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University of Dhaka
Department of Accounting & Information Systems

Term Paper
Date of Submission: 29.10.2017

Course Title: General Science & Environment

Course Code: 1205

Submitted To: Rumana Ahmed

Associate Professor
Department of Accounting and Information Systems
University of Dhaka

Submitted By: Group - C

Sl. Name Roll
1 Ashraf Uz Zaman 036
2 Aslam Sovo 099
3 Bijoy Chowdhury 139
4 Jawad Chowdhury 050
5 Nomrota Islam 197
6 Shoebur Rahman 206

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 Acknowledgement
First of all we would like to thank our instructor Rumana Ahmed, Associate Professor,
Department of Accounting and Information Systems, University of Dhaka, for giving us the
opportunity to work on this paper, who has been very helpful, and co-operative. Her
informative lectures have been instrumental to us in preparation of this term paper.

Lastly, we would like to thank to all the group members that directly or indirectly helped us to
provide and accumulate all the necessary information for the accomplishment of this term
paper. However, we hope that this course as well as this paper will help with our understanding
of basic science in our daily life and in any relevant industry or workplace.

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29th October, 2017
Rumana Ahmed
Associate Professor
Department of Accounting and Information Systems
University of Dhaka
Subject: Submission of Term Paper.

Madam,

We hereby submit this term paper on the six topics - General Science & Environment, Global
Warming, Carbon Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle, Crude Oil and Biotechnology & Application - that we
are supposed to do for the General Science and Environment Course (1205)

As you will see, we have discussed these basic, yet important scientific aspects in brief.

Through this paper we tried to explore these aspects to a certain extent. This assignment really
helped us to know these topics, especially Biotechnology and Global Warming, in an in-depth
manner from the internet and understand the implications of them.

We appreciate having this assignment. We really enjoyed this learning process while doing this
assignment.

We are really grateful to you for assigning us such a paper. We are looking forward to your
evaluation.

Sincerely Yours,
On behalf of the group
Ashraf Uz Zaman
ID No. 23-036

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1. General Science and Environment
The word science comes from the Latin "scientia," meaning knowledge. Today, we cannot
expect our life without science and technology revolving around it every single second!
Science and technology are extremely essential in our everyday life as they have made things
more simple, fast and secured.

1.1 Definition of science

Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable
explanations and predictions about the universe.1

Basically, it is the study of the nature and behaviour of natural things and the knowledge that
we obtain about them.2

1.2 General Science and Environment

The term General Science generally refers to a course of study that includes introductory
material for all of the major physical, chemical, biological, and earth sciences.

The topics include:

A brief history of science and an introduction to the scientific method.

Physics: Motion and forces, work and simple machines, sound, optics, electricity
magnetism, modern physics.
Chemistry: atomic theory, states of matter, changes in states, solutions.
Biology: Cells, classifications of organisms, plants and photosynthesis, evolution,
ecology.
Earth Science: astronomy, geology, oceanography, meteorology.

1.3 Environment

The complex of physical, chemical, and biotic factors (as climate, soil, and living things) that
act upon an organism or an ecological community and ultimately determine its form and
survival.

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1.4 Environmental Science

Environmental science is the study of the effects of natural and unnatural processes, and of
interactions of the physical components of the planet on the environment, including their
effects on all types of organisms.

1.5 Elements of Environment

Environment is constituted by the interacting systems of physical, biological and cultural

elements inter-related in various ways, individually as well as collectively. These elements
may be explained as under:

1. Physical elements
Physical elements are as space, landforms, water bodies, climate soils, rocks and minerals.
They determine the variable character of the human habitat, its opportunities as well as
limitations.

2. Biological elements
Biological elements such as plants, animals, microorganisms and men constitute the biosphere.

3. Cultural elements
Cultural elements such as economic, social and political elements are essentially manmade
features, which make cultural milieu.

1.6 Relationship Between Science and Business

There is a beneficial relationship between these two disciplines. Business relies on science for
it growth as well as science relies on business for it growth. They are thus termed as
interdependent disciplines. The following is an analysis of this interrelationship.

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1.7 How Business Relies on Science

Most of business process requires a lot of mathematical calculations to optimize on the various
business opportunities existing in the economic environment. Mathematics is a major branch
of science.

In this modern century, the use of computer is unrivaled. For instance, in accounting processes
in a business organization, the use of accounting software and record keeping is very
invaluable.

A very vital element of a successful business in marketing, for a very effective and efficient
marketing campaign to be done the application of science is totally invaluable. We use the
internet, radio, TV and big screen bill boards.

The development of science has opened up room for new business ideas. For instance, with
the widespread internet use globally, it has lead to some nations from developing countries to
do outsourced jobs for the industrialized nations.

A business involves selling of goods and services to the customers. In order for a business to
have competitive edge over its competitors then it must undertake product development in
order to differentiate and come up with better product than its competitors, this is undertaken
by use of scientific knowledge in product research and development.

Automation of business support services and processes has made conducting of business
uninterruptible, reliable and easily accessible. This can be shown in various forms; online
banking has facilitated business transactions 24/7, the use of ATM machines, use of robot in
manufacturing and assemblies lines, use of automated point of sale software in retail shops and
supermarkets among others

1.8 How Science Relies on Business

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The increase in commercial activity has facilitated the need for continuous research and
development to improve on the commodities on sale. This has seen corporate bodies invest a
lot of funds into research and development. Hence businesses act as a source of funds for
scientific research work.

Various business activities have led to creation of new phenomena challenges that are solved
by science. For instance, the immense waste products produced from industrial production has
developed new scientific research work on how to safely dispose of industrial wastes or
minimize their effect on the environment.

For successful scientific project to be run in a cost-effective manner and then their products be
made public and sold off to the public, this requires managerial skills similar to those used in
any business activity. Science borrows the knowledge on how to balance on revenues and
expenses while it conducts its research and development and finally the business marketing
skill in order to make the general public be aware and utilize their new inventions.

1.9 Human Brain

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1.10 What is Memory?

Memory is the mental capacity or faculty of retaining and reviving facts, events, impressions,
etc., or of recalling or recognizing previous experiences.3

1.11 Stages of Memory Formation

Encoding or registration: receiving, processing and combining of received information

Storage: creation of a permanent record of the encoded information
Retrieval, recall or recollection: calling back the stored information in response to
some cue for use in a process or activity

1.12 Formation of Memory

2. Green House Gases and Global Warming

Global warming, also referred to as climate change, is the observed century-scale rise in the
average temperature of the Earth's climate system and its related effects. Multiple lines of
scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming. 4

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2.1 Process

Gas molecules that absorb thermal infrared radiation, and are in significant enough quantity,
can force the climate system. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases act like a
blanket, absorbing IR radiation and preventing it from escaping into outer space. The net effect
is the gradual heating of Earth's atmosphere and surface, a process known as global warming.

2.2 The Causes of Global

Warming Scientists have determined that a number of human activities are contributing to
global warming by adding excessive amounts of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.
Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide accumulate in the atmosphere and trap heat that
normally would exit into outer space.

2.3 Green House Gases

A greenhouse gas is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal
infrared (IR) range. Gas molecules that absorb thermal infrared radiation, and are in significant
enough quantity, can force the climate system. These types of gas molecules are called
greenhouse gases. The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Without greenhouse gases, the average
temperature of Earth's surface would be about 15 C (27 F). In order, the most abundant
greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are: Water vapor (H2O), Carbon dioxide (CO2),
Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Ozone (O3) and CFC

2.4 The Greenhouse Effect

The exchange of incoming and outgoing radiation that warms the Earth is often referred to as
the greenhouse effect because a greenhouse works in much the same way.

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Incoming UV radiation easily passes through the glass walls of a greenhouse and is absorbed
by the plants and hard surfaces inside. Weaker IR radiation, however, has difficulty passing
through the glass walls and is trapped inside, thus warming the greenhouse. This effect lets
tropical plants thrive inside a greenhouse, even during a cold winter.

A similar phenomenon takes place in a car parked outside on a cold, sunny day. Incoming solar
radiation warms the car's interior, but outgoing thermal radiation is trapped inside the car's
closed windows.

2.5 The Source of the Green House Gases

Carbon dioxide: 1. Human respiration. 2. Industrialization 3. Burning of fossil fuel to generate

electricity 4. Burning of forest (lesser trees) Nitrous Oxide: 1. Vehicle exhaust. 2. Nitrogen
based ferilizers

Methane: 1. Produced by bacterias living in swampy areas.

2. Emitted from wastes in landfill. 3. Rearing of Livestock
CFC(Chlorofluorocarbons): 1. Aerosol sprays 2. Making Foam Packaging. 3. Coolants in
fridge and AC's. 4. Cleaning solvents.

2.6 Greenhouse gases and Global warming

While many greenhouse gases occur naturally and are needed to create the greenhouse effect
that keeps the Earth warm enough to support life, human use of fossil fuels is the main source
of excess greenhouse gases. By driving cars, using electricity from coal-fired power plants, or
heating our homes with oil or natural gas, we release carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping
gases into the atmosphere. Deforestation is another significant source of greenhouse gases,
because fewer trees means less carbon dioxide conversion to oxygen.

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During the 150 years of the industrial age, the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide
has increased by 31 percent. Over the same period, the level of atmospheric methane has risen
by 151 percent, mostly from agricultural activities such as raising cattle and growing rice.

2.7 The Consequences of Global Warming

As the concentration of greenhouse gases grows, more heat is trapped in the atmosphere and
less escapes back into space. This increase in trapped heat changes the climate and alters
weather patterns, which may hasten species extinction, influence the length of seasons, cause
coastal flooding, and lead to more frequent and severe storms.

The average global temperature has increased by almost 1 F over the past century. Scientists
expect the average global temperature to increase an additional 2 to 6 F over the next
hundred years. At the peak of the last ice age (18, 000 years ago) the temperature was only 7
colder than it is today, and glaciers covered much of North America. Even a small increase in
temperature over a long time can change the climate.

When earths temperature rises, sea level is likely to rise too because the ice caps on both poles
will melt faster because of the increase in temperature. Sea level may rise between several
inches and as much as 3 feet during the next century. Coastal flooding could cause saltwater
to flow into areas where salt is harmful, threatening plants and animals in those areas.
Oceanfront property would be affected by flooding. Coastal flooding may also reduce the
quality of drinking water in coastal areas.

Global warming may make the Earth warmer in cold places. People living in these areas may
have the chance to grow crops in new areas. But global warming might bring droughts to other
places where we grow crops. This warming trend is expected to bring droughts and flooding
of low lying coastal areas as the polar ice caps melt and raise sea level. The expected negative
impact of the greenhouse effect on human life has been assessed by some scientists to be
second only to global nuclear war.

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2.8 Other problems

Destroyed food crops like rice, wheat and corn could lead to shortages of food, which would
ultimately lead to famines. It would also affect animals which would force them to migrate to
other areas more suited to them. It will also encourage the growth of weed and pests which
may lead to diseases like dengue fever, cholera which are deadly.

Many of the world's island are already disappearing under the sea. The tiny island nation of
Maldives is under the threat of sinking beneath the sea within the next 100 years if global
warming continues.

3. Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle is the cycle by which the element carbon moves through our Earths various
systems. It is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere,
exosphere, ecosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere of Earth. It is a fascinating and complex
process because living things, atmospheric changes, ocean chemistry, and geologic activity are
all part of this cycle.

Carbon is the main component of biological compounds as well as a major component of many
minerals such as limestone. Along with the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle, the carbon
cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key to make Earth capable of sustaining life. It
describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the biosphere, as
well as long-term processes of carbon sequestration to and release from carbon sinks.

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The diagram above of the fast carbon cycle shows the movement of carbon between land,
atmosphere, and oceans in billions of tons per year. Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, red are
human contributions, white indicate stored carbon. Note this diagram does not account for
volcanic and tectonic activity, which also sequesters and releases carbon.

3.1 Function of Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle, under normal circumstances, works to ensure the stability of variables such
as the Earths atmosphere, the acidity of the ocean, and the availability of carbon for use by
living things. Each of its components is of crucial importance to the health of all living things
especially humans, who rely on many food crops and animals to feed our large population.

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Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere prevents the suns heat from escaping into space very much
like the glass walls of a greenhouse. This isnt always a bad thing some carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere is good for keeping the Earth warm and its temperature stable. But Earth has
experienced catastrophic warming cycles in the past, such as the Permian extinction, which is
thought to have been caused by a drastic increase in the atmospheres level of greenhouse
gases.

No one is sure what caused the change that brought about the Permian extinction. Greenhouse
gases may have been added to an atmosphere by an asteroid impact, volcanic activity, or even
massive forest fires. Whatever the cause, during this warming episode, temperatures rose
drastically. Much of the Earth became desert and over 90% of all species living at that time
went extinct.

Lastly, of course, there is the role of living things in the carbon cycle. The activity of plants
and animals has been one of the major forces affecting changes to the carbon cycle in the past
several billion years. Photo synthesizers have changed Earths atmosphere and climate
drastically by taking huge amounts of carbon out of the atmosphere and turning that carbon
into cellular materials. Those activities created free oxygen and the ozone layer, and generally
set the stage for the evolution of animals that obtain their energy by breaking down the organic
materials created by photosynthesizes and extracting the energy that the photo synthesizers
used to make those molecules.

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3.2 Steps of Carbon Cycle

Step 1:
Carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide from respiration (breathing) and combustion
(burning).

Step 2:
Carbon dioxide is absorbed by producers (life forms that make their own food e.g. plants) to
make carbohydrates in photosynthesis. These producers then put off oxygen.

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Step 3:

Animals feed on the plants. Thus passing the carbon compounds along the food chain. Most of
the carbon these animals consume however is exhaled as carbon dioxide. This is through the
process of respiration. The animals and plants then eventually die.

Step 4:

The dead organisms (dead animals and plants) are eaten by decomposers in the ground. The
carbon that was in their bodies is then returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. In some
circumstances the process of decomposition is prevented. The decomposed plants and animals
may then be available as fossil fuel in the future for combustion.

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3.3 Carbon Cycle Summary

The element Carbon has the ability to cycle globally, due to its atmospheric reservoir. In the
Carbon Cycle, carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere is absorbed by plants through
photosynthesis, and then returned to the atmosphere via cellular respiration. In more depth,
carbon dioxide in the atmospheric reservoir is taken in by plants in order to complete
photosynthesis.

The plants then serve two purposes: they produce oxygen (O2) and they become food for
primary consumers. The oxygen in the air is breathed in by all organisms as part of cellular
respiration, which returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. The plant food eaten by the
primary consumers contains carbon, which is passed up through the tropic pyramid to all levels
of consumers. In addition, dead material containing carbon is decomposed and eaten by
detritivores, another part of the food chain. Imbalance in nitrogen cycle.

A big problem we have going on right now is the extra emission of carbon dioxide from the
burning of fossil fuels in factories, automobiles, etc. This increases the level of CO2 in the
atmosphere, thus throwing the entire cycle off balance.

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3.4 Fossil Fuels and its impact on Carbon Cycle

Fossil fuels are created by dead buried creatures mostly of

phytoplankton or zooplankton ancestry. The plankton mass settled
on the floor of oceans and lakes creating layers and layers of
decomposing organisms over millions of years. Examples of fossil
fuels are coal, petroleum, methane and natural gas.
Burning fossil fuels puts carbon into the atmosphere. Other smaller
sources include industrial processes such as cement manufacture
and natural gas flaring. Fossil fuels provide most of the energy that
supports human transportation, electricity production, heating and
cooling of buildings, and industrial activity. Oil used to be the
dominant fossil fuel, but as of 2008, coal is dominant (40% to oils
37%).

3.5 The impact deforestation is having on the Carbon Cycle

One activity that humans do to effect the Carbon Cycle is Deforestation. Deforestation is the
process of which humans are cutting down our natural resource, Trees. This activity happens
in many forests around the world.

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Deforestation has an effect on the Carbon Cycle also known as the Greenhouse gas effect and
global warming. Trees and forest balance the amount of Carbon in the atmosphere through the
process of photosynthesis in which plants make their own food with carbon dioxide.

When there is an excess amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere a blanket of carbon
dioxide is created and this blanket traps heat and prevents it from leaving the earth surface in
the atmosphere. This excess heat warms the earth. If there is too much of it and this causes
Global Warming and the heating of the earth.

3.6 Reason of Deforestation

Agriculture: Humans (governments and individuals) cut down trees to allow space for them
to grow crops. This action can be done for many reasons breaching from supplying their
families to building an economic status.

Building Space: Forests hold an ideal space for building because of the size and state of the
land. Buildings such as industries and housing require a large amount of land. The need for
deforestation in regards to building space is mounting because of the increase of population.

Firewood: People who live in particularly rural areas, where general supplies such as
electricity and gas are unavailable. Have no option but to result in the cutting down and burning
of firewood to gain them with basic needs such as heat.

Wood for products such as furniture, pencils and paper etc: This action we can all relate
to. As we may not be directly taking out the action to supply people with these products we
could possibly be on the purchasing side of it all. The main reason that humans carry out this
action is that it is how they support and maintain their lifestyle.

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4. Biotechnology and Application

Biotechnology is the use of living things to make products. Using scientific methods with
organisms to produce new products or new forms of organisms.

Any technique that uses living organisms or substances from those organisms to make or
modify a product, to improve plants or animals, or to develop microorganisms for specific
uses.

Biological science when applied especially in genetic engineering and recombinant DNA
technology

4.1 Benefits of Biotechnology

- Medicine
- Human - Disease diagnosis, Gene therapy
- Veterinary
- Biopharming
- Environment
- Agriculture
- Food products
- Industry and manufacturing

4.2 Genetically Modified Organisms

Genome or Genomics- Gene (basic unit of heredity on a chromosome)

Proteome or Proteomics Protein
Clone- new organism that has been produced asexually from a single parent

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GMOs are organisms in which genetic material has been altered in a way that does not occur
naturally by mating and / or natural recombination. In principle, genes from any species could
be inserted into any other species

4.3 DNA Structure

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4.4 Plant Breeding Process

4.5 Interspecific cross of natural Plant Breeding process

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4.6 Genetic Engineering

Genetic Engineering is the simple addition, deletion, or manipulation of a single trait in an

organism to create a desired change, the technology involved in removing, modifying, or
adding genes to a DNA molecule.

4.6 Basic Steps in Genetic Engineering

1. Isolate the gene

2. Insert it in a host using a vector
3. Produce as many copies of the host as possible
4. Separate and purify the product of the gene

Step 1: Isolating the Gene

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Step 2: Inserting Gene into the Vector

Vector molecule of DNA which is used to carry a foreign gene into a host cell

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 Step 3: inserting vector into host

Step 4: Multiplication of the host cell by cloning

Large scale fermenters by cloning

All genetically identical because of asexual reproduction

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4.7 Recombinant DNA

The manipulation and combination of DNA from two sources

Bacterial DNA + human gene for insulin
Plant DNA + bacterial DNA - Agrobacterium tumefaciens
Goal To produce many copies ( clones) of a particular gene

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4.8 Insulin Production

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4.9 DNA Fingerprinting: Forensics

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4.10 Stem Cell Concept

A stem cell is an undifferentiated, dividing cell that gives rise to a daughter cell like itself and
a daughter cell that becomes a specialized cell type.

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4.11 Genetic Engineering in Humans

- Bone marrow supplies stem cells

- Successful replacement of gene for enzyme needed for lymphocyte development

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4.12 Difficulties in Genetically Engineering Humans
- Inserting gene in correct cells
- Inserting gene so it is expressed correctly
- Orientation
- Regulation
- Controlling virus vector
- Ethical issues

4.13 The Biology of Reproductive Cloning

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4.14 Methods for plant genetic engineering are well-developed
and similar to those for animals

4.15 Transgenic Plants

A transgenic crop plant contains a gene or genes which have been artificially inserted instead
of the plant acquiring them through pollination. The inserted gene sequence (known as the
transgene) may come from another unrelated plant, or from a completely different species

4.16 Agriculture Transgenic On the Market

Insect resistant cotton Bt toxin kills the cotton boll worm

transgene = Bt protein

Insect resistant corn Bt toxin kills the European corn borer

transgene = Bt protein

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Herbicide resistant crops Now: soybean, corn, canola Coming: sugar beet, lettuce, strawberry
alfalfa, potato, wheat (2005?)

transgene = modified EPSP syntheses or phosphinothricin-N-acetyl transferase

Virus resistance - papaya resistant to papaya ring spot virus

transgene = virus coat protein

Golden Rice Modified to be Provide a

Dietary Source of Vitamin

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5. Crude Oil

Crude oil is a naturally occurring, unrefined petroleum product composed of hydrocarbon

deposits and other organic materials. A type of fossil fuel, crude oil can be refined to produce
usable products such as gasoline, diesel and various forms of petrochemicals. It is a
nonrenewable resource, which means that it can't be replaced naturally at the rate we consume
it and is therefore a limited resource.

Crude oil is found in the Earth's crust. It is a very important raw material from which useful
products can be separated or made.

It is possible to separate the substances in a mixture by physical methods, for example,

distillation.

Most of the molecules in crude oil are hydrocarbons. A hydrocarbon contains hydrogen and
carbon atoms only. One family of hydrocarbons is called the alkanes. All the carbon atoms
forming the spine of the molecule are joined together by single covalent bonds. Compounds
containing only single bonds are said to be saturated.

5.1 Types of Crude Oil

There are 160 types of crude oil in markets now a day. but 4 important types are.

1. The Very Light Oils / Light Distillates

2. Light Oils / Middle Distillates
3. Medium Oils
4. Heavy Fuel Oils

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5.2 Alkane

Alkanes are chemical compounds that consist of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) atoms, so they
are also called hydrocarbons. The chemical structure of alkanes only consists of single bonds.
This illustration shows examples of the chemical structures of two alkanes: ethane and pentane.

Taking a look at ethane and pentane, these alkanes are referred to as saturated because they
only contain single bonds, and because of that, each carbon atom is saturated with hydrogen
atoms. Alkanes are therefore referred to as saturated hydrocarbons.

Fuel is very important to us. We need fuel for our cars, to heat up our homes, and for many
other things. Many substances are involved in the production of fuel, and one of the raw
materials needed to make fuel is alkane.

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5.3 Alkene
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain a carbon-carbon double bond. The number of hydrogen
atoms in an alkene is double the number of carbon atoms. For example, the molecular formula
of ethene is C2H4, while for propene it is C3H6. The table shows three alkenes.

5.4 Structure of alkenes

Alkene Molecular Structural formula Molecular model
formula

Ethene C2H4

Propene C3H6

Butene C4H8

Alkenes are unsaturated, meaning they contain a double bond. The presence of this double
bond allows alkenes to react in ways that alkanes cannot. This allows us to distinguish alkenes
from alkanes using a simple chemical test.

5.5 Test for Unsaturation

Bromine water is added to the hydrocarbon. If it is saturated, the bromine water stays yellow-
brown. If it is unsaturated, it becomes colourless because the double bond opens and the
bromine atoms attach.

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5.6 Fractional Distillation

The hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil vary in size. They can be separated into groups of
similar sized molecules by fractional distillation.
The groups produced are called fractions. Many of the fractions are used as fuels.

When any hydrocarbon is burnt, carbon dioxide and water vapour are released into the
atmosphere.
CH4 + 2O2 > CO2 + 2H2O
methane + oxygen > carbon dioxide + water

Many fuels also contain sulphur. When this is burnt it forms sulphur dioxide.

S + O2 > SO2
sulphur + oxygen > sulphur dioxide

5.7 Cracking

The longer chain hydrocarbons are not as useful as fuels because they don't ignite easily.
However, they can be broken down into shorter chain hydrocarbons which are more useful.
This process is called cracking.

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Cracking involves heating the hydrocarbons and passing the vapours produced over a hot
catalyst.
Some of the products of cracking are used as fuels, but others are used to make plastics.

5.8 Plastics

Plastics are very long molecules called polymers, which are made of many small molecules
called monomers that are joined together in a process called polymerization.
For example, when many ethene molecules are joined together, polyethene, or polythene, is
formed.
Polyethene is used for making plastic bags and bottles.

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6. Nitrogen

A colorless tasteless odorless element that as a diatomic gas is relatively inert and
constitutes 78 percent of the atmosphere and that is a constituent of organic
compounds found in all living tissues is called Nitrogen. Nitrogen is an essential
component of DNA, RNA and Proteins, the building blocks of life. All organism
require nitrogen to live and grow. Nitrogen is an element that can combine with itself or with
other elements to make different compounds. For instance, nitrogen gas, N2, is a compound made
when two nitrogen atoms from a chemical bond.

6.1 Uses of Nitrogen:

The greatest single commercial use of nitrogen is as a component in the manufacture of

ammonia, subsequently used as fertilizer and to produce nitric acid.
Liquid nitrogen (often referred to as LN2) is used as a refrigerant for freezing and transporting
food products, for the preservation of bodies and reproductive cells (sperm and eggs), and for
stable storage of biological samples.
Nitric acid salts include some important compounds, for example potassium nitrate, nitric acid,
and ammonium nitrate. Nitrated organic compounds, such as nitroglycerine and
trinitrotoluene, are often explosives.

6.2 Nitrogen in the environment

Nitrogen constitutes 78 percent of Earth's atmosphere and is a constituent of all living tissues.
Nitrogen is an essential element for life, because it is a constituent of DNA and, as such, is part
of the genetic code.

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Nitrogen molecules occur mainly in air. In water and soils nitrogen can be found in nitrates
and nitrites. All of these substances are a part of the nitrogen cycle, and there are all
interconnected. Humans have changed natural nitrate and nitrite proportions radically, mainly
due to the application of nitrate-containing manures. Nitrogen is emitted extensively by
industrial companies, increasing the nitrate and nitrite supplies in soil and water as a
consequence of reactions that take place in the nitrogen cycle. Nitrate concentrations in
drinking water will greatly increase due to this.

6.3 Environmental Effects of Nitrogen:

Humans have radically changed natural supplies of nitrates and nitrites. The main cause of
the addition of nitrates and nitrites is the extensive use of fertilizers. Combustion processes
can also enhance the nitrate and nitrite supplies, due to the emission of nitrogen oxides that
can be converted to nitrates and nitrites in the environment.
Nitrates and nitrites also form during chemical production and they are used as food
conservers. This causes groundwater and surface water nitrogen concentration, and nitrogen
in food to increase greatly.

The addition of nitrogen bonds in the environment has various effects. Firstly, it can change
the composition of species due to susceptibility of certain organisms to the consequences of
nitrogen compounds. Secondly, mainly nitrite may cause various health effects in humans
and animals. Food that is rich in nitrogen compounds can cause the oxygen transport of the
blood to decrease, which can have serious consequences for cattle.

High nitrogen uptake can cause problems in the thyroid gland and it can lead to vitamin A
shortages. In the animal stomach and intestines nitrates can form nitroimines; dangerously
carcinogenic compounds.

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6.4 Health Effects of Nitrogen:

Nitrates and nitrites are known to cause several health effects. These are the
most common effects:

- Reactions with hemoglobin in blood, causing the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood to
decrease (nitrite)
- Decreased functioning of the thyroid gland (nitrate)
- Vitamin A shortages (nitrate)
- Fashioning of nitro amines, which are known as one of the most common causes of cancer
(nitrates and nitrites)

But from a metabolic point of view, nitric oxide (NO) is much more important than nitrogen
alone. In 1987, Salvador Monaca discovered that this was a vital body messenger for relaxing
muscles, and today we know that it is involved in the cardiovascular system, the immune
system, the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The enzyme that
produces nitric oxide, called nitric oxide synthesis, is abundant in the brain.

6.5 Nitrogen Cycle:

Nitrogen is important to all life. Nitrogen in the atmosphere or in the soil can go through many
complex chemical and biological changes, be combined into living and non-living material,
and return back to the soil or air in a continuing cycle. This is called the nitrogen cycle.
In general, the nitrogen cycle has Four steps: -

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6.6 Nitrogen fixation (N2 to NH3/ NH4+ or NO3-)

The nitrogen molecule (N2) is quite inert. To break it apart so that its atoms can combine with
other atoms requires the input of substantial amounts of energy. Three processes are
responsible for most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere
atmospheric fixation by lightning
biological fixation by certain microbes alone or in a symbiotic relationship with some plants
and animals.

6.7 Decay
The proteins made by plants enter and pass through food webs just as carbohydrates do. At
each trophic level, their metabolism produces organic nitrogen compounds that return to the
environment, chiefly in excretions. The final beneficiaries of these materials are
microorganisms of decay. They break down the molecules in excretions and dead organisms
into ammonia.

6.8 Nitrification (NH3 to NO3-)

Ammonia can be taken up directly by plants usually through their roots. However, most of
the ammonia produced by decay is converted into nitrates. This is accomplished in two steps:
Bacteria of the genus Nitroso monas oxidize NH3 to nitrites (NO2).
Bacteria of the genus Nitrobacteria oxidize the nitrites to nitrates (NO3).

6.9 Denitrification (NO3- to N2)

The three processes above remove nitrogen from the atmosphere and pass it through
ecosystems. Denitrification reduces nitrates to nitrogen gas, thus replenishing the atmosphere.
Once again, bacteria are the agents. They live deep in soil and in aquatic sediments where
conditions are anaerobic Once again, bacteria are the agents. They live deep in soil and in

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aquatic sediments where conditions are anaerobic. They use nitrates as an alternative to oxygen
for the final electron acceptor in their respiration.

Thus, they close the nitrogen cycle.

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