractor
exceeds this then the additional costs may be deducted from their fee.

92
A830 Lochailort - Mallaig

The project:
The Lochailort - Mallaig section of the A830 provides the only land access to
Mallaig. It traverses difficult terrain, being located in a rocky coastal area with
steep slopes and constrained topography.
Substantial upgrading of the A830 from Fort William has occurred from the
1960s. The section between Lochailort and Mallaig is however the most
difficult stretch to upgrade and this has been undertaken in a series of sections
from the 1980s when the technically less complex sections were upgraded as a
priority.
This study differs from those presented to date in this section in that it includes
one section of the A830 completed before the commencement of this project
and one that was going through the tender process during the period of the
project.

Key issues:
During the 1980s waste considerations were less onerous in road construction
and large amounts of waste were produced to accommodate climber lanes to
allow standard design traffic speeds.
The historic strategy of tackling the upgrading of the road in sections starting
with the technically easier sections, has resulted in problems in terms of the
principles of CEL:LFN. Newer sections of upgrading now have to key in
with sections done earlier, where design objectives were different.

Polnish Loch nan Uamh upgrading:

Since Fitting Roads has been introduced the design of the latest sections of the
A830 to be upgraded have considerably improved. The Polnish Loch nan Uamh
section of the A830 (completed around 1996) provided a testing ground for many
of the concepts behind CEL:LFN. While the design standards that were set
resulted in significant amounts of generated material being produced in the
construction of the road, consideration was given to recycling opportunities.
Additionally, in aiming to adhere to Fitting Roads guidance, additional generated
rock was produced as rock faces were graded and indented to replicate more
natural looking cuttings. However this material was crushed on site and uses were
found locally for it, for example in coastal rock armouring and as sub-base.

93
Arisaig Kinsadal upgrading:
This scheme is one of the first in Scotland where the principles of CEL:LFN were
written into the Employers Requirements.

Procedural inspection was required and tenderers were asked for ideas on how
they would conform to the principles of Cost Effective Landscapes. Efforts to
reduce waste have increased, in this case from rock cuts. While road design
Standards are still set by the Employer, there is scope for modifications and
relaxation.
The key requirements in relation to CEL:LFN outlined in the Employers
Requirements include:
Bridges, headwalls, lined ditches (etc.) to be finished in stone quarried from
Morar/Arisaig.
Reuse of soils, peat, vegetation and rock within the site.
Landscape design requirements are, amongst others, to mitigate adverse visual
impacts of rock cuttings by the creation of varied naturalistic profiles and
establishment of semi-natural vegetation.
Seed bank within the works and relocate vegetation of ecological value.
Use of felled trees as deadwood within existing woodland (bryophyte habitat).
The design of planting should be in accordance with CEL:LFN page 11.
Provenance certificates of trees, shrubs and wildflower seed to be provided.
Variety of plant stock to be used including cell grown trees and shrubs, cell
grown clumps of trees/shrubs, direct seeding onto soiled ledges/terraces of
rock cuttings, and direct tree/shrub seeding.
No bare root birch/evergreens holly and evergreen trees to be protected by
shrub shelters with stakes over two growing seasons which should be made
available to the Employer for reuse.
Ground cover to be planted through a biodegradable mulch matting to suppress
weed growth.
20% herbaceous perennials specified for planting scheme close to Arisaig
village.
Employer will supply and deliver cell grown trees of local provenance these
will be mixed with non-contract grown plants.
Two Planting Design Development Plots to be included in areas of proposed
woodland planting trials of mycorrhiza and another with cell grown plants
with minimum 200mm depth and vertical internal ridges.
Grass seeding to exclude rye grass and clover and consultation with SNH
required to design. Scottish provenance herb species required of low
maintenance grasses. Nurse grass sward establishment.

94
West Lothian Recycling

The project/company:
The company, a joint venture between West Lothian Council and Tarmac, is
called West Lothian Recycling and operates with the aim of reducing costs
associated with landfill.
The background to the company is described by Pringle and Dingwall (2000).
The facility is located on the site of a former spent oil shale bing at Addiewell,
near West Calder.
Waste is taken from the Councils road and other maintenance operations as
well as waste from private sector activities.
Facilities include hard standing for composting and a lagoon for leachate
control.

Key issues:
Main material types are mixed construction and demolition waste, recycled
asphalt planings (RAP) and green wastes.
RAP is stored for resale and can be supplied either unprocessed or with the
larger particles removed to provide a more consistent product.
Construction and demolition waste (Figure 8.6) is crushed and screened
(Figure 8.7) as necessary to form material of a grading suitable for reuse
(Figure 8.8).
Construction and demolition waste from the facility was used in the
construction of a recycled road experiment at Echline, South Queensferry
(Winter and Henderson, 2001; Robinson et al., 2001; Ghazireh and Robinson,
2001).
Composted materials range from trees to grass clippings (Figure 4.1).
Materials are shredded as required and stored for approximately 12 weeks,
with turning to aerate the material being carried around twice per week (Figure
4.2). The resulting material is finally screened to give a fully composted
material. It can be mixed with fines from other inert material and used as a
topsoil substitute. The residual screened material is returned to the composting
process and assists with aeration.
Relatively short economic haul distances presently apply to the recycling
centre operations and limit the sources of materials and thus lead to difficulties
in acquiring sufficient volumes of materials to service large contracts.

95
Figure 8.6 - Construction and demolition waste prior to crushing and
screening at West Lothian Recycling.

Figure 8.7 - Screening construction and demolition waste at West Lothian

Recycling.

96
Figure 8.8 - Processed construction and demolition waste (left) and RAP
(right) at West Lothian Recycling.

97
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Anon (1994a). Environmental protection the waste management licensing

regulations 1994. Statutory Instruments 1994 No. 1056. London: The Stationery
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Anon (1994b). Environmental protection act 1990: Part II, waste management
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Anon (1994c). Study of the efficiency of site investigation practices. TRL Project
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Anon (1994d). Research pays off: Minnesota develops method to recycle petroleum-
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Anon (1995a). Designing for health and safety in construction: a guide for designers
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Anon (1995b). Managing construction for health and safety. Construction (Design
and Management) Regulations 1994. Approved Code of Practice L54. Sudbury: HSE
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Barker, D (1996). New Civil Engineer, Reinforced Soil Supplement, October.

Carswell, J. and E J Jenkins (1996). Re-use of scrap tyres in highway drainage. TRL
Report 200. Crowthorne: TRL Limited.

CIRIA (1994): Control of pollution from highway drainage discharges. CIRIA Report
142. London: Construction Industry Research and Information Association.

CIRIA (1995). Remedial treatment for contaminated land (11 Volumes). CIRIA
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CIRIA (2001). Sustainable urban Drainage systems. Research Project 555. London:
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98
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (November 2000). London: The Stationery
Office:
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