KV 6-1-2014

ISSN 0975-4067
KIRAVAL
Journal of Sanskrit Research Foundation
The New Trivandrum Sanskrit Series

Vol.VI. Book.I&II
January-June
2014
Sanskrit Research Foundation

T.C 39/37
Thiruvananthapuram-36
KIRAVAL
Journal of Sanskrit Research Foundation
Editor
Dr.M. Manimohanan
Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit,Kalady
dr.m.manimohanan@gmail.com
Executive Editor
Dr.C.S.Sasikumar
drsasikumarcs@yahoo.co.in
Managing Editor
Dr.G.Narayanan
dr.g.narayanan@gmail.com
Editorial board
Dr.V.Sisupalapanikkar,Professor of Sanskrit(Rtd.) Uty. of Kerala
Dr.R.Vijayakumar, Professor of Vyakarana, S.S.U.S.Kalady
Dr.K.Muthulakshmi, Associate professor in Vedanta, S.S.U.S.
Kalady
Dr.K.K.Sundaresan, Registrar, Kalamandalam
Editorial Advisory Board
Dr.T.Devarajan, Professor of Sanskrit(Rtd), University of Kerala
Dr.P.Chithambaran, Rtd.Professor of Vedanta,S.S.U.S. Kalady
Dr.P.K.Dharmarajan, Professor of Sahitya, S.S.U.S. Kalady
Dr..S.Sobhana, Associate professor in Vedanta, S.S.U.S.Kalady
Dr.K.Sekharan, Professor of Sanskrit, University of Calicut
Associate Editor
Dr.R.Jinu
jichelnu@yahoo.co.in
Contents
Editors Note 5
The Question of Self-Actualization
in Anita Nair's Ladies Coupe Parvathy. U 7
Perspectives of Modern Vedanta Dr.G.Narayanan 14
Women in Kyam Performance Dr. Sujaikumar.C.K 27
rhara's Philosophical Influence
on Later Advaitins. Dr. Francis A.P 35
Spiritualising the Material: Implications
of Sri Aurobindo's Integral Advaita Dr. Unnikrishnan.P 46
Evolution of Astronomy in Kerala M. Daniel 53
Disfiguring Woman: A Re-Reading
of the rpaakha Myth. Praseetha. P 59
Agriculture Science in Vkyurveda Shini. M.V 65
Commentaries on
Anargharghava-A Survey Deepa K.B 72
Bhakti in Different Perspectives Giji Augustin 77
Enactment of Bhsa's Plays in
Kerala Theatre Dhanasurjith. D 82
A New Approach to Vnara
Race in Vlmkirmya Sandhya Mohan 90
Analysis of Karmakaraka in
Krakatattva Dr Leela.K.N 101
Aswamedham Play and Film:
A Review of Adaptation Dr. Sheeja R.S 105
. . 117
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Please send your papers and letters to
Editor
Dr.M.Manimohanan
Professor of Vyakarana
Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit
Sankarapuram; Kalady. Ernakulam. Pin 683574
Or to
Executive Editor
Dr.C.S.Sasikumar
T.C. 39/ 37, Somavihar; Vrindavan Garden
Thiruvananthapuram -36
drsasikumarcs@yahoo.co.in
EditorNote
Plato explains his philosophy in general, but according-

ly the world creation and the phenomena of the universe
observed by him. In the ancient Greek discussion was on
the problem of the origin of the world. Philo the famous
Greek philosopher enumerates three views which is cur-
rent in his time. The Aristotelian view, the world is eternal
in the sense of its being both uncreated and indestructible.
The stoic view is that this world of our is one in a succes-
sion of worlds each of which is both created and destructi-
ble, and the Platonic view that the world is created but not
destructible. Plato identified the Logos with truth. It is
explained by Plato in his Phaedrus. He does not speak of
truth as a single idea. But it is an ideal truth as the pattern
for the particular truths in our world; he rather speaks of
it as the totality of ideas. Similarly, in the Philebus and the
Republic Plato speaks of truth as a characterization of the
ideas in general.
The ancient Indo-Aryan Prayer gives a picture of the
ultimate goal of unity, towards which all philosophies and
religion tend. Swami Paramananda says : As the differ-
ent streams having their sources in the different places, all
mingle their waters in the sea, so, O! Lord! The different
paths which means take because of their different tenden-
cies, crooked or straight, all lead to thee!
Dr M.Manimohanan
The Question of Self-Actualization in
Anita Nairs Ladies Coupe
Parvathy. U
Self-Actualization is a term that has been used in vari-
ous psychology theories. The term Self- Actualization was
introduced by the organismic theorist Kurt Goldstein for
the motive to realise ones full potential. Goldstein defined
self-actualization as a driving life force that will ultimately
lead to maximizing ones abilities and determine the path of
ones life. The concept was brought to prominence in Abra-
ham Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory. Maslow explicitly
defined self-actualization to be the desire for self-fulfill-
ment namely the tendency for him [the individual] to be-
come actualized in what he is potential. Self actualization
is the final level of psychological development that can be
achieved when all basic and mental needs are fulfilled and
the actualization of the full potential takes place.
According to Abraham Maslow every individual has a hi-
erarchy of needs and every individual fulfill their needs in
that predetermined order of importance. In his hierarchy of
needs Maslow has talked about lower order needs and higher
order needs. These lower order needs are further categorized
as physiological needs, safety needs and social needs. Phys-
iological needs are same as biological needs including food,
water, shelter etc. They are the strongest needs. Safety needs
are related to personal security, financial security, and pro-
8 Kiraval Parvathy.U
tection from physical and emotional harms. The social needs
are the needs of love and belongingness which is present in
every individual. It also involves giving and receiving love,
affection and a sense of belonging.
According to him, higher needs include Self-esteem and
Self actualization. The need of self esteem is the need to
be respected, to have self-respect, and respect to others.In
order to fulfill the need of self-esteem, people needs to en-
gage themselves to gain recognition and engage in activity or
activities that give the person a sense of contribution, feeling
of acceptance and self-value, be it in a profession or personal
life. When the other four needs are satisfied the need for
self-actualization will arise. A new discontent and restlessness
will develop unless the individual is doing what he is individ-
ually fitted for.
The need of self actualization is the one which according

to Maslow is the ultimate level of self growth for every indi-
vidual present on this planet. Self actualization isthe desire
for self-fulfillment, namely the tendency for him/her [the in-
dividual] to become actualized in what he is potentially. This
Anita Nair's Ladies Coupe Kiraval 9
tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more
and more what one is, to become everything that one is ca-
pable of becoming. The qualities attributed to self-actualized
person includes independent and autonomous nature, ten-
dency to form few but deep friendships, philosophical sense
of humour, tendency to resist outside pressures and a gen-
eral transcendence of the environment rather than coping
with, self-acceptance, problem-centredness, spontainity, re-
alistic nature and continued freshness of appreciation.
Ladies Coupe (2001) Anita Nairs critically acclaimed
novel focuses on the marginalization of women in Indian
society. The main protagonist of the novel is Akhilandesh-
wari, a 45 year old, single woman. She is an income tax clerk
who has dedicated all her life for the welfare of her family.
Now she wants to have her own life. She decides to go for a
journey to a sea-side town in Kanyakumari to take a decision
about her future life. The novel starts with her journey to
find an answer to her question, whether a woman like her is
capable of living independently without the support of fam-
ily and society. She led a mechanical life for about twenty
five years neglecting her own desires and needs as a woman
for the welfare of her family, even though she wanted to lead
a life of her own. She is not sure whether she is capable of
breaking the bondages of family and society to lead a suc-
cessful and independent life of her own.
In the Ladies Coupe of Kanyakumari Express, she meets
her co-passengers Janaki Prabhakar, Margaret Paulraj, Pra-
bhadevi, Sheela Vasudevan and Marikolanth. Entire novel is
a journey towards her self-actualization and self-exploration
through allied stories of her co-passengers in her journey in
Kanyakumari Express. Each of them tells their story, their
life the problems they faced and their experiences.
Janaki Prabhakar was a frustrated house wife who thought
that her husband does not love or understand her feelings and
emotions. She was fed up with her role as a wife and mother
.Later she realizes that her husband really cares for her and
respects her individuality. Prabhakar defends and warns their
son and daughter-in-law when they misbehave with Janaki.
This incident is a great surprise and relief for Janaki.She felt
as if she has regained the love, affection and security from her
husband. Through this incident, Janaki realizes his respect
and love for her and his importance in her life. She decides
to restart a happy life with Prabhakar.
Margaret Paulraj Ebenezer is a chemistry teacher in a pres-
tigious school whose husband is the principal of the same
school. Earlier her life was totally ruled by her husbands ec-
centricities. Her individuality was crushed by Paul Ebenezer .
Ebenezer was narcissistic and cared only about his needs and
professional success. Margaret tries to divorce her husband
but her family discourages her to fight against Ebenezers
tortures. According to Margarets conventional parents the
duty of a good wife is to always obey her husband and live
according to his wishes. After suffering for years she decides
to fight back. Slowly she becomes successful in changing the
cruel nature of Paul Ebenezer and save their marriage. Now
she leads a happy and meaningful life.
Prabha Devi was born as the only girl child in a rich busi-
ness family. She was married to Jagadeesh, a rich business
man at the age of eighteen. Her all wishes were fulfilled by
her husband. All were attracted by her beauty and smartness
where ever she went. She was proud for her happy and suc-
cessful life. Prabha Devis confidence and self-esteem was
shaken when her husbands friend tries to misbehave with
her. This made her to lead a secluded life within the four
folds of her home. Later in her forties Prabha Devi success-
fully learns swimming which re- ignites her confidence and
self-respect. This success changed her whole life and trans-
formed her into a new individual.
Marikolunthu was an innocent girl born into a low caste
family in Tamilnadu. Marikolanthu in her younger ages was
raped by a relative of her landlord and as a result she became
pregnant. Being a victim of rape and mother of an unwanted
child, she is rejected by her family. She hates her son as he
is the reason for her rejection and isolation by her family
and society. Her life turns to a positive direction when she
witnesses that her son is kindling the pyre of the man who
destroyed her. This incident provides her relief and happiness
after years. Her hatred towards her son was melted away after
this incident. She now decides to become a good mother and
to start a new life along with her son whom she had rejected
for years.
Sheela Vasudevan was deeply attached with her grand-
mother.. Grandmother gave great importance to physical ap-
pearance. She always liked to remain beautiful and presented
herself in her best to others. The only fear for grandmother
was that after her death, her body will be handled or treated
without any respect. She informs Sheela that her last wish is
to be properly dressed and ornamented during her funeral.
After grand mothers death Sheela decides to fulfill this wish.
She ignores and breaks the tradition and norms of society for
her grandmothers wish. Sheela applies make up and wears
ornaments and decorate the dead body of her grandmother
to the horror of her family and relatives. All are angry at her
but she feels happy for fulfilling the last wish of her grand-
mother and this incident changes her perspectives about life.
The physiological needs of Akhila are fulfilled even from
the beginning of her life. Akhila is safe, her brothers and sis-
ters are there to provide security for her. She is an employed
woman, which makes her financially independent. What she
lacked was love and belongingness. Her need for love and
companionship was fulfilled by Hari, who was younger to
her. She feared that their relation will not be accepted by
the society and will become a hindrance to the better future
of Hari and so leaves him. She becomes lonelier after the
death of her mother. She had to share her quarters with her
authoritative and sarcastic sister Padma, who changes her life
into a hell. A change comes to Akhila when she meets her old
friend Karpagam, a widow who still enjoys her life without
caring for the approval and recognition of society. She asked
Akhila to live for herself. Akhila was not sure whether she
can live independently without the support of her family.
How can I live alone? How can any woman live alone?
she asked hopelessly (201). Karpagam assure that she her-
self was able to do so which means that Akhila can also lead
her own life .All the stories of her co-passengers also inspire
and help Akhila to decide what she has to do with her life.
Her contemplation over these incidents gives her objective
insight to her own life, and also the courage tolive life with-
out any inhibitions. Akhila decide to leave out her worries
about society and family and to live for herself. But Akhila
is certain that she wont let her family use her anymore. Look
at me, she would tell them. Look at me. Im the woman you
think you. I am the sister you have wondered about. There is
more to this Akka. From within me is a woman discovered
(270). She reaches Kanyakumari as a new individual. Akhila
realize the importance of Hari for her to lead a happy and
satisfying life and decides to return to Hari. The novel ends
when Akhila tries to contact Hari through phone and he at-
tends the call.
At the end of the novel the character of Akhila possesses
almost all of the qualities of a self actualized person. Akhila
decides to take her own independent decisions about her life
without considering others permission and opinions. She is
transformed into a autonomous individual who does not
conform to the other persons idea about happiness and con-
tentment. Akhila learns to live in the present and to appreci-
ate the beauty of each life experience. She turns spontaneous
in her thoughts and outward behavior unlike in the past. Her
decision to leave to Kanyakumari and to engage in sexual
relation with a strange young man and her decision to return
to Hari are such instances. The journey towards achieving a
goal is as important and enjoyable to self actualized people as
accomplishing their goal. The journey of Akhila to Kanyaku-
mari in search of a meaningful life is an example for this. Fre-
quent peak experiences are another feature of a self-actualized
person. According to Maslow, such experiences make people
inspired, strengthened, renewed and transformed. Akhila is
also subjected to such experiences in her life. Her meeting
with Karpagam, a journey in the Kanyakumari Express along
with co-passengers whose stories inspired her are such peak
experiences. Akhila decides to break the hurdles created by
family and society which restricts her from leading a happy
life without any further adjustments or compromises.
The novel portrays the journey of Akhila towards her goal
of transforming herself into a self actualized individual. By
analyzing the character of Akhila in accordance with the Hi-
erarchy of Needs by Abraham Maslow, we can realize that
at the end of the novel Akhila is transformed into a self-ac-
tualized individual who is capable of leading a self sufficient
and successful life. Thus we can conclude that Anita Nair has
successfully employed the theme of self-actualization in her
novel Ladies Coupe.
Works cited
Jackson, Elizabeth. Feminism and Contemporary Indian
Womens Writing, U.K: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010. Print.
Maslow, Abraham. Dominence, Self-Esteem, Self- Actualiza-
tion. 1973. Google Book . Web. 8 May 2010.
Nair, Anita. Ladies Coupe: A Novel in Parts. New Delhi:
Penguin Books India, 2001. Print.
Sinha, Sunita. Post- colonial Women Writers: New Perspec-
tives. New Delhi:
Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, 2001. Print.
Concerns of Contemporary Vedanta
Dr.G.Narayanan
Modern Vedanta reflects all the complex characters of
present-day society as it tries to bridge the huge gaps in the
social strata the time had built. In a sense modern Vedanta
is a struggle within a tradition for some adjustment with-
out losing the total spirit of the tradition. This adjustment
is reformation.1 (Reform Movement)
Vedanta is considered as the philosophy of modern Hin-
duism (Neo-Vedanta)2. In olden days it was not so pop-
ular. This wide popularity and acceptance is a present-day
phenomenon and it is a result of the adjustment that it
had brought in the approach towards tradition. The histo-
ry of this adjustment and popularity begins with non-San-
skrit philosophical tradition as well as Bhakti tradition.
The thrust become strong with opening India to western
world and culture. These two phases have its peculiarities
and importance. They share some common ideas and dif-
fer in some interpretation.
The tradition (for clarity, I name it as Sanskrit tradition)
was followed in a society that spread over a wide geograph-
ical area. Language is an aspect that closely connected
with the sense of identity. The geographical wideness and
various other reasons produced new languages. Identity
(Identity)3 is a product of tradition, language and race.
In India tradition is preserved by attaching it with a lan-
guage Sanskrit. A contradiction involved here is that all
Concerns of Contemporary Vedanta Kiraval 15
members of the society could not claim the legacy of San-
skrit as their tradition (Tradition).4
The religious movements of medieval ages were at-
tempting to redefine this identity and tradition in a new
perspective a movement that commenced with the de-
velopment of regional languages. These developments
challenged the supremacy of Sanskrit language as the me-
dium of transmission of sacred knowledge. The siddhan-
talesasamgraha of Apayadikshita reflects this tension. This
suggests that regional languages had tried to pass on the
idea of Vedanta and other teachings related to Vedic tra-
dition and were successful. The independent adaption of
adhyatma ramayana in regional languages all over India is
the best example.
The works of Guru Nischaldas(Nishchal Das - Jatland
Wiki) Vrttiprabhakar and Vichar sagar were great at-
tempts in this line. Vrttiprabhakar is an independent adap-
tion of Vedanta paribhasha and Vicharsagar is an inde-
pendent rendering of panchadasi in vernacular old Hindi.
This attempt was a challenge towards tradition then.
From this we can infer that the reformists were trying to
blend two streams, which are contradictory in all respects,
especially in Indian condition, challenging the tradition
and affirming the tradition.
Similar to Guru Nischaldas, in Kerala we have Ezhuth-
achan, the author of cintaratnam. This text itself is a chal-
lenge on the tradition that he was a Sudra who had no
right to learn Vedanta or teach the same. Still, he wrote
a comprehensive book on advaitavedanta- one among
the two conservative systems of Indian philosophical tra-
dition. This book is written in the form of a dialogue be-
tween teacher and disciple where disciple is a woman. In
Indian tradition, women have no right on Vedas and allied
16 Kiraval Dr.G.Narayanan
streams of knowledge. Here Ezhuthachan had challenged
the tradition. At the same time he upheld the values of his
tradition.
This is the kind of adjustment that forced the tradition
to accept changes. The pace of this was rather slow. Since
Buddha we can see attempts in this direction. Compared
with the results of the reform movements of colonial and
post-colonial age the effects of pre-colonial reformist
movements are little. At the same time the language factor
played a great role in forming a new sense of identity.
Opening of India to the west produced different results.
The pace of reform process becomes faster and its reach
was wider. The immediate response to western values and
culture was attempts to find out similar values in Indian
tradition and presenting them to the western as well as In-
dian public.
The reformists searched for an ideology that will help to
face the challenge from the west and they found in Vedanta
an ideology which reflected the values and outlook- equal-
ity, democracy, charity, service etc5 (Halbfass 234). At the
same time, being a traditional system of thought, it shared
religious sympathy also. Thus advaitavedanta emerged as
the ideology (Ideology)6 of most of the reform move-
ments all over India. In these movements, from Raja Ram
Mohan Roy and Dayananda Sarasvati7 (BBC - Religions
- Hinduism) to present day Gurus, we have many Vedan-
tins who transformed Vedanta, especially Advaita Vedan-
ta, to suit needs of the time.
In order to defend the argument that Indian religion
and social thought neglected human values like equality,
service, etc., Swami Vivekananda highlighted the ethical
values of Buddhism and the universality embedded in
advaitavedanta. To him Buddhism was the first mission-
ary religion and Vedanta the ideology that accepts the
equality of all beings in the universe. A blending of both
these strings is perfectly done in the Practical Vedanta of
Vivekananda.
This was just a beginning. In the period that followed
saw many teachers and systems and advaita formed an in-
tegral part of almost all these systems.
Perspectives on Society
Traditional Vedanta addressed social and ethical issues
in its context. It was a necessity and obligation of a philos-
opher. Yet, it was subjected to scrutiny. The contradictions
in the ethical and metaphysical views were discussed thor-
oughly in traditional Vedanta itself. Since philosophy can-
not exist independently of society, it had to compromise
to the demand of dominant tradition. At the same time it
had to defend its metaphysics and the social condition or
outlook advocated by it.
The development of regional languages extended the
crisis to new realms and traditionalists had to meet the
challenge too. The encounter, both material and intellectu-
al, with foreign culture deepened the crisis and forced the
society to review its traditional value system. These situa-
tions lead to reform movements. That is the ideology in a
new society, particularly in a multicultural society had to
reconsider the traditional values and approach.
The first concern of reformists was the material as well
as spiritual well-being of society. At the same time they
considered the transformation of the mindset of individu-
als as a way to release them from the old notions of life and
development.
Another area of concern was the right over tradition.
Reformists placed strong criticism against the traditional
view followed by the elites. Dayanandasarasvati(Dayanan-
da Saraswati) and Sri Chattambiswamikal(Chattampi
Swamikal) vehemently criticized the position held by
smartas by interpreting Vedic sources. Both shared a view
that the original teachings of Vedas are not discriminato-
ry. But the ill interested commentators interpolated their
sectarian views into them. Dayanandasarasvati had estab-
lished in his Satyarthaprakasa that all born Hindus have
exclusive rights on Vedas and Vedic knowledge. The ve-
dadhikaranirupanam of Chattampiswamikal also did the
same. Svamikal goes to the extent of quoting and rejecting
the commentary of Sree Sankara on Apasudradhikarana
of brahma sutra. Yet he had full respect for the Vedanta
system. These attempts are remarkable because both these
teachers were educated in Indian conditions and they were
not influenced by the western values.
The Ramakrishna mission initiated by Vivekananda
considered education and service are essential for the de-
velopment of the nation and they started school, colleges
and hospitals. He realized that the cast system and un-
touchability that existed among Hindus were preventing
them from being a united society. The same was also the
hurdle before development. He was concerned about soci-
ety and he declared that the sudras will be the next ruling
class. By sudras he meant the working class.
Changing a tradition is changing the mindset of its
members. How to transform the mindset of individuals?
Acts and decrees will not be successful as the aim is to
change ones total outlook. Hence he considered spiritual-
ity as the only remedy to correct the society. The reason
was that Indian public was greatly spiritual.
Dr Palpu, one of the prominent figures in the formation
of S.N.D.P Yogam, also had a similar thought. The state of
Travancore was facing many agitations for human rights
like equality, right to education, right for using public
roads, jobs in public institutions, right to enter temple etc.
Dr.Palpu himself organized Ezhava memorial but could
not attract mass support(Sanu). At this time he had no as-
sociation with Sree Narayana Guru. He realized a fact that
only a spiritual personality could attract mass support and
he found the role in Sree Narayanaguru. Time has proved
that the observation of Dr.Palpu was right8. The influence
of Dr Palpu on Guru is clear. Guru promoted universal ed-
ucation. He was the reformer who emphasized the role of
technical education for social development.
At the same time Guru adhered closely to the tradition.
His philosophical and devotional works reflect this close
attachment. The Guru himself proclaimed as a follower of
Sankara.
This shows that reformers of modern age gave impor-
tance to the welfare and progress of the society than any-
thing else. Without education, both formal and technical,
society cannot survive and progress. This is an important
change in the attitude. The tradition considered spiritual
knowledge as the supreme and ultimate. This approach
forced scientists like P.C. Ray to indict Sankaracharya and
the spread of advaitavedanta as the cause of decline of
technical and scientific spirit during the period up to the
European interference (Ray 195)9.
Advaitavedanta advocates withdrawal from active so-
cial life is another argument. Modern vedantins reject both
these concepts. Advaita did not denounce Material knowl-
edge as useless. Some of its modern interpreters might
have caused for this misunderstanding by equating some
vedantic concepts with some findings of modern science.
For example, some scientists as well as some vedantins
claim that quantum physics and Vedanta have something
in common.(Rajaram)10
In the contemporary Indian spiritualism we can see a
shift of emphasis from the Upanishadic idea of knowledge
to the idea of activity - karma yoga- of Bhagavad-Gita. For
the transmission of novel ideas our spiritual leaders and
reformers, both political and social, used Bhagavad-Gita as
a tool. All of them emphasized karma yoga. Disinterested
action, a traditional concept, is promoted for developing
the sense of service and social commitment in individuals.
This transition was gradual. Sankara started this kind of
interpretation, a kind of denarration11(Richardson 87) of
traditional concepts. He used Bhagavad-Gita as a means to
reach ultimate moksha. His emphasis was on knowledge.
Later commentators substituted bhakti as the means of
moksha. Modern commentators replaced it with action or
activity or active social participation or involvement as the
dominant teaching of Bhagavad-Gita.
There was another trend in advita Vedanta. It was
headed by traditional scholars like N.S Anantakrishna-
sastri, Ramarayakavi, vasudevasastri abhyankar etc. This
movement was scholastic and conservative12(Halbfass 257,
260) . Their attempts were to establish the supremacy of
advaitavedanta over other systems. The other Vedanta
schools also joined in this movement as the attempts of
these scholars were direct attack over other systems.
Contemporary Vedanta functions as a bridge between
different systems. Almost all the systems associate in some
way or other with advaitavedanta. The best example is con-
temporary yoga. This argument is true with kriyayoga of
paramahamsa yogananda and many systems practiced
around. Modern Vedanta pays more importance to prac-
tical ethics. It had presented the cream of advaita Vedanta
in a digestible format to common public- a revolutionary
change that the traditionalist feared. The scholastic argu-
ments and jargons are absent in the language of contempo-
rary Vedanta13 (Practical Vedanta). It is plain and clear.
Hence it became popular that even an illiterate village
grandma too can narrate the gist of Vedanta to her kids.
This is a result of the reform moments and dissemination
of Vedanta principles through oral and written forms in
regional languages.
Notes
1. A reform movement is a kind of social movement that
aims to make gradual change, or change in certain aspects
of society, rather than rapid or fundamental changes. A re-
form movement is distinguished from more radical social
movements such as revolutionary movements.Reformists
ideas are often grounded in liberalism, although they may
be rooted in socialist (specifically, Social democratic) or
religious concepts. Some rely on personal transformation;
others rely on small collectives, such as Mahatma Gandhis
spinning wheel and the self-sustaining village economy, as
a mode of social change. Reactionary movements, which
can arise against any of these, attempt to put things back
the way they were before any successes the new reform
movement(s) enjoyed, or to prevent any such successes.
2. Neo-Vedanta, also called neo-Hinduism and Hindu Uni-
versalism is a modern interpretation of Hinduism which
developed in the 19th century in response to western colo-
nialism and orientalism. It contributed to the Indian free-
dom struggle and Indias identity as a modern, accepting
and independent nation. It presents Hinduism as a ho-
mogenized ideal of Hinduism with Advaita Vedanta as its
central doctrine.
3. Identity may be defined as the distinctive characteristic
belonging to any given individual, or shared by all mem-
bers of a particular social category or group. Identity may
be distinguished from identification; the former is a label,
whereas the latter refers to the classifying act itself. Identity
is thus best construed as being both relational and contex-
tual, while the act of identification is best viewed as inher-
ently processual
4. There are many definitions of tradition. The concept in-
cludes a number of interrelated ideas; the unifying one
is that tradition refers to beliefs, objects or customs per-
formed or believed in the past, originating in it, transmit-
ted through time by being taught by one generation to the
next, and are performed or believed in the present.
5. However, science is not the central issue in Vivekanandas
rediscovery And reinterpretation of the Indian tradition. It
is ethics, social commitment, and national identity itself,
which he tries to draw from the sources of Hindu religious
and metaphysical thought. The sense of identity and social
initiative which he tries to awaken in his fellow Indians
must not be a borrowed or derivative one. It must coin-
cide with a sense of rediscovery and reacquisition of their
own heritageand this means, above all, the heritage of
Advaita Vednta, the tradition of Sankara. Ethics, self-con-
fidence, and brotherly love find their true and binding
Foundation in Advaitic non-dualism; the Indians have dis-
covered the true and metaphysical principle for that which
appears at the surface in the Ethical and social efforts of the
West. They only have to read opt and Transform in to so-
cial action that which was always in their possession. Their
Vedanta must become a practical Vedanta. (Halbfas 234)
6. An ideology is a set of conscious and unconscious ideas
that constitute ones goals, expectations, and actions. An
ideology is a comprehensive vision, a way of looking at
things (compare worldview) as in several philosophical
tendencies (see political ideologies), or a set of ideas pro-
posed by the dominant class of a society to all members of
this society (a received consciousness or product of so-
cialization).Ideologies are systems of abstract thought ap-
plied to public matters and thus make this concept central
to politics. Implicitly every political or economic tendency
entails an ideology whether or not it is propounded as an
explicit system of thought.
7. Both of these reformers wished to rid Hinduism of what
they regarded as superstition. These groups were instru-
mental in sowing the seeds of Indian nationalism and Hin-
du missionary movements that later journeyed to the West.
8. Palpu had met Swami Vivekananda and had talked to him
about the plight of Ezhavas. Swami had suggested that the
struggle be carried on with a spiritual leader as the guiding
force. This suggestion at once raised the image of a radiant
face in Palpus mind- the face of Narayana Guru.
9. The Vedanta philosophy, as modified and expanded by san-
kara, which teaches the unreality of the material world, is
also to a large extant responsible for bringing the study of
physical science into disrepute. Sankara is unsparing in his
strictures on Kanada and his system. (P.C.Ray P.195 foot-
note)
10. To make sense of this mass of contradictions, some of the
pioneers like Schrdinger, Heisenberg, Robert Oppen-
heimer and David Bohm turned to eastern philosophy.
There they found that problems lying at the center of new
physics like reality, and existence had received the attention
of Vedanta philosophers........ I see the question of Reality as
the meeting ground between Vedanta and modern physics,
especially quantum mechanics. But this is at the metaphys-
ical level without insupportable claims that our ancestors
already knew about discoveries made by modern science.
Reality is the Holy Grail of quantum physics; it is an area
in which Vedanta can make a significant contribution and
thereby come to occupy a central position in modern met-
aphysics. But for this to happen Vedanta or some parts of it
must be expressed in an idiom that can work with modern
science. This is the program that my colleagues and I are
pursuing. Navaratna Srinivas Rajaram (NS Rajaram)
11. Brian Richardson defines Denarration as We may now
move on to an intriguing and paradoxical strategy of nar-
ration that I will call denarration. I am referring to a kind
of narrative negation in which a narrator denies signifi-
cant aspects of his or her narrative that had earlier been
presented as given. The simplest example of this might be
something like, Yesterday it was raining. Yesterday it was
not raining. The effect of this unusual strategy is variable:
it can play a relatively minor role in the overall text, or it
can fundamentally alter the nature and reception of the
story. The effect it produces is nearly always arresting, and
to many readers it can be quite disconcerting.
12. In contrast to Neo-Hinduism and other, less reserved forms
of adopting Western ideas which may amount to a com-
plete neglect of traditional Hindu thought, there are ways
of survival or deliberate continuation of the Indian tradi-
tion in which European concepts and orientations play ap-
parently no role at all and in which the European foreigners
are referred to only in accordance with traditional xenol-
ogy and its basic concept of the mleccha. Yet, the absence
of explicit forms of assimilation and ostensible influences
does not mean that such traditionalism has remained en-
tirely unaffected by the Western presence. (Halbfass 257)
Generally, the authors of these and similar works of mod-
ern Sanskrit literature warn against the practice of reinter-
pretation (for instance, of the four maincastes,varna),that
is so common in Neo-Hinduism, and against the intro-
duction of new sectarian traditions(nutanasampradaya)
(Halbfass 260)
13. You must be a practical Vedantin. Mere theorising and
lecturing is only intellectual gymnastics and lingual war-
fare. This will not suffice. If Vedanta is not practicable, no
theory is of any value. You must put Vedanta in daily prac-
tice in every action of yours. Vedanta teaches oneness or
unity of self. You must radiate love to one and all. The spirit
of Vedanta must be ingrained in your cells or tissues, veins,
nerves and bones. It must become part and parcel of your
nature. You must think of unity, speak of unity and act in
unity. If you deliver a thrilling lecture on the platform on
Vedanta and say, I am the all; I am the one Self in all; there
is nothing but myself and show in action the next moment
a different attitude of selfishness and separateness, you
will not produce any impression on the public. You will be
called as a dry Vedantin only. Nobody will care for you.
(Swami Sivananda)
Works Cited
BBC - Religions - Hinduism: History of Hinduism. Web.
22 Aug. 2013.
Chattampi Swamikal. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
15 Aug. 2013. Wikipedia. Web. 23 Aug. 2013.
Dayananda Saraswati. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
22 Aug. 2013. Wikipedia. Web. 23 Aug. 2013.
halbfass, wilhelm. India and Europe. First. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidas Pvt. Ltd, 1990. Print.
Identity (social Science). Wikipedia, the free encyclope-
dia 4 Aug. 2013. Wikipedia. Web. 22 Aug. 2013.
Ideology. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 23 May 2013.
Wikipedia. Web. 24 May 2013.
Neo-Vedanta. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 18 Aug.
2013. Wikipedia. Web. 22 Aug. 2013.
Nishchal Das - Jatland Wiki. Web. 23 Aug. 2013.
Practical Vedanta. Web. 22 Aug. 2013.
Rajaram, N. S. Vedanta and the 21st Century: Reality in
Vedanta and Science Folks Magazine. 14 Feb. 2012.
Web. 23 Aug. 2013.
Ray, Praphulla Chandra. History of Hindu Chemistry.
One. Two. Calcutta: Chuckervertty, Chatterjee, 1925.
Print.
Reform Movement. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 7
Aug. 2013. Wikipedia. Web. 22 Aug. 2013.
Richardson, Brian. Unnatural Voices: Extreme Narration
in Modern and Contemporary Fiction. Ohio State Uni-
versity Press, 2006. Print.
Sanu, M.K. 2. DR.PALPU | Sree Narayana Guru.in. Web.
22 Aug. 2013.
Tradition. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 30 July 2013.
Wikipedia. Web. 22 Aug. 2013.
Women in
Kiyam Performance
Dr. Sujaikumar.C.K
Kiya which is one of the ancient performing arts of
temples of Kerala is the only traditional form of presentation
of Sanskrit plays that has come through the ages practically
unhurt. Kiya means the joint acting ki means to
join and a means acting. There is joint acting by men
and women and it is one of the few forms on which both take
part as they did in the classical Sanskrit plays.
Kiya is a form of Sanskrit dance drama developed
in Kerala in 10th century AD (Mehta 269). In distant past
many Sanskrit plays were presented in the kttambalam the-
atres in Kerala. The plays of Bhasa, Kalidasa, Harsha, Ma-
hendravikrama, Saktibhadra and Kulasekhara were presented
in these theatres.
Women actresses in Nyastra tradition
The first Troup of Bharata, according to the Nyas-
tra (BC.2nd) had only about 100 male members, all sons of
Bharata. It is said that the first performance had only three
vttis Bhrat, Stvat and rabha. Lord Brahma advised
Bharata that he should have Kaiiikvtti also to achieve
the fullness of the art. Only in the Kaiikvtti can one have
physical beauty, graceful movements which are important to
28 Kiraval Dr. Sujaikumar.C.K
the grarasa. As Bharata felt that his sons or other actors

under his control were not suitable to perform in kaiikvt-
ti, he requested Lord Bhrahma to provide him with suitable
participants. Bharata also said that he had seen kaiikvtti
in the danced of Lord Siva. However, he felt that only ladies
could portray suitably the role that delineates grarasa.
EE Ihx{l RM*
+C {& i |H jVxoi**(Nya 1-26)
Then Lord Bhrhma created 24 apsara women who were
very good in performing kaiikvtti and he entrusted them
to Bharatas care.
ii%VxiV x{ &*
x]RESi& |nx |Mi&**(27)
It is not worthy that among the 24 there are celestial wom-
en named after regions in India like Kerala and Magadha.
Perhaps the traditional actresses of Kerala can be considered
as their descendants. Then the women characters acted sev-
eral art forms.
Damodaraguptas Kuanmata (802-803) mentions about
the enactment of the Sriharshas Ratnval at Kasi and it was
an all-womens troup and the women took the role of the men.
iE <xEi x
nkSi|M bi*
=tiSUix nxxvx
+x |r{i ViVxEi** (Rajagopalan 3)
In course of time many changes took place and we find
men taking the role of women in many of the regional forms
like yakagna, terukkttu, kuchippudi, gotipura, kathakali
and angyanat(Assam).
Women in Kiyam Performance Kiraval 29
Nayrs the actresses of kiya

The kiya of Kerala seems to be the only exception
in this connection. There is an unbroken tradition of many
centuries in kiya where female roles are enacted by
ladies themselves. They are the Nayrs of Kerala. Their
male counterparts are called the Nambiars, or specifically
the mizhv Nambiars or Ckyrs. They belong to the Am-
balavasi castes who are involved in the traditional jobs in the
temples. The vocation of the Nayrs is to act sing or keep
rhythms in the performance of kiya or in ckyrkttu
(K.P.Narayanapisharoti, Kttambalaail, 20) Every book
about kiya mentions that Ckyr and Nambyar were
the descendants of Namputiri women who were ostracized
for adultery (5).
Nayr traditionally has chosen the profession of danc-
ing and singing. It was their hereditary occupation for some
centuries. The Nayrs were devoted practitioners of theatre
as their means of livelihood. They are the female members of
Nambiar family. Originally there were eighteen Ckyr fam-
ilies performing in various temples in Kerala. But today only
seven families survive to carry on the tradition. And of them
only ten to twelve Ckyrs are actually engaged in this art.
Social status and privileges of the female artists
The Nayrs social status and privileges can be seen in
kiya. Before a Nayr becomes an actress or singer,
she must have debut and it has to be done before she attains
puberty. As an actress she has some rare privileges in the
temples. After she performs the purappu (formal en-
trance) in Nayrkttu she is to be escorted to the sanctum
of the temple, an oil lamp being held in front of her. She can
climb the sopnam (the steps to the sanctum) and worship
the deity from its top after ringing the bell and she can accept
the prasdam dropped directly into her hands by the priest. It
shows that the performance is held in such high esteem.
Nayrkttu
Nayrakttu is the performance of the vikambha at
the beginning of the second act of Subhadrdhanajaya of
Kulasekharavarma (978-1036 AD). A legend tells us that
certain king by name Kulasekharavarma happened to marry
a Nayr because of her talents as an actress. Her children
were treated as outcaste by some members of the society.
When the king heard about this he gave them special per-
mission to perform kttu in the temples with in his kingdom.
He wrote the text of Srkacarita to be performed as nirva-
haam by Subhadras maid Kalpalatik.
While the role in the drama being very small the prelude
is expanded and the story of lord Krishnas child hood as
adopted from the Bhgavata 10th skandha is enacted by a
flashback technique called nirvahaa. (An actress gets into
the stage by the explanation of early story.) The abhinaya is
performed by a Nayr assisted by another Nayr who
sings the verses specially composed or compiled for it under
the name Srkriacarita. The assistant also keeps rhythm by
playing cymbals for the mizhv played by a Nambiar. Such
performance as also acting of the various female roles in dra-
mas can be done only by the Nayras. The Nayrakttu
is performed in several temples even now. The Naaayr
families too have the right to the performance annually in
specified in temples. In the Nayrkttu the performance
and the rights of the ladies are independent of the Ckyrs.
Cualakttu as a performance
There is also another performance of the Nayrs known
as Cualakttu is the same as Cayrkttu but is performed

at the cremation area of a dead Namputiri brahmin who has
performed sacrifices. This is to be performed during the pe-
riod of the death ceremonies. There is a well-known belief
that the reading of the Bhgavatapura to one who is in
his death-bed leads to his salvation. In a similar way it is be-
lieved that the abhinaya of the childhood story of Srikrishna
as in the Bhgavata 10th skandha during the death ceremonies
also leads to the salvation of the dead person .
Somehow a belief has set in that if there be any mistake
in the performance of the Cualakttu it would cause mortal
harm to the performer. For want of adequate practice no per-
former is sure that the abhinaya would be free from faults and
this performance is no longer done (7).
Histrionic talents of Nayrs
The histrionic abilities of Nayr and Ckyrs were
expected to be of a high order. This is clear from the say-
ing in Malayalam that one should prostrate before a Ckyr
who flies or a Nayr who flows (K.P.Narayanapisharo-
ti, Kallokam, 61-62) The reference is to the Ckyr who
used to perform the role of Garuda in Ngnanda act 4 called
'parakkumkttu' and to the Nayr for her role as the her-
oine of Tapatsavaraa who tries to commit suicide by
jumping into a river and is carried by the current but is later
saved by the hero. Her ability is to be so great that she com-
mands respect. Unfortunately no one is sure how the role is
to be enacted. Even the aprakra of this floating scene is
difficult to come by. The Kramadpik is silent on this mat-
ter. Tradition has it that the warp yarn as in a weaving loom
is setup from near the lamp and the actress moves along with
this warp creating an illusion of flowing in water.
Techniques of flowing Nayrs feat

Such dexterous activities by Nayr are required to be
performed in other contexts like the scenes in which the hero-
ines in Ngnanda, Subhadrdhanajajaya etc. try to commit
suicide by hanging. Two pieces of long cloth are suspended
from the ceiling in the center of the stage. A hook is always
provided for this in the kttambalams. The two pieces of
cloth are twisted and the actress puts them round her neck
and holds them with both the hands in front of her face. When
the heroine kicks away the stool and starts hanging, the twist-
ed cloth unwinds and turns round and round, until her legs
rest on the ground. The length of then piece of cloth is also
adjusted that she is not harmed in the least. At the appropriate
time the hero runs up to her and rescues her. This scene was
last performed some 30 or 40 years ago.
Another feat is the falling heroine or {ixi in Sub-
hadrdhanajaya (act-1) where Subhadr is dropped from
the sky by a demon who was abducting her. The demon is
shot at by Arjuna she falls into the hands of Arjuna who is
waiting to rescue her with extended arms and jumps into the
hands of Arjuna(Poulose 117-118) in which we can see that
the high order of stvikbhinaya.
Feat worthy of a circus artist
An interesting piece is the entrance of the goddess Kar-
thyyan in the 5th act of Subhadrdhanajaya. The detailed
Aaprakram for this could not yet be traced; but elders
in the kiyam field say that krtyyan used to have a
painted face and that she held a bow and arrows. She should
take a circumambulation of the temple on an elephant stand-
ing on the top of the elephant on one leg. This indeed is a feat
worthy of a circus artist (Rajagopalan 10).
Plays performed by Nayrs

Current plays performed by Nayrs are normally five
in number.
1. The first act of Subhadrdhanajaya of Kulasekhara.
Hrere a Nayr appears as Subhadr for a few min-
utes.
2. The first act of Tapatsavaraa of Kulasekhara but
the act is not per formed in full.
3. The second act of Acaryacmani of saktibhadra
is Srpaakha in which Srpaakha appears
as a beautiful maiden Lait
4. The first act of Blivadha of Bhasas Abhieka the only
female character here is Tra Blis wife.
5. The fifth play is Thoraayuddha the third act of Abhie-
ka of Bhsa. The only female role in this act is that of
the gatekeeper
Other rules of women artists
Above all the Nayr is chanting akkitta invocatory
verses on Ganapati, Sarasvat, Siva etc. in Sanskrit, musical-
ly at the beginning of the performance along with drumming
and at the end of the first act.As final invocation is mui-
yakkitta Nayr again sings ma Sanskrit verses when
some characters enter the stage for the first time.
Conclusion
Anyhow we may clear that the fact remains that from very
early period women in Kerala had a fascinating history of
their histrionic talents. A number of art forms like kathakali
have been developed later but one thing is clear that there are
no dances to women actors except in the oldest dance drama
kiiya. Opinion of K.G.Poulose is that kiya
endows a very high status to women actresses is a true state-
ment so far as the performance tradition of kiya is

concerned (116).
Works Cited
Damodaragupta, and Atrideva Vidyalankar.Kuttani Matam,
Athava, Sambhalimata Namaka Kavya. Varanasi: Indologi-
cal Book House, 2003. Print.
Gautama.The Nyaya-sutras of Gautama. Ed. Mahamaho-
padhyaya Ganganatha Jha. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass., n.d.
Print.
K.P, Narayanapisharoty, trans.Natyasastram. Thrissur: Kerala
Sahitya Academy, 1987. Print.
Mehta, Tarla.Sanskrit Play Production in Ancient India. Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass, 1995. Print.
Poulose, K. G., Dr.Improvisation in Ancient Theatre. Thripu-
nithura: International Cetre for Kutiyttam, 2003. Print.
Rajagopalan, L.S, and S.S Janaki.Womens Role in Kuiyaam.
Chennai: Kuppuswami Sastry Research Institute, 1997.
Print.
rharas Philosophical Influence
on Later Advaitins.
Dr. Francis A.P
In the 12th century A.D., one rhara was the court
poet of Jayachandra, king of Kanykubja. He is the author of
Khaanakhaakhdyam and Naiadhyacaritam, (hereafter
KKK and NC) works of great fame (Jani 1957).
A life-sketch of rhara
Fortunately, we get good information regarding our poet
both from internal and external sources. From the epilogue
stanzas as well as the concluding stanzas (XXII. 150-153), we
get the following glimpses about his life. rhara was the son
of r Hra, the best poet of his times, and Mmalladevi (I.145)
for whom he had very high regard (XII. 113). He had perfect-
ly mastered the science of logic and reasoning (X.138) and his
arguments were powerful enough to silence his opponents
(XXII.153). His speech was as pleasant as the autumnal moon
(XV.193); and his poetry was as sweet as nectar (XV.153). He was
self-controlled (I. 145) and being an adept in the precepts of the
Yogastra, he realized the Absolute the ocean of delight in
trance (XXII. 153). His poem was an outcome of his meditation
on the Cintmaimantra (I. 145). He thrashed out a new track
in the field of poetry (VIII. 109) and never allowed any chance
of introducing novel ideas in his poem to escape (XIX.67); he,
therefore, was proud of his poem and looked down upon the
carping critics who did not appreciate his poem. He proudly
36 Kiraval Dr.Francis.A.P
admits that he had wantonly made his poem difficult and that
it will give pleasure, like nectar, only after proper exertion on
the part of the reader and that it is not easily intelligible without
the help of a teacher (XXII. 150-152). He was highly honoured
by the king of Kanauj who personally offered him a seat and
two betel-leaves (XXII. 153). Over and above the NC, he wrote
the following works: Sthairyavicraaprakaraa (IV. 128),
rvijayapraasti (V.138), Khaanakhaakhdya (VI. 113),
Gauorvakulapraasti (VII. 110), ravavarana (IX. 160),
and Chindapraasti (XVII. 222), ivaaktisiddhi (XVII.154)
and Navashaskacaritacampu (XXII. 149)(Jani1958 84; 1996
1).
This information, supplied by the poem itself, is corroborat-
ed by external sources such as (1) Cau Paitas Commen-
tary on the NC (1297 A.D.), (2) Rjaekharas Prabandhakoa
(1348 A.D.), (3) Gaddharas Commentary on the NC (not later
than 1444 A.D.) and (4) Vidypatis Puruapark (early part
of the 15th cent. A.D.), and (5) A manuscript (dated 1711 A.
D.).
It is only Rjaekhara, who gives a more detailed account
of our poet than any other of his biographers, and hence it is
reproduced below, with supplements from other sources.
In the court of Jayantacandra,1 the king of Banaras, there
was among other pandits a Brahmin called Hra, whose son
was rhara. Once Hra was defeated in a polemic discussion
by another pandit2 of the court. Hira could not live long to bear
the heavy grief of his severe defeat. When he was lying on his
death-bed, he called his most brilliant son and exhorted him to
take revenge upon his rival.rhara agreed and, after the pre-
mature demise of his father, the youngrhara, entrusting his
family to his relatives, set out for studies. Under various teach-
ers he mastered the different branches of knowledge such as
Logic, Rhetoric, Music, Arithmetic, Astronomy, Mantrastra,
rhara's Philosophical Influence Kiraval 37
Grammar and so on. He meditated upon the Cintmai Man-
tra, acquired through the grace of some teacher, for a period
of one year, on the sacred banks of the Ganges. The Goddess
Tripura revealed Herself and conferred upon him a gift of un-
surpassable eloquence. But rharas sharp intelligence proved
a curse to him as his learned arguments were unintelligible to
others. He propitiated the Goddess, once more, and at Her ad-
vice, blunted his sharp and all-grasping intelligence by taking
curds in the mid-night. Now the people could follow him. He
then composed hundreds of works headed by the KKK. After
this, he returned to Banaras and informed the king of the same.
The king, along with Hras rival and other pandits, came to re-
ceive the poet who praised the king as under:
Oh, ladies! Do not mistake this king for Cupid, as he is the
son of Govinda and possesses excellent physical charms, be-
cause Cupid makes ladies his weapon, to conquer the globe,
while this one makes the armoured rivals as helpless as ladies.3
All were extremely pleased to hear such an extraordinary
praise.rhara now gazed at his fathers rival and challenged
him with these words:
The Goddess of Learning sports with me, whether it may
be the rosy bed of poetry or the thorny bed of Logic. The la-
dies get the same enjoyment, provided the lover is agreeable
to them, whether the bed is well-equipped or is simply a bare
ground.4
The rival pandit, realizing the brilliant achievements of
rhara, admitted his defeat and began to flatter him with
the following words: Among the many powerful animals in
the forest, only the valour of a lion is praised at his roaring
fear-stricken animals give up their joy. On hearing this, rhara
was pacified. They became friends at the advice of the king who
richly rewarded the poet.
By virtue of this chapter we come to the conclusion that
rhara was a product of an intellectual age, which is evi-
denced from the centuries preceding his emergence. Though
there were several poets, kings and scholars named rhara,
the one considered here is the author of philosophical text KKK
and the last mahkvya in Sanskrit, NC. He was the court poet
of Ghaavla dynasty of Kanauj during the 12th century. The
present chapter has served to identify the rhara proper for
the purpose of our research. Now we shall proceed to the liter-
ary and poetic background of rhara for a better understand-
ing, of assessing rharan works and their commentaries in
their proper setting.
rharas philosophical influence on his followers
Citsukha5 (ca. 1295) continued the dialectical campaign be-
gun by rhara with greater technical perfection, application
of all possible forms of argument and conversational and cat-
echetical style. He follows rharas footsteps in criticizing the
categories of both the Naiyyikas and the Vaieikas. His Tat-
tvapradpik (also known as Citsukh) is most famous for such
an accomplishment. Citsukha, in addition to refuting Nyya
definitions also refutes other definitions. He also gives us an ac-
curate analysis and an elaborate interpretation of the main con-
cepts of Advaita. Thus he fulfils the work left unaccomplished
by rhara(Sharma 236).
The lure of logical treatment of topics tempted him so much
that he attempted fresh definitions and proceeded to offer log-
ical proofs sometimes even adopting Mahvidys which
were sophistic round-about syllogisms, inaugurated by Kulrka
Paita (and refuted by Vdndra in his Mahvidy-Viamba-
na) meant to prove the anirvacanyavidy. Thus, he overshot
his mark, forgetful of his model rharas insistence that his
own dialectic is interested only in demolishing the definitions
of the dualists, and not in defining or proving anything, since
the dialectic never presumes the reality or unreality of any defi-
nition or proof. rharas strict position is that no proof can
be demanded for defending Advaita, since proof may be right
or wrong even when what is sought to be proved is real. It was
enough for him that Advaita is revealed by the Upaniads / ru-
ti (Sarasvati 126).
rharas negative programme was over-stepped by the pos-
itive and constructive ones of Citsukha and Madhusdana Sar-
asvat, who attempted to prove the Advaita position using fresh
definitions, which rhara had attempted to demolish by his
lifes work. This seems to be the reason why his followers failed
to elicit the attention they deserved from both Advaitins and
non-Advaitins.
Citsukha was an Advaita follower of rhara who voices the
same Advaita positive program (i.e., the self-illumination and
self-certification theses along with the sublatability argument)
buttressed by similar dialectical attacks on competing views;
but he also provides much greater elaboration defensive argu-
ments of the Advaita understanding of illusion than occurs in
rharas KKK. He also re-engages the metaphysical debate
present among earlier followers of akara, such as Padmapda
and Vcaspati Mira about the locus of spiritual ignorance,
avidy.
Madhusdana Sarasvat
The background for the emergence of Madhusdana Saras-
vat is as follows.The prominence of Advaita Vednta began to
fade as a result of the origin of the Dvaita proper of the Vedn-
tin Madhva (13th century AD). The very origin of Dvaita was
a reaction, in the main, against Advaita. For the same reason,
controversy between the two schools was inevitable. Dvaitins
vehemently criticized and retorted the arguments of the rival
school. For over the last seven hundred years Dvaitins and Ad-
vaitins have been actively engaged in a wordy warfare.
Madhvas works form the nucleus of Dvaita Vednta. Madva
maintains the Dvaita interpretation of the Prasthnatraya. He
holds that akaras excessive emphasis on the nirgua Brah-
man was quite unwarranted and a matter of his personal idio-
syncrasy. Madhva defends difference: Five differences, namely,
difference between God and soul, between God and matter, be-
tween matter and soul, between one soul and another soul and
between one matter and another matter are real. The school of
Madhva being essentially dualistic in character and realistic in
approach, maintains absolute reality of the manifold world on
a par with that of a.
Jayatrtha (14th c. AD) wrote a voluminous commentary
on the Anuvykhyna of Madhva on the Brahmastras called
Nyyasudh. While Madva criticized the views of akara,
Jayatrtha refuted the myvda of akara and his followers.
He quoted and refuted the Advaita views contained in Citsukh
(Tattvapradpik) and Vivaraa.
The example of dialectical criticism of Advaita set by Jayatr-
tha was soon followed by his successors. Viudsa (15th cen-
tury) was the most notable among them. His Vdaratnval
examines, in detail, the Advaita principles dealt with in Pa-
capdik, Citsukh, Iasiddhi, etc., and refutes all of them. He
establishes the validity of Madhvas interpretation of rutis(Nair
19).
It was Vysatrtha (15th century) who vindicated the prom-
inence of Dvaita and gave Advaita an almost fatal blow. In his
work Bhedojjvana he resuscitated the principle of bheda sti-
fled by Advaitins. In another work, Ttparyacandrik, Vy-
satrtha criticized the interpretations of the Vedntastras of
Bdaryaa by akara and Rmnuja. He refuted the justifica-
tions of Vcaspati also, at times, and harmonized the utterances
of Madhva and his commentators. The masterpiece of Vysatr-
tha is Nyymta. In it he elaborately deals with the discrepan-
cies in Advaita. By the composition of Nyymta, Vysatrtha
virtually pushed Advaitins to a miserable position(Nair 20).
The challenge thrown by Vysatrtha was taken up by Mad-
husdana Sarasvat. Madhusdana, in his masterpiece Advai-
tasiddhi, retorted verbatim et literatim, to the arguments con-
tained in Nyymta. It can be said that Nyymta caused the
origin of Advaitasiddhi. As the name indicates, it re-established
Advaita which was about to be asiddha. Without the origin of
Advaitasiddhi the position of Advaita would have been pathetic
in many ways. It inaugurated the birth of a series of controver-
sial literature, through its example of being written exclusively
for the purpose of demolishing the philosophical tenets of one
school, in favour of another, of the same system(Nair 21).
An expanded philosophic agenda is also evident with the
great dialectical Advaitin, Madhusdana Sarasvat (ca. 1570),
who masters Navya-Nyya techniques of cognitive analysis and
uses them to defend the Advaita view, particularly the under-
standing of illusion. The positive program remains constant
with Madhusdana and still later Advaitins, who also continue
to battle against all views granting reality to distinctness. But
there appears to be increasingly more defense of the Advai-
ta stance on illusion and metaphysical argument about avidy,
while dialectical attacks seem to diminish in importance com-
paratively to speak in generalities, sweeping over centuries
and dozens of authors.
Thus, Advaita dialectic attained its zenith with rhara, al-
though he stands as a teacher of scores of later Advaita reason-
ers. rhara clearly gets the winners wreath according to the
judgment of Naiyyikas; no subsequent Advaitin ever comes
to command a fraction of the attention thatrhara gets from
the Logicians. Madhusdanas attacks on distinctness are an-
swered by theistic Vedntins, who, though they seem to learn
much from the Logic school, have their own concerns, and are,
generally speaking (excepting akara Mira) more focused on
exegetical matters than are Naiyyikas.
Excepting rhara, influence exerted by Logicians on Ad-
vaitins seems more pronounced than the other way around in
the later periods. Madhusdana, for example, takes Gageas
characterization of veridical awareness to be a proper charac-
terization of awareness in general. His polemic is to show that
awareness has intrinsic veridicality by arguing that nothing
that does not fit the formula should be counted as awareness.
Thus, every awareness would be intrinsically veridical(Mohan-
ty 14,16-7).
Role of KKK in the Emergence of Navya-Nyya
rhara, through his incisive critique of the Nyya-Vaeika
categories of pramas in general, and of the definitions of the
logical and epistemological concepts of Udayana in particu-
lar, paved the way for the rise of the Navya-Nyya school of
aadhara, Maikaha and Gagea, who introduced abstruse
and mind-boggling technicalities in the formulation of defini-
tions of such logical and epsitemolgoical categories as reason
(hetu), inference (anumna) and pervasion (vypti). rharas
trenchant criticism of Nyya categories had a salutary effect on
the Indian philosophic scene, and philosophic sophistication of
later authors of both Nyya and Vednta deepened as a result.
KKK: Commentaries from the Navya-Nyya Camp
Udayana the committed Logician and rhara the hard-
core Advaitin were the two towering figures that dominated
the horizon of dialectics in Eastern India and later the whole
of India for about three centuries before the advent of Gagea.
rharas KKK had commentaries from the Advaita camp as
well as the chief rival Nyya camp.
In KKK, the logicians method of fixing and defining the cat-
egories with formidable precision was assailed in such a devas-
tating manner that it was hailed throughout Indian as a novel
contribution in the field of dialectics. rharas method of ar-
gument earned a special name as Khaanayukti and more
wonderful, the KKK, the anirvacanyatsarvasvam as this work
is commonly called, came to be regarded as one of the classical
works of Navya-Nyya(Bhattacharya 42).
rharas great achievement was naturally hailed by the
Vedntins and was commented upon by them, too. Vidyraya
triumphantly wrote in Pacada:
Niruktavabhimnam ye dadhate trkikdaya|
Haramirdibhiste tu khaandau suikit|| (45)
To put it in gist: The Logicians, with pride, are well equipped
with works like Khaana (KKK) of rhara.
Khaana has been one of the favorite topics of students
of logic. Its reception in the land of Udayana was a revelation.
Many Navya-Nyya scholars of Mithil and Bengal came to scoff
at it. Divkaropadhya, Vardhamna, akara Mira and even
so late an author as Gokulantha have written commentaries
on it. So did Pragalbha, Padmanbha Mira and Raghuntha
(Vidylakra) of Bengal. Vardhamna attempted a refutation
of it also, but it is completely lost. Vcaspati II and akara,
it is true, wrote powerful refutations. They were followed by
two later scholars, Mdhava Mira of Mithil and Vivan-
tha Pancnana of Bengal. But, on the whole, the refutation
of rharas arguments at the hands of the Nyya scholars of
Mithil and Bengal is somewhat half-hearted and considerably
out-weighed by their agreeable studies of those arguments(45).
As it is clear by now, although the history of post-rhara
Advaita dialectic was set in motion by Citsukha, it extended
far deep into the centuries through different Indian philosoph-
ical systems and liteary works and continues still. It must be
admitted for sure that rhara was by far the sole originator
of the whole trend of spreading dialectic from philosophy into
religious literature, and hence, he has to be considered as the
monolithic miracle on the horizon of Advaitic Dialectic.
Notes
1.According to Gaddhara, rhara was the court-poet of
Govindacandra, the grandfather of Jayantacandra. See Jani,
A. N., A Critical Study of rharas Naiadhacaritam, p. 87.
2. Rjaekhara does not give the name of his rival. But,
Cpaita names him as Udayana, the author of
Lakaval, etc., whose views are refuted by rhara in his
philosophical treatise, KKK.
3. Govindanandanatay ca vapuriy ca msmin npe kuruta
kmadhiyam taruya /
Astrkaroti jagatm vijaye smara strrastr jana punarane
na vidhyate str //
There is a pun here. Str and astr are used to refer to the
kings excellence over Cupid by the figure Vyatireka. The
word Nandana meaning delighter in Govindanandana
refers to a grandson and not to the son as is done by R-
jaekhara, who describes Jayantacandra as the son of Govin-
dacandra instead of Vijayacandra, as is suggested by a com-
parison of the king with Cupid (Aniruddha, an incarnation
of Kama), who was the grandson of Govinda, (i.e., Ka).
See A. N. Jani, A Critical Study of rharas Naiadhyacari-
tam, pp. 87-88.
4. Shitye sukumravastuni drhanyyagrahagranthile /
Tarke v mayi samvidhtari samam llyate bhrat //
ayyvstu mdttaracchadavat darbhkurairstt /
Bhrmirv hdayamgamo yadi patistuly ratiryoitm //A.
N. Jani, A Critical Study of rharas Naiadhyacaritam, p.
88.
5.Citsukha wrote a commentary on rharas KKK, pub-
lished in the Chowkhamba Sanskrit series, edited by Surya
Narayana Shukla (1936, 1048). His major work, however,
is not a commentary: Tattvapradpik (also known as Cit-
sukh), edited by Udasina P. Svami Yogindrananda (1974).
Surendranath Dasgupta summarizes the text in volume 2 of
his History of Indian Philosophy (1932), pp. 148-63. An ex-
tensive study has been done by V. A. Sharma, under the title
Citsukhas Contribution to Advaita (1974).
Works Cited
Bhattacarya, Dinesacandra. History of Navya Nyaya in Mithila.
Darbhanga: Mithila Institute of Post-Graduate Studies and
Research in Sanskrit Learning, 1958. Print.
Jani, A. N. Sriharsa. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1996. Print.
Jani, Arunoday Natvarlal,. A Critical Study of Sriharsas Naisa-
dhiyacaritam. Baroda: Oriental Institute, 1957. Print.
Mohanty, J. N. Gangesas Theory of Truth: Containing the Text
of Gangesas Pramanya (jnapti) Vada with an English Trans-
lation, Explanatory Notes, and an Introductory Essay. Del-
hi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1989. Print.
Nayar, K. Mahesvaran. Advaitasiddhi: A Critical Study. Delhi,
India: Sri Satguru Publications, 1990. Print.
Sarasvati, Saccidanandendra. Vedantaprakriyapratyabhijna:
Vedan tesvadrtaya Asadharanaprakriyayah Satattvasya
Nirdharanaparo Nibandhah. Holenarasipuram: Adhyatma
Prakasana, 1964. Print.
Sarma, Candradhara. The Advaita Tradition in Indian Philos-
ophy: A Study of Advaita in Buddhism, Vedanta and Kash-
mira Shaivism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1996. Print.
Spiritualising the Material:
Implications of Sri Aurobindo's
Integral Advaita
Dr. Unnikrishnan.P
As a free commentator of Vedanta philosophy and as a con-
tinuator of tradition Sri Aurobindo has an important place
among the great teachers of India. His contribution in di-
verse fields bears out his versatility. He aimed at a reinterpre-
tation and reconstruction of the Vedanta in the light of the
requirements of the modern scientific age. He felt the need
of such a restatement since the existing ones had generally
led people to asceticism and renunciation of the world. He
was particularly critical of philosophical schools which un-
dermined the reality of the external world and thus respon-
sible for preaching inaction and passivity.
Implications of integral advaita
According to Sri Aurobindo the supreme reality is eternal,
absolute and infinite Brahman. It is absolutely indeterminate
and free. Though it is indescribable in itself, it is not; abso-
lutely unknown to us, for, the spiritual being in us is nothing
but Brahman itself. The highest positive expression of Brah-
man is sachchidananda or Existence-Consciousness-Bliss. It
manifests itself as indeterminate as well as determinate, as
Nirguna as well as Saguna, as one as well as many, as being
as well as becoming yet transcends them all.
The existence (sat) 0f Brahman appears to us as At-
man, Isvara and Purusa. The consciousness (cit) of Brah-
man which is always a force manifests itself as Maya, Sakti
Aurobindo's Integral Advaita Kiraval 47
and Prakrti. The bliss (ananda) of Brahman underlies all
these manifestations. It is out of sheer bliss that the Divine
manifests Himself as this world. Bliss gives the why of cre-
ation. Sri Aurobindo considered the Maya Vada of Advai-
ta Vedanta, which negate any creative role for the empirical
world, as a world view of inaction and escapism. He upheld
the non-dual Brahman and also the reality of the empirical
world. He felt that the ideal of self-negation and unreality of
the world caused poverty of life. He insisted the need of an
active and powerful life, which is essential for human welfare.
The real Monism, the true Advaita, is that which admits
all things as the one Brahman and does not seek to bisect
its existence into two incompatible entities, an eternal Truth
and an eternal Falsehood, Brahman and not Brahman, Self
and not-Self, a real Self and an unreal yet perpetual Maya,
says Aurobindo. (Aurobindo1987:31). The basic maxim on
which his conception of the world rests is Sarvam khalu
idam Brahman, that is all this is from Brahman, that every
object in this world is an emanation of God. He opines, I
do not agree with the view that world is an illusion, Mithya.
According to Sri Aurobindo the original teaching of Ve-
das and Upanishads do not support the conception of spiri-
tuality as an antithesis of material point of view. He tried in-
tegration between idealism and materialism, rationalism and
mysticism, monism and pluralism. He never regarded Brah-
man as divorced from matter, life or reason. He recognised
the existence of three intimately connected and equally real
forms of Brahman- the Infinite (nirguna), definite (saguna),
and Brahman as spirit or consciousness (atman). As sub-
stance Brahman is the one besides whom there is nothing
else. Brahman manifests itself for it needs no other thing
to manifest. It is neither purely material nor spiritual. The
categories such as space, time, motion, quantity, quality, and
cause are inapplicable to it. According to Aurobind, Brah-
man, cannot be summed up in any quantity or quantities, it
cannot be composed of any quality or combination of qual-
ities. It is not an aggregate of forms or a formal substratum
48 Kiraval Dr.Unnikrishnan.P
of forms. If all forms, quantities, qualities were to disap-
pear, this would remain. Existence without quantity, without
quality, without form is not only conceivable, but it is one
thing we can conceive behind these phenomena. (Aurob-
indo1986:75).
Aurobindo tried to reconcile spiritualism and materialism.
V.S. Narvane observes, On the metaphysical plane Sri Au-
robindo offers us a magnificient synthesis in which all view
points, including materialism, are given their due. (V.S.Nar-
vane 1978:194). In this process of synthesis he harmonised
science, philosophy and religion. Matter and spirit are two
forms of attributes of the manifestation of Brahman. The
material Brahman is the cause of material world and spiritual
Brahman is of absolute consciousness or Soul. According to
Aurobindo those philosophers who viewed one of the attri-
butes of Brahman as its essence fell into two extremes, ide-
alists or materialists. According to him modern materialists
hold the same view of ancient Indian materialist Brigu, for
whom, Matter is the Eternal, for from Matter beings are
born and by Matter all beings exist and to Matter all beings
depart and return.( Aurobindo1986:743). Likewise modern
idealists behave somewhat like Indian ascetics. They regard
matter as mechanical illusion and refuse to believe that it is
real. Aurobindo writes, In Europe and in India, respectively,
the negation of the materialist and the refusal of the ascetic
have sought to assert themselves as the sole truth and to
dominate the conception of life. (Aurobindo1986:9). Au-
robindo finds the truth in integrating these opposite views.
For him matter and spirit are inseparable, they are two as-
pects of a single whole. Philosophy of Integral Vedanta tries
to raise the one-sided viewpoints of materialism and ideal-
ism.
According to Sri Aurobindo life evolves out of matter
in the form of a many branching tree out of its encasing
seed. Matter, he considered, as a phenomenon of particular
relation between our senses and the all existence in which we
move. The individual mind is not the creator of matter but
an evolute of matter. Aurobindo believed that the existence
in this world is due to matter and it is in its activity as a con-
scious force, with the action of sole existing conscious Be-
ing. Thus in this view, one could say, that matter is spirit. But
Sri Aurobindo never considered materialism to be a genuine
philosophy. Instead of accepting materialism he spiritualised
matter. As V.Brodov aptly remarks, Goses entire integralist
system is nothing more than an original reinterpretation and
description of well-known Vedantist propositions concern-
ing the subordination, mutual transitions and links between
Brahman, its attribution, and the phenomenal world. (Bro-
dov 1988:314). We can assume that Sri Aurobindo formu-
lated an objective idealist solution to the fundamental ques-
tion of philosophy. He believed that all things come from
Brahman, exists by Brahman and dissolve in Brahman. Only
through Brahman does nature acquire the ability for mani-
festing itself simultaneously in many properties and qualities.
It appears that the theory of creation, which forms a fun-
damental aspect of Aurobindos philosophy, is a spiritual-
ised version of Samkhya theory. He replaced the mechanical
theory with a dynamic one for mechanical theory depends
upon materialism and hence not a satisfactory doctrine. Ac-
cording to Aurobindo matter is not dead; it is only a state of
sleep consciousness. His concept of evolution is based on
the presupposition of prior involution of Brahman in the
material. All that exists in space and time is an endless num-
ber of qualities, forms and constructions out of matter and
consciousness. These existences are named as phenomenal
world or nature. In the phenomenal world everything flows
out of Brahman and return to it. The Brahman involutes
into lower levels and all things return to Brahman through
evolution. He held that, The Divine descends from pure
Existence through the play of Consciousness-Force and
Bliss and the creative medium of Super mind into cosmic
being; we ascend from Matter through developing life, soul
and mind and the illuminating medium of Super mind to-
wards the divine being. (Aurobindo1986:264). Logically the
process of evolution is continuous and there exists infinite
future possibilities of development. Human existence, ac-
cordingly, is a kind of refraction of the divine existence in
inverted order. Man is only a transitional being in this pro-
cess.
By this scheme of evolution and involution Sri Aurob-
indo maintained that religion and science are not actually
opposed to each other. He believed that as the materiality
of matter is replaced by energy, science is brought closer to
religion. Life and death are two phases of a single whole.
The transition from one stage to another is purely a quali-
tative process. He regarded everything that exists, including
matter, as objective reality that is nature has status quite in-
dependent of human consciousness.
Aurobindo saw man as universe in miniature. Man com-
prises the physical matter of the mineral kingdom, the vital
force of the vegetable, the animals ability to feel and desire,
the elementary intellect inherent in the higher animals and
the unique character of man- the soul. Thus man is not only
combination of the elements of the universe but also a kind
of mode formed by the interweave ring and action of vari-
ous force. The principal forces are spiritual and material.
Aurobindo accepted sense experience as a valid source of
knowledge. The sense organs give us knowledge of exter-
nal world. This knowledge has value and meaning since the
external world is real. The process of cognition is the result
of mans consistent immersion in his spiritual essence. The
reason is the rectifier or modifier of empirical knowledge.
The pure reason takes experience as only a starting point.
The complete use of pure reason brings knowledge finally
from physical to metaphysical level. According to Aurobin-
do, All spiritual life is in its principle a growth into divine
living. (Aurobindo 1986:1018). He believed that ultimate
reality is known only through intuition. In intuitive knowl-
edge the difference between the knower and the known dis-
appears. He says,...the foundation of intuitive knowledge
is conscious or effective identity between that which knows
and that which is known; it is that state of common self-ex-
istence in which the knower and the known are one through
knowledge. (Aurobindo 1986:65.).
Conclusion
Thus Aurobindo in his epistemology conceived reason
and intuition as essential requirements for the knowledge
of reality. Intellectual knowledge is useful for knowledge of
empirical world and intuition for metaphysical knowledge.
As M.Refique puts it, The co-operation of Intellect and In-
tuition is essential for a comprehensive and integral view. In
the synthesis of Intellect and Intuition, the cultural values
of the West and the East are also synthesised in the philos-
ophy of Sri Aurobindo. (M.Rafique 1987:39).The idea of
collective perfection is an important feature of Sri Aurobin-
dos philosophy. Collectivity is a formation or manifestation
of the one Reality. Hence the individuals have an important
role in the society. The individual and the universal are real
manifestations of the transcendent Absolute. The world of
multiplicity and differentiation has its divine purpose. He
recognised the reality of the material world, and took a pos-
itive attitude to the achievements of materialist philosophy
and science. However, his intimate knowledge and contact
of the industrialised Western civilization made him disap-
pointed with purely materialistic development. It is true that
science has enlarged the intellectual horizon and intensified
mans intellectual capacity. But it also, at the same time, is the
most danger to mans very survival. Aurobindo has also crit-
icised Indian asceticism for its neglect of the material con-
ditions of life and preference for excessive mysticism. His
Integral Advaita is a unique contribution to modern Indian
thought which helped to remove the pessimism swept over
the entire subcontinent. It endowed the message to act and
gain in this world itself.
Works Cited
Aurobindo.The Life Devine. Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo
Ashram, 1970. Print.
Brodov, V. V.Indian Philosophy in Modern times. Moscow:
Progress, 1984. Print.
Narvane, V.S.Modern Indian Thought a Philosophical
Survey. Bombay: Asia House, 1967. Print.
Rafique, M.Sri Aurobindos Ideal of Human Life. New
Delhi: Ashish, 1987. Print.
Evolution of Astronomy in Kerala
M. Daniel
Astronomy is the oldest scientific discipline of human
kind, which is known as the eye of the sciences. Ever since
man learnt to walk upright, he looked at the skies and won-
dered. His desire is to understand the cosmic environment
and put this understanding to practical use that led to the
development of astronomy. The most comprehensive of
the sciences, astronomy is also regarded as the oldest of all
and is rightly called the Queen of all sciences.
Kerala, the land of well known Astronomers who con-
tributed a lot for the rich growth of astronomical evolution.
It is in the field of astronomy the contributions of Kerala
are the most outstanding. Among the academic activities
and ancient and medieval Keralites, the study of Jyotisastra
was held in high esteem. It is significant that a well equipped
observatory perhaps the earliest in South India, was func-
tioning in the Kulasekhara Empire from the 9th century
A.D (Parameswaran, Jyothirganitham Kerala Charithram,
Vol. II 1). It was functioning in accordance with the princi-
ples laid down by Aryabhata and was under the directorship
of the famous astronomer, Sankaranarayana who wrote then
Sankaranarayaniyam, the commentary on Bhaskaras famous
astronomical work, Laghubhaskariyam. Anyone who glanc-
es with curiosity through the early history of Jyotisastra is
sure to be struck by the elegant method reckoning time that
was in vogue in Kerala from very early times. It may be said
that in no other part of the work did there exist a method of
54 Kiraval M.Daniel
time reckoning as scientific as the one in Kerala.
Jyoti Sastra comprises two parts, the theoretical part
and the practical part, the latter being usually referred to as
the prediction part. Some people use the term astronomy
and astrology to denote theoretical and prediction part re-
spectively of Jyoti Sastra. Mathematics was an important
and helpful tool to the study Jyoti Sastra. Many great sa-
vants and preceptors flourished in this tract of the Indian
Peninsula at different periods of time and produced many
authoritative treatise of Jyoti Sastra. They were composed
in Kerala Deva Keralam, Sukra Keralam, Vararuchi Ker-
alam and Keraleeya Sutram were a few among them (Aiyan-
gar 74-76). These treatises mainly deal with horoscopy and
astrology and contain some observational data and theoreti-
cal observations on celestial bodies.
A number of systems expressing numbers and had
sprouted in Kerala. Only a few among them gained any pop-
ularity and acceptability. Bhuta Samkhya system and Kata-
payadi system were the two such schemes that survived for
a long time. Bhuta Samkhya system seems to be the older
one. In this system numbers are indicated by well-known
objects or concepts having as many parts or components as
the numbers they can note. Example, the zero is indicated
by Sunya, gangana, purna, vishnupada etc (Parameswaran,
Aryabhata 112-13).
Katapayadi System:
The earliest occurrence of the Katapayadi system of ex-
pressing numbers, according to present knowledge, is in the
Chandra vakyas of Vararuchi. The general belief is that
Vararuchi himself was the proponent of this scheme. This
system is generally believed to be one of the major contri-
butions of Kerala to Indian mathematics. The astronomical
tradition of Kerala holds Vararuchi as the father of figure.
To Vararuchi is ascribed the authorship of the 248 Chandra
Evolution of Astronomy in Kerala Kiraval 55
vakyas those have been very popular in South India and this
Chandra vakyas used as mnemonics for locating the true
positions of the moon (S. Parameswara Iyer 88).
Aryabhata
The most famous Indian mathematician cum astronomer
is undoubtedly the great Aryabhata. There were atleast two
Aryabhatas. That is beyond doubt. Aryabhata of Kusuma-
pura who wrote the Aryabhatiyam in 499 A.D. and Aryabha-
ta who wrote the astronomical treatise called the Maha Ar-
yasiddhanta in 950 A.D. are two different men. Al-Birunis
history as well as Brahmaguptas Khandakadyaka indicate
the possibility of the existence of another Aryabhata who
belonged to a period earlier to that of Aryabhata of Kusu-
mapuram (Nambiar 15-16,41).
Aryabhatan School:
Bhaskara I refers to Aryabhata as Asmaka, to Aryabha-
tiyam as Asmakantra and Asmakiya Sastra and to the fol-
lowers of Aryabhata as Asmakiyah what led Bhaskara I to
this nomenclature in preference to the usual names. This
schools is specially associated with Kerala region practically
all the astronomers of this school whose place of origin can
be definitely determined as they belonged to Kerala. All the
astronomical works produced in Kerala followed the Aryab-
hatan school and that Bhaskara identified himself with this
school (Parameswaran, Keralas Contribution to Mathemat-
ics and Astronomy 137). It is quite apparent. He refers to
Aryabhata in this Bhasya as our preceptor in several places.
From the 7th Century A.D., Kerala had been bastion of
Aryabhatan school of Mathematics and Astronomy and the
later Kerala schools are based on the Aryabhatan system,
the efforts of Mathematicians and Astronomers belonging
to Kerala have generally been directed towards the revision
of additions to and correction Aryabhatan system of deriv-
ing more accurate results.
56 Kiraval M.Daniel
Aryabhatas scheme of Alphabetic Numeration:
In the Desa-gitika of Aryabhatiyam, an alphabetic
scheme for representing numbers can be from the Katapa-
yadi system and gives a more compact and concise mode of
representation, especially for large members through fewer
letters. This mode of numeration seems to have been used
only by Aryabhata. The positive advantage of this indig-
enous system is its brevity and conciseness. But this ad-
vantage has been upset by disadvantages because the letters
formed by this system are very difficult, some times even
impossible to pronounce.
Madhavan of Sangamagrammam:
Among the several astronomers of Kerala an important
niche must be assigned to Madhavam of Sangamagrammam.
Till recently, he was unknown to the scholarly world outside
Kerala. Madhavan is the author of a book called Venvaro-
ha and also the discover of Jiva-para-sparanyaya and certain
other mathematical cum astronomical results which are em-
balmed in stray-verses-a statement transmitted to them by
their elders (Subbarayappa and N.Mukunda 130).
Among the works of Madhavan now available, Venvaro-
ha is considered as the most important one. The moons
motion along its orbit round the earth is not uniform. An
indigenous but tackle method for the determination of the
position of the moon at anytime of the day with high accu-
racy has been evolved by Madhavan in Venvaroha. Madha-
van is the author of Lagna-Prakarana in six chapters, two
tracts entitled Madhyamanayana-prakara and Mahajyanayan-
aprakara (Menon 107).
Parameswaran of Vatasseri:
Among the astronomers cum Mathematicians of the me-
dieval Kerala most famous was Paramesvaran Nambutiri of
Vatasseri, who flourished in the 14th and 15th centuries in
the history of astronomy, he deserves as an honored place.
Evolution of Astronomy in Kerala Kiraval 57
He was a Rigvedic Brahmin and belonged to the village of
Alattur in South Malabar. Parmesvarans grand father who
was a pupil of the famous astrologer Govinda Bhattatiri of
Talakulam seems to have become an astronomer (Sunda-
reshan 142-143).
Parameswaran was a prolific writer. He has to his credit
original works as well as commentaries covering the entire
gamut of Jyoti-sastra, astronomy and astrology. His works
on astronomy including Mathematics known at present is
Drg-ganitham, which is his magnum opus. The system of
astronomical computation that prevailed in Kerala was the
Parahita system Haridatta was the author of parahita system
in 683 A.D (State Committee on Science 1).
All these astronomers cum mathematicians made valuable
contributions to astronomy that prevailed in Kerala in early
times. Astronomy was one of the important subjects in the
academic study of Kerala. An Astronomical knowledge was
very helpful to the development of agriculture and trade,
which protected the arrival and departure of rainy seasons as
well as the direction and duration of winds across the ocean.
Astronomy was to develop for their commercial interest and
political ambition and also the promoting the knowledge of
astronomical studies. Geography and navigation in India ex-
pand their territories.12 It also noted to prepare the accurate
maps of the territory. This required correct determination
of longitudes and latitudes of important places. However,
in course of time, the Science of astronomy degenerated
into astrology.
Works Cited
Aiyangar, M. Raghava. ome Aspects lo Kerala and Tamil .
Trivandrum: University of kerala, 1973.
Menon, A. Sreedhara. The Cultural Heritage of Kerala. Madras,
1978.
Nambiar, K. Damodaran. Aryabhatan. Mathrubhumi Weekly
58 Kiraval M.Daniel
18 October 1970: 15-16,41.
Parameswaran, S. Aryabhata. Mathematics Teacher (1977):
112-113.
. Jyothirganitham Kerala Charithram, Vol. II. Ernakulam:
Kerala History Association, 1974.
. Keralas Contribution to Mathematics and Astronomy.
Journal of Kerala Studies, Vol. VII (n.d.): 137.
S. Parameswara Iyer, Ulloor. kerala Sahitya Charithram (Mal.)
Vol.I,. Trivandrum: University of Kerala, 1953.
State Committee on Science, Technology, and Environment,.
Scientists and Technologists in Kerala - A Directory.
Trivandrum: Govt. of Kerala, 1989.
Subbarayappa, B.V. and N.Mukunda, Science in the West and
India. Bombay, n.d.
Sundareshan, Dr. N.K. Ganitha Paramkbharyam Keralathil.
Smaranika,Sree Sankaracharya Samskritha Pracharana
Paddhati. Kalady: Sree Sankaracharya University of San-
skrit, 1999. 142-143.
Disfiguring Woman:
A Re-Reading of the Surpanakha
Myth
Praseetha. P
The Surpanakha episode in the Aranyakanda of Ramaya-
na is a crucial turning point in the whole story-the catalyst
which sets off a chain of events, chiefly Ravanas abduction
of Sita that engenders the battle between Rama and Ravana.
Scholars generally concur that the bulk of the text, including
the Aranyakanda, portrays Rama as an epic hero with human
rather than divine status.
Surpanakha is the sister of the Raksasa lord Ravana. Her
parents were Visravas and Kaikasi. Kumbhakarna, Vibhisana
and Khara also were her brothers. She can assume different
forms at her will and range about the forest by striking terror
in everybodys heart. She also possesses wonderful powers
and can go wherever she wishes. Surpanakha was married
to the Raksasa Vidhyujjihva. They had a son named Sam-
bhukumara. In Valmiki Ramayana, Uttarakanda describes
her husband only not the son. Ravana killed Vidhyujjihva
accidentally while conquering the Netherworld. Surpanakha
came to him and censured him whereupon he sent her to live
in the Dandaka forest with her brothers Khara and Dusana.
Although Surpanakhas status as a widow does not figure in
the front of Valmikis tale, it is prominent in other telling.
In some Puranic references there is a story about Sam-
60 Kiraval Praseetha. P
bhukumara, Surpanakhas son. Sambhukumara was per-
forming tapas to Siva in Dandakaranya. It was at this time
that Sri Rama, Laksmana and Sita arrived in the forest. They
reached Pancavati in Dandakaranya and Sri Rama wished to
setup his hermitage there. At the very sight of Sita, Sambhu-
kumara fell in love with her. He stood there in the form of a
tree. While building the hermitage, Laksmana felled that tree
and thus Sambhukumara was killed.
The scene in which Surpanakha is mutilated opens with
Rama, Laksmana and Sita living an idyllic existence in exile at
Pancavati, practicing austerities and telling stories. One day a
Raksasi named Surpanakha, happens to pass by. Seeing Ra-
mas beauty, she is instantly infatuated. The poet contrasts
her appearance with Ramas,

(133)
His face was beautiful; hers was ugly. His waist was
slender;hers was bloated.
His eyes were wide; hers were deformed. His hair was
beautifully black; hers
was copper-coloured. His voice was pleasant; hers was
frightful.
He was a tender youth; she was a dreadful old hag.
He was well spoken; she was coarse of speech. His
conduct was
Lawful; hers was evil. His countenance was pleasing;
hers was repellent
Seized with desire Surpanakha approaches Rama , saying,
Disfiguring Woman Kiraval 61
why have you, while in the guise of an ascetic wearing
matted locks , accompanied by a wife and bearing bow and
arrows, come to this spot which is frequented by Raksasas?
In response, Rama introduces himself, his brother and his
wife. He then asks her about herself. She replied that she
is a Raksasi named Surpanakha , able to change her form
at will (Kamarupini) , and has roamed the Dandaka forest
alone, frightening all living beings.
This exchange raises many questions how did Surpana-
kha really appear to Rama? Was she beautiful or ugly? If as
a Raksasi, she was able to take on any form she pleased,
why has she been able to take on any form she pleased, why
did she appear ugly? Was Valmiki describing her true form
rather than her apparent form?
Then Surpanakha goes on to describe her brothers, king
Ravana, the hibernating Kumbhakarna, the virtuous Vibhis-
ana and the heroic Khara and his general Dusana, saying
that she could overcome all of them. She then declares her
love to Rama and invites him to become her husband, of-
fering first to devour Sita and then Laksmana and they could
wander the Dandaka forest together forever, taking in all
the sights. Rama laughs and says,
, ! |
:
:

: :

,
, ! (134)
I am married, oh! Lady, and cherish my wife.For women like
you, the presence of a co-wife would be unbearable. Here is
my brother Laksmana, virtuous, good-looking, gentlemanly,
and virile. He is unmarried. Not having a wife, he is eager
(for marriage), and since he is so handsome, he will make an
appropriate match for one of your beauties. So, O wide -eyed,
shapely one, attend upon him unencumbered by a co-wife, as
the sunlight upon Mount Meru.
Commentators have debated the significance of these
lines at great length. If, as is said, Rama never tells a lie, then
why does he say that Laksmana is a bachelor? The simplest
explanation would seem to be that what is spoken in jest
cannot be considered a lie, but the reading in the critical edi-
tion indicating that he spoke in jest (svecchaya) is uncertain.
The story continues with Surpanakha making a similar
proposal to Laksmana, but he says that he is Ramas slave,
he cannot be a suitable husband for her, and that she should
instead turn to Rama and become his junior wife. Soon he
Rama will abandon that ugly, unfaithful, hideous, and pot
bellied old wife and attend upon her alone. Surpanakha
takes Laksmanas words at face value, not being aware of
the joke, and says that she will devour Sita on the spot to
be rid of her rival. Surpanakha then prepares to pounce on
frightened Sita, where upon Rama angrily grabs Surpanakha,
saying to Laksmana, one should never joke with cruel, ig-
noble people....... Mutilate this ugly, un-virtuous, extremely
brutish, great- bellied Raksasi. At this, Laksmana cuts off
Surpanakhas nose and ears with his sword. Screaming loudly
and bleeding profusely, she runs to her brother Khara and
tells him what happened. Intending to avenge the insult,
Khara, Dusana and Trisiras and fourteen thousand Raksasas
wage battle against Rama, and he defeats them single-hand-
edly. Ravana is first informed of these events by his minister,
then by Surpanakha herself. Hearing of Sitas beauty, Ravana
decides to gain revenge by abducting her.
Disfiguring Woman Kiraval 63
The authors and commentators of various Ramaya-
nas have handled the episode in various ways, reflecting a
deep ambivalence in the tradition concerning the actions of
Rama, Laksmana and Surpanakha herself. From a narrative
point of view, this episode proves a crucial turning point in
the story, the catalyst which sets off a chain of events, no-
tably Ravanas abduction of Sita, around which the remain-
der of the epic in turn revolves. Disfigurement of women
is not unknown elsewhere in Valmiki text. In the Balakanda
Rama kills the Raksasi Tataka for her crimes against the sage
Visvamitra, after Laksmana first cuts off her hands, nose
and ears as punishment. Similarly, there is a multiform of
the Surpanakha episode later in the Aranyakanda, in which
Laksmana kills the Raksasi Ayomukhi for making lustful ad-
vances towards him.
Kathleen M.Erndl, Assistant professor of religious stud-
ies at Lewis and Clark College, has approached the Surpana-
kha episode with feelings of sympathy for her plight and
admiration for her forthrightness and independence. Mrs.
Kathleens attitude must be encouraged. Going through the
Surpanakha episode we can understand that she is an in-
dependent and powerful woman. Surpanakha was the main
thread of Rama-Ravana war. When Surpanakha was muti-
lated, she inspires Ravana to avenge her mutilation, which is
the testimony of her diplomacy. Actually Surpanakha plays
an important role in Ramayana; she never gets justice from
Valmiki. He portrays her as a cruel Raksasi. Only the new
-readings can make a change in this situation, proving that
Surpankha is also a loving sister, good wife and a poor moth-
er and after all she is a Raksasa Woman.
Three interrelated themes or motifs thus seem to emerge
from the Surpanakha episode, all of which figure significant-
ly in the broader context of Hindu mythology and culture.
The first of these, mutilation as a punishment for women, is
a standard feature of the Surpanakhas story. In the majority
of Ramayana telling, it is Surpanakhas nose and ears that are
cut off. In some versions, it is her nose alone, whereas others
add her breasts, hands, feet, and even hair. Most Indian legal
texts forbid killing a woman, even as a punishment for a
serious crime, though the practice is not unheard of. Disfig-
urement of the woman is the most common punishment for
crimes of a sexual nature, such as adultery or even attempt-
ing to poison ones husband. Interestingly, such incidents are
often presented in a humorous light. Thus, in many North
Indian Ram Lila performances, the Surpanakha episode is
a kind of burlesque, to which the audience responds with
ribald jokes and laughter.
Works Cited
Venkatanathacarya, N.S. Srimadvalmikiramayana with Am-
rtakataka of Madhavayogi. Mysore: U of Mysore, 1965.
Print.
Agriculture Science in Vkyurveda
Shini. M.V
According to Ayurveda life is a state in which mind,
soul and body co-exist harmoniously. Ayurveda deals with
the attainment of a healthy state of being which ultimately
leads an individual to the attainment of Pururtths.
Vkyurveda is one of the minor sciences developed in
the ancient Indian heritage. Vkyurveda literally means
'Ayurveda of plants' that ultimately means science dealing
with all aspects related to the life of plants. The most pop-
ular texts of Vkyurveda are Bhatsamhita, Upavanavi-
noda of rgadhara and Vkyurveda of Surapala. The
Vkyurveda also deals in detail regarding the following
concepts.
1. Section of soils
2. Rules for sowing of seeds
3. Methods of propagation
4. process of plantation
5. Rules for watering of plants
6. Rules for the nourishment of plants
7. Rules for the protection of trees
8. Treatment of plants
9. Good and Evil omens relating to residence near trees
66 Kiraval Shini. M.V
10. Glory of trees

11. Construction of gardens.
In this paper some of the main topics of Vkyurveda
are discussed
Selction of soil
Ayurveda and Vkyurveda texts have elaborated the
soil types and the plants. The land is three types - jangala,
antapa and samanya. It is further divided in to six on the basis
of their colour and their Rasa - black, pale, blue, red, white
and yellow and according to taste sweet, acid, salty. Sour,
bitter and pungent.
rgadharcryasays in the Vkyurveda that land
that is bad, which is full of poisonous matter, stones, ant
andwhich has water at deep level is not favourable for trees.1
Another loka says the land which is even which has wa-
ter nearby, which is full of green trees and sprouts of grass in
that all trees grow in suitable places.2 It is neither the Jangala
nor the chantapa it is the sadharana land which is auspicious.
All kinds of trees grows on it, there is no doubt about it3.
Rules for sowing of seeds
Here are discussed some processes to be carried out on the
seeds before they are shown. They include processing with
ghee, honey, and cow dung. Extracting the seed from a fruit
that has ripened in due season and has been properly dried
and having socked it in milk, drying it for five days then fu-
migate it with ghee mixed with vidanga. A seed soaked in
milk and smear all over with the ashes of Bhati and tila and
with ghee, rubbed with cow dung and fumigated with fat and
then sown, grows at once. Vkyurveda described in the
Vkyurveda Kiraval 67
6th loka as- Having bathed becoming pure putting on clean

garments worshipping the gods, doing obeisance to precep-
tor gifting. Money or lands to a meritorious man one should
himself in the beginning, after mentally paying obeisance to
the presiding deity of the field and then the attendants should
sow the entire field.4
Methods of propagation
Vanaspati, druma, lata and gulma are the four types of
plants. They grow from seed, stalk or bulb. Thus the planting
is of three kinds. Those which bear fruits without flowers are
vanaspati, those which bear fruits with flowers are druma.
Those which spread with tendrils are lata. Those which are
very short but have branches are gulma. In the 3rd chapter
he says that Jambu, champaka, punnaga, nagakesara, tama-
rind, kapittha, badari, bilva, kumbhakari, priyangu, panasa,
amra, madhuka, karamarda etc grow from seeds.5 Thambuli,
sinduvara, tagara etc. grow from stalks. Saffron wet ginger,
garlic, ebony grow from bulbous root. Ela, red lotus, blue
water lily and others grow both from seeds as well as from
bulbs.6
Process of plantation
Which plants should be planted in a particular season.
Some diagrammatic schemes of plantation are also elaborat-
ed. The system of planting is discussed in the Vkyurveda
one should plant trees or sow them in a piece of land, which
is even pleasant, from which are obtained scattered heaps of
flowers, sesamum, msa and others has been ploughed. For
the growth of trees the distance between the trees of four-
teen, sixteen and twenty cubits is considered respectively to
be bad, middling and excellent. The distance between shrubs

is to measure five or four cubits and likewise by effort it
should be three or two cubits between pga tree and others.
The preparation of pits for planting the trees are also well
described. It says- plant the trees in a pit, measuring one cubit
from all sides, well burnt, filled with bones of cows and cow
dung. rgadharcrya described process of plantation in
Vkyurveda - In the month of dhaone may sow the
seeds and plants according to will.7
The places for different plants and trees are also given. In
the East karamarda and bamboo trees, in the south prvata,
in the North Badar and kapittha trees and Dhtri in the west
are auspicious. Other plants with best fibrous roots in the
the middlle and worst are to be planted along with of other
groups, by providing due distance in between so their leaves
at the top do not touch.8
Rules for the Nourishment of plants
Here are some recipes for nourishment of plants. Trees
newly planted are to be prevented from heat. The trees are
new till sprouts and similar appear. Every body should weed
out grass from areas of proximity and a wise man should dig
out with a spade the proximate area near roots of the trees.
The grape vine after the application of the power of the stool
of a cock and watered well with the water of fish and flesh
become bent with flowers and fruits.
Treatment of plants
Treatment of plants described in the Vkyurveda. Liber-
al fumigation, done gently of oil of porpoise with soap berry
cows horn, horses hair and ghee boiled in it and the lymph
of a hog, removes quickly the diseases by wind. rgad-

harcrya discussed in Vkyurveda. One should destroy
insects water containing milk kunapa water Lodhra, vac and
cow dung and by plastering with Siddhartha. must grass
vac, kuha and ativia co-poisonous but medical plant.9
The 12th loka of Vkyurveda says - Tied lightly
after joining it with rope made of paddy straw plastered with
the plka and udumbara, ghee, honey wine and water. Trees
burnt with fire besmeared with the paste of lotus plant over
all parts and irrigated with kunapa water and milk, become
the best among trees10.
Glory of trees
This deals with the importance of planting. It seems that
the importanance of planting is cosidered as dharma. Agni-
pura tells us that the cutting of a plant is an offence. Manu
exhorts that the cutting is a crime and deserves punishment.
All the text in Vkyurveda praise the glory of trees in
many ways. In rgadhara glory of plants is discussed in
twenty verses.

(Vk. ch. 10.2)
He who plants Bilva, which is pleasant to ankara in his
family lakmi the for sons and grandsons remains constantly
immovable. A man who according to prescribed rules, plants
even a solitary Avatha tree, whenever or whichever place,
he goes to the abode of hari11.The mortal who plants two vata
treesaccording to the prescribed procedure, also goes to the
world of siva served by groups of heavenly damsels. There
is no doubt that a man by planting four plaka trees obtains
the merit of Rajasuya sacrifice. He, who plants knowingly

or even unknowingly a jambu tree, while living in the house,
is associated with the rules an ascetic. He who one Avatha
one neem, one Nyagrodha, ten Tamarind tree, the Kapitha
Bilva and Gooseberry tree and reservoir with five mango
trees, does not see the hell.
Conclusion.
Vkyurveda tells us about plants and methods of agri-
culture. The information on this branch of Ayurveda is found
scattered in many text books. A chapter in rgadhara's
text upavanavinoda deals with this branch. Surutasamhita
and Bhatsamhita also contain knowledge regarding botan-
ical sciences. The botanicaland agricultural accepts were
also brought out by rgadhara. He provides microscopic
details of land, preparation of land, seeds and seedlings etc.,
for agricultute. From this we can understand the life style and
influence of farming among ancient people. It helps us to re-
alise a fact that even today our farmers follow many farming
techniques that practiced by ancient people.
Notes
1.
(Vkyurveda ch. 1.3)
2.

(Vkyurveda ch. 1.4)
3.
(Vkyurveda, ch. 2.3)
4.

(Vkyur. ch. 2.6)
5.

(Vkyur ch. 3.4)
6.

(Vk.ch.3-5,6,7)
7.

(Vkyurveda ch.4-7)
8.
(Vk.ch. 4.14)
9.

(Vk.ch. 8.11)
10.

(Vk. ch.8.12)
11.
10.7
Works cited
Ouseph, P. V., Dr. Vkyurvedam. Thrissur: Kerala Forest
Protective Staff Association, 1999. Print.
Commentaries on Anargharghava -
A survey
Deepa K.B.
Anargharghava
Anargharghava is a play in seven acts written by Murri,
son of Bhaavardhamna and Tantumat. The plot of the dra-
ma is the story of Rma up to his coronation. Murris drama
was so famous that it was also known as Murrinaka and
Murri as Balavlmki. He is a Sanskrit dramatist who lived
in the 8th century A.D in India(Mani 512). Anargharghava
is a poem than a drama and Murri himself presents it in
this manner in the act seven of his Anargarghava. Out of
five- hundred- sixty -seven verses quoted in Anargharghva,
we find as many as one hundred twenty nine verses from
Anargharghava quoted in anthologies(Sternback 3). In
the writing of drama Murri has excelled the Mahvracar-
ita of Bhavabhti and his verses indicate he had the style of
Mgha(Jayachandran 124).
Commentaries on Anargharghava
Some important commentaries of this drama are the
k of Rucipati, Pacika of Viu, Irthakalpavall of
Lakmdhara, k of Ka and Praka of Rmacandra
Mira.
Pacika
The author of this commentary is Viu. The name of his
Vikramya on Anargharghava Kiraval 73
father was Muktintha or Muktinthrya. But in several man-

uscripts his surname is mentioned by different names Bhaa,
Bharaka, Sri and arman. However, several manuscripts
agree that his first name was Viu. None of these manu-
scripts does not provide information about his personal life.
Similarly the date of composition of this commentary is also
not mentioned. An imperfect or incomplete Telugu script of
this Pacika was published from Mysore in 1905(Bhat xxi).
This Pacika was critically edited from Pondichery in 1998
by B.R. Harinarayana Bhat.
Ceriyapacik
This Ceriyapacik is a brief commentary on the drama
Anargharghava. However, only a single copy of manuscript
is available (xx).
Praka
Praka is a commentary on Anargharghava written in
Hindi and Sanskrit. The author is Rmacandra Mira. It was
published from Varanasi in the year 1960. In this commen-
tary, quotations from ancient commentaries are added. The
style of composition is very clear and lucid.
Itrthakalpavall
The author of this commentary is Lakmdhara. He is
also known by the name Rmnandrama. He was born in
the family Carukri which belonged to Kyapa gotra of
Bhavaca kha. The native place of Lakmdhara was on
the banks of the river Ka in Andhra Pradesh. This place
was well known for Vedic learning. His father was Yaje-
vara and grandfather Timmaya Somayjin. Lakmdhara led
a family life for some years, but later he accepted asceticism
and became a Sanysi under the name Rmnandrama. His
commentary Irthakalpavalli was published from Mysore
74 Kiraval Deepa K.B
in the year 1905 (xix).

k of Ka
k is a brief commentary on Anargharghava which
was written by Ka, the son of Varadarja. It is not pub-
lished till this time. This is a very good commentary. Be-
sides that, this manuscript contains very valuable information
about Dramaturgy and many other subjects. Unfortunately,
not much knowledge is available about the commentator of
k(xx).
ippaa of prasarasvat
The author of ippaa a commentary on Anarghargha-
va, is Prasarasvat. He was a poet and commentator from
Kerala. His life time is supposed to be between the second
half of the thirteenth century and the first half of the four-
teenth century A.D(Unnithiri 163-78).
Hariharadkitya
Harihara the author of Hariharadkitya was the son of
Bhaa Nsimha who belonged to Bhradvjagotra. He was
the disciple of Appaycrya. His master helped him to ac-
quire deep knowledge in Mmmsa, Vednta and Logic. He
also gained great knowledge in Grammar and Koagrantha.
His commentary Hariharadkitya was published from My-
sore in the year 1905(Bhat xviii-xix).
k of Rucipati
The k of Rucipati is considered as the most antique
available commentary on Anargharghava. The commenta-
tor Rucipati belonged to the Khauvla family. He was one
of the scholars in the court of the king Bhairava who was
also known by the name Harinryaa (xviii). In his book
History of Classical Sanskrit Literature, M. Krishnamachari-
ar identifies the King Bhairava with the Bhairava the son of
Vikramya on Anargharghava Kiraval 75
the king Narasimha who reigned Orissa during the thirteenth

century A.D(Krishnamachariar 639).
Vikramya and its significance
Among the commentaries, Vikramya (MS No. T.117),
a commentary on Anargharghava, was written during the
15th century AD. The author of this commentary is a Zam-
orin of Calicut, who reigned that region during that period.
He was known as Mnavikrama.
In this Commentary various rules prescribed in different
treatises on dramaturgy are applied. The structure of Anar-
gharghava has been analysed for the most part according
to Daarpaka. He applied grammatical rules in such a way
that they do not hinder appreciation of the word in a given
context. The explanation of words and sentences are clear
and full. The samsas and brief comments in the Vikramya
are an efficient way to make the poetic imagination of Anar-
gharghava. The figures of speech are clear and explicit.
Thus, they are a useful aid for the appreciation and under-
standing of this work. The scholarship of the author in sever-
al branches of knowledge can be inferred from the references
to Smtis, Koagranthas etc., in the Vikramya.
Besides these, there are many other commentaries ex-
isted both published and unpublished. Some of them are
Anargharghavavykhya by Jinaharaga, Anarghargha-
vavykhya by Tripurri, Anargharg- havavykhya by
Naracandra Sri, Rahasydara by Devaprabha, Yao-
datharpaka by Dhanevarakavi, Ghrthadpika by
Dharna- nda, Anargharghavavykhya by Puruottama,
Anargharghavavyk- hya by Bhavantha, Anarghargha-
vavykhya by Rucipatidatta written under the patronage of
Bhairavendradeva of Mithila about the end of the fifteenth
76 Kiraval Deepa K.B
century, Ttparyadpik by Viupadita son of Raga

Bhaa, Anargharghavavykhya by rindhi completed in
A.D. 1518(Raghavan 191-93).
There are more than fifteen commentaries available on
Muraris Anargharghava. Among them Vikramya com-
mentary is most comprehensive. It is composed on the basis
of all the definitions of a commentary. Through this commen-
tary the commentator exposes his deep knowledge in several
branches of Sanskrit literature. The Vikramya proves a use-
ful commentary on Anargharghava valuable for understand-
ing the aesthetic value of a play.
Works Cited
Bhat, Harinarayana, B.R, ed.The Commentary of Visnubhatta on the
Anargharaghava of Murari. Pondichery: Institut Francais De Pondi-
chery, Ecole Francaise DExtreme-Orient, 1998. Print.
Jayachandran, T.N, ed.Akhila Vijnanakosam. Vol. 1. Kottayam: D.C.,
1988. Print.
Krsnamacaryar, M.A History of the Classical Sanskrit Literature. Ma-
dras: Tirumalai Tirupati Devasthanam, 1937. Print.
Mnavikrama.Vikramya Vykhynasahitam Anargharghavam. N.d.
MS MS. No. T. 117. Oriental Research Institute and Manuscripts
Library, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram.
Raghavan, V., ed.New Catalogus Catalogorum. an Alphabetical Register
of Sanskrit and Allied Works and Authors. Comp. K. Kunjunni Raja,
C. S. Sundaram, and N. Veezhinathan. Madras: U of Madras, 1966.
Print.
Sternbach, Ludwik.Verses Attributed to Murari. Lucknow: Akhila
Bharatiya Sanskrit Parishad, 1978. Print.
Unnithiri, N.V P., Dr. Prasarasvati- His Life and Works.Journal of
Kerala Studies(1982): 163-78. Print.
Vettammani.Puranic Encyclopaedia: A Comprehensive Dictionary with
Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, 1975. Print.
Bhakti in Different Perspectives
Giji Augustin
Bhakti is a term that has acquired a specific definition and
technical meaning. The current theories about Bhakati de-
scribe it as a religion and a cult and also as a doctrine and the-
ology. Bhakti means a loving devotion to a personal God, love
for Him, and dedication of everything to His service.
The concept of Bhakti in different perspectives
The word Bhakti is derived from the root Bhaj by adding
the suffix ktin Bhaj can be used in any of following meanings
to partake of, to engage in, to turn and resort to, pursue, to de-
clare for, to practice or cultivate, to prefer or choose, to serve
and honor to love and adore. The suffix ktin is usually added
to verb to form and action (Pini, Adhyyi 3.3.94.). Thus
Bhakti can mean participation as well as recourse, experience
as well as practice reverence as well as love and adoration. Ac-
cording to the rules of Panini, Bhakti indicates a bhva or con-
dition (3.3.18). In Adhyyi Pini uses the word in the sense
of excessive fondness and devotion, and illustrates the meaning
by relating it with different objects and personalities (4.3.95-
100). In general Bhakti means love of God and a way of life.
Nrada and ndilya the most authoritative theoreticians on
Bhakti, have described it as follows. According to Nrada, it is
the wholehearted and supreme love of God - stvasmin para-
mapremarpa. He says that besides deep attachment Bhakti
denotes dedication of all ones action to God and also a feeling
of deep anguish in forgetting Him(Nradabhakti Stra 19).
78 Kiraval Giji Augustin
ndilya defines Bhakti as s parnuraktirisvare, which
means the highest form of ensuring an ever continuing attach-
ment to God. The Nrada Bhakti stra then states that: - Ac-
cording to the son of Parara, Bhakti is an attachment to the
worship of God (Nrada Bhaktistra 16), according to Garga,
Bhakti is a fondness for hearing the various stories of the Lord
(Nrada Bhakti stra 17). According to ndilya Bhakti is
such attachment to God, which is not opposed to self (Nrada
Bhakti Stra 18). Thus, it is apparent that by the time the Bhak-
ti stras were written there were several definitions of Bhak-
ti, indicating several schools of thought and the Bhakti stras
were possibly written to harmonize all the know views. There is
another Bhakti stra called Bhaktimmmsa stra of unknown
authorship. According to this text, the highest object of human
striving should not be moka but Bhakti.
As M.M.Gopinath Kaviraj has observed the rejection of
moka as the supreme end of human aspirations follows as a
necessary corollary from the conception of Bhakti as in itself
the highest form of bliss, higher indeed. So it is boldly declared
than Brahmnanda which is revealed in moka (Bhaktimi-
mamsastra 4.1-7).
ankara in his commentary on the Bhagavad Gita says that
worship is Bhakti (8/19, 14/26) (Bhananam Bhakti) and defines
Ananyabhakti (11/54.) as non-experience of anything oth-
er than Vsudeva. ankara gives an excellent definition on of
Bhakti in his famous work Vivekacudamani
Mokakarana smagrym bhaktireva garyasi .
Svarpnusandhnam bhaktirityabhidhyate.(32)
Sankara says in Bhagavad-Gita Bhasya Ksna is so called be-
cause he draws away sins of his devotes-
Bhakti jnappdikarat kah (6/34)
The Bhakti described by Mayideva in the Anubhavastra is
Bhakti in Different Perspectives Kiraval 79
not like the vaiavabhakti, an attempt involving a sense, du-
ality between the worshipper and the worshipped, but as re-
vealing pure oneness or complete identify with God .the iden-
tify of self with iva, the highest reality is also admitted in the
RudraSamhita of the iva-mahpura which, however identi-
fies with jna (Majumdar 1965, 9). In the sat-sthala doctrine,
propounded by Myideva Bhakti has been identified with akti
(Das Gupta 60-64).
rpati, the well-known aiva commentator of the Brahma
Stra, disagreed with them and introduced the doctrine of the
necessity of Bhakti with knowledge (Majumdar, p. 9).
Among the aiva teachers also the definition and concept of
Bhakti are different. Allama, the teacher of Basava preached on
the intellectual type of Bhakti which consist of a constant and
unflinching meditation and realization of the ultimate reality of
all things with iva. Reukcrya also described Bhakti prac-
tically in the same phraseology, being probably influenced by
Allama (Das Gupta 54).
According to Bhaskara, the great commentator attachment
[raga] to Brahman is an essential condition for attaining lib-
eration and is the same as worship (samrdhana) or Bhakti
(Majumdayar 6)
According to Vallabha, Bhakti in the firm and overwhelm-
ing affection for God with a full sense of his greatness thought
which alone there can be emancipation (8). A.K.Majumdar,
says that ri Chaitanys conception of Bhakti was almost the
same (Majumdar, 1969, 299-307).
Protagonist of Bhakti was Rmnuja to whom meditation
(dhyna) and devotion were interchangeable terms. Comment-
ing on the first aphorism of the Brahmastra his states Med-
itation is a continuity of steady remembrance of this kind is
expressed by the word devotion (Bhakti) for this term has the
80 Kiraval Giji Augustin
same meaning upsana (Majumdar, 1965, 6). Thus, according
to Ramanuja, continuous meditation is Bhakti which is Syn-
onym of upsana .
In the vedrthasamgraha, Rmnuja says that Bhakti is spe-
cial kinds of knowledge (jnaviea) which seeks to ignore
everything that is not done for the sake of vara (6). Howev-
er, Venkaantha (also known as Vedntadeika) the greatest
exponent of the viidvaita philosophy after Rmnuja , de-
clared Bhakti to be the feeling of joy (prti) in the adorable and
not mere knowledge. Emancipation as syjya with vara is
the result of such Bhakti (6). He says that affection for worthy
objects is Bhakti but joy, etc. is said to be a kind of knowledge
and Bhakti is meditation or thinking with affection.
According Madhavacharya Bhakti and jna are synonyms.
In his Anuvykhyna he writes jnasya Bhaktih Bagavan
Bhaktih (Sharma 9). Jna being a constituent of Bhakti the
latter is often referred to as jna, where the aspects of attach-
ment is sought to be emphasized there fusion is designated by
the term Bhakti. Bhati is a particular kind of jna.
In the same text Mdhva again declares - By Bhakti one
attains jna which leads to Bhakti. When perception which
again leads to Bhakti comes, and then comes Mukti which is
the essence of bliss and an end in itself (92-93). The suprem-
acy of Bhakti is made clear by Madhava in his commentary
on Brahma Stra where he observers that the souls essential
nature does not become fully manifested without Bhakti (III-
ii-19).
Works Cited
Dasgupta, Surendranath.A History of Indian Philosophy. Vol.
5. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1955. Print.
Majumdar, Asoke Kumar.Bhakti Renaissance. Bombay:
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1965. Print.
Majumdar, Asoke Kumar.Caitanya, His Life and Doctrine; a
Bhakti in Different Perspectives Kiraval 81
Study in Vaisnavism. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan,
1969. Print.
Prabhupada, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami.Narada-bhak-
ti-sutra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love. Los Angeles:
Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 1991. Print.
Sandilya, Manmathanath Paul, and Svapnesvara.The One
Hundred Aphorisms of Sandilya, with the Commentary of
Svapnesvara. Allahabad: Panini Office, 1911. Print.
Sharma, B. N. Krishnamurti.Sri Madhvas Teachings in His
Own Words. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1979. Print.
Enactment of Bhsa's Plays in
Kerala Theatre
Dhanasurjith. D
Bhsa is an eminent dramatist ever in the history of San-
skrit drama. He is an exception among other playwrights
because he has transgressed the restriction on Sanskrit dra-
mas especially the rules depicted by Bharata. He rubbed off
the traditional concepts and made a straightforward realistic
view throw all his plays. Ganapati Sastri rediscovered thirteen
Plays in the form of palm leaves from Manalikkaramaam
and other sites of Thiruvananthapuram. Ganapathi Sastri has
published all these thirteen works in the years between 1912
and 1915.
Bhsa has taken the plot from the Epic Mahabharata for
writing his six plays. They are Pacartra, Madyamavyyoga,
Dtavkya, Dtakhatotkaca, Karabhra, and rubhaga.
He took the plot from the Epic Ramayana for the narration of
Pratimantaka and Abhiekanaka, also Svpnavsavadaa,
Pratijyougandharyaa, Avimraka and Crudaa from
the popular legend. The plot of Blacarita was taken from the
legend of lord Kria. Ganapati Sastri assigns these plays to
the period between 6 B C to 4 B C.
Enactment of Bhsa's Plays Kiraval 83
Bhsa's plays presented in Kerala theatre in the form

of Kthu and Ktiya in traditional temple theatre
(Kthapalam) by Ckyars, the traditional performers.
There were hints to the presentation of Bhsa's plays from
early years in the Ktiyam theatre at Vennimala and Vel-
lur temples near Kottayam.
The journey of lord Krishna as Dta (messenger) in
Dtavkya in the star swathi , ephalikka (4th Act) of
Svpnavsavadaa in the star Jyet (Trikketta) Toraayud-
ha (3rd act) of Abhiekanaka in atatra (Cathayam),
Khatotkacka of Dtakhatotkaca in Revathi, Blivadka
(1st act) of Abhiekanaka, Mallka of Balacarita in Kith-
ika, beginning of the journey by stage manager (Stradhra)
in the month of Kumbham in Rohii and Blacarita had a
presentation on the festival occasion of Vellore mana.
The stage manuals such as ttaprakara and Kramadpika
contains the details of staging a play. A form of performance
of Sanskrit drama in Kerala is known as Ktiya. Ck-
yars had done their best for popularizing Sanskrit dramas.
Mantrka is an adapted version of the Pratijyougand-
haryaa (third Act) which is most popular among the stage
presentation of Sanskrit drama. Some references of Blacari-
ta have noticed in the Ntakalakaaratnakoa of Sgaranan-
din (55, 78). nkuntalavyky was an anonymous work,
which indicates Mallka of Blacarita has performed in the
Ckyr tradition.
Beginning of the festival of Vellure temple is usually in the
84 Kiraval Dhanasurjith. D
month of Siha. Public performance would happen on be-
half of the temple festival starting with the performance with
the beginning of stradhra in Blacarita in the star Puya
(Raja 64). Samudrataranka of Abhiekanaka (4th Act)
is in the star lea. Viccinnka of Pratimantaka in
Mrga, Dtakhatotkacka of Dtakhatotkaca in the Citra,
Citraphalakka of (6th act) and ephalikka (4thAct) of
Svpnavsavadaa in Swathi star, Mantrka of Pratijyou-
gandharyaa in the star Prvda, Mallka (5th Act) of
Blacarita was in vaa. Pothiyil Ckyr and Peruayil
Ckyr were the traditional successors of the Vellur temple.
Pothiyil Ckyrs also performed Ktiyam at Vennimala
temple (Chakyar 298). There were many portions of Bhsa's
plays has represented in Ktiya theatre. Vicchinnka,
Vilapka, Pratimka, Atavyka, Ravaka,Bharat-
ka and Ceriyabhieka (Small Coronation) of Pratimntaka.
Blivadka, Hanumaddtka, Toraayudhka, Samun-
drataranka, Maystka, Prathamadvtiyka, Valiyab-
hieka of Abhiekanaka. Dtakhatotkacka of Dtakha-
totkaca, Bhmadtka, Gograhaka and Vttka (3rd
&5th act) of Pacartra, Mallka of Blacarita, which may
be the famous performance. One noted performance of Kli-
ykakttu has been mentioned in the inscription of Tiruval-
la (Unni 209, 270).
There were many hints that 'Avimraka' was presented
in Ku. For instance, Anotka, Dtka, Abhisrikka,
Parvka and Madamedka, all acts of Svpnavsavadaa
were staged in Kthapalam in the name of Brahmacary-
ka, Panthattka, ephalikka, Puthudka, Svapnka and

Citraphalkka. Whole acts of Pratijyougandharyaa
has performed in Ktiya in the name of Mahasen-
ka, Mantrka, Arattka and so on. Madyamavyyoga,
Karabhra, Crudatta were not performed in Ktiya,
However D. Appukkuttan Nair, a veteran in Ktiya the-
atre, says in the introduction of Ntyakalpadruma of Mani
Madava Ckyar that Vasanthasenka of Crudatta have
performed by Ckyars long ago(Nair 24-33).
CDPA (Centre for Documentation of Performing Arts)
has presented Dtavkya in Vellur temple. Kramadipika
of Dtavkya has been collected from Kidangur Kuttappan
Ckyr. Here in the Dtavkya presentation by CDPA give
the virtuous green for the character Duryodhana .Other well
known performance are Blivadka (Act 1), Toranayud-
hka (3rd Act) of Abhiekanaka. Death of Bli in Bal-
ivadka is a tremendous performance ever in Ktiya.
Prvativiraha and Kailasodharaa are the firm stands perfor-
mance in Ktiya. Spectators feel a thrill in the scene of
Bli's expression when he become fell down by the Arrows
of Srrma. At first, the character Bli performed in front of
the traditional lamp in stage slipping steps then fell down.
He utters the verses in tired voices with an affliction mood.
The dialogue presentation of Duryodhana was a tremendous
one in Ktiya, at first normally, then without clarity
in voice then after expression became blind and producing
the breathing of death Orderly, Kudran, Tamakan, Cinnan,
Mahan, rden. In between the breathing, Cinnan resists the
breathing then at last, he is slipping to death with a state of
death in his eyes towards south sides. Traditional Indian view
reveals that south indicates the symbol of death.
CDPA performed the Dtakhatotkacka of Dtakha-
totkaca. Margi Madhu presented a great performance of
Karabhra. rubhaga has performed by Ammannur
Chachu chakyar Smarakagurukulam. Kliyga is a not-
ed performance in Ktiya by Mani Madhava Chakyar
Smarakagurukulam. Gograhanankaga of Pacartra has
performed by Paikulam Ramachakyar Smaraka Kalapeed-
am. The portion of Complete place of Bhsa truly with an
enlarged form in Ktiya artists have been performing
in Kerala theatre. Professor P Gangadharan has directed
Karabhra with a new approach on the behalf of campus
theatre at Pattambi Sanskrit College, Palakkad in Kerala on
15th December 1986. In his presentation visualized with the
story of the life of Kara in a flash back mode, For instance,
the curses of Brhmaasapa and the teacher Paraurma.
Chandradasan, the famous director has presented Karab-
hra at Trippunithura Boy's High School, Kerala in 1992.
Lokadharmi is the theatre group of Chandradasan, Which
has presented 321 presentation of Karabhra all around
India. Last presentation of Karabhra was at Malappuram
(Kadavalloor) related to the Kadavallor Annyonyam festival.
The first name of the theatre group was Bhasabheri. Then
after 1997, they renamed the troupes name into Lokadharmi
(Chandrasekharan 12).
Lokadharmi in their whole presentation portrayed the

relevance of socio-political aspects in its contemporary sce-
nario during their presentations. Chandradasan presented his
first performance with in a new up gradation atmosphere of
Mandal commission report also the 'systematical' and crucial
approaches of V. P Sing in administration(13). In fact, the
death of Kara is happened after the removal of his ear arms
as offerings to a Brahmana (Inda). The character of Kara
is not in a negative sense; Vysa himself evaluates about the
qualities of Kara in the Mahbhrata. The nature of Kara
is the willingness to keep his words into fulfill in any case.
The death of Kara also depicts the importance of offering.
His life is struggle between war and humidity until his great
death.
In the play production, Chandradasan provides a space as
well as Brahmanas in the stage vertical and horizontal walk
able area and the space for Kara in the middle of the Brah-
min groups on stage. Several symbolic representations in-
cluded in the play production in the plays of Bhsa. Indeed,
the theme of the play is the removal individual identity with
firm divinity. Chandradasan used some sign to indicates the
God Sun, which is made of bamboo in the hand of Kara,
Pictures of Sun in the Curtain visualize the representation
of Sun. Red and blue clothes used to represent Kara. Inda
approached Kara, white and yellow color used to denoting
him. Instruments separately used for main characters. The
Mizhavu used to represent the character Kara as ferocious
expression. Idayka, which produce a smooth sounds for de-
noting Inda. Lokadharmi has produced a tremendous perfor-
mance of Karabhra as a street play at Petta junction near
Trippunithura in Kerala.
Kavalam Narayana Panikkar directed most of the Bhsa's
plays in to the Kerala stage and world theatre with several
individual innovations. Bhsabhrathi, the institute of theatre
is the contribution of Kavalam Narayana Panikar to the Ker-
ala theatre. He dismantled the traditional standpoint of the
Kerala Theater. Sopanam (Theatrical group of Kavalam) has
presented Madyamavyyoga in 1979, Karabhra in 1984,
rubhaga in 1987, Svpnavsavadaa in 1993, Dtavk-
ya 1996, Pratijyougandharyaa 1999, Crudaa 2004
and related to several conferences and Seminar Bhsa have
been staged in many occasions. In fact, all these plays de-
constructed the debate on the problems of tragedy, death rep-
resentation, faith and humor in Indian theatre. Nevertheless,
the socio-political and ethical attitude from the epic period to
contemporary periods represents as the part of his thoughts.
Conclusion
Bhsa is the incontrovertible great playwright, who has
paid a passionate structure to the Indian dramatics features,
theoretically, which may be against the rules and boundaries
of the same tradition. Presentation of the plays free tongued
that there is no decline to the stage presentation of Sanskrit
plays. The nature and boundaries of Sanskrit play has made
the limit to present the play into performance. Here is the
relevance of Bhsa's plays. Bhsa has the ability to analyze
life. He discussed about the livelihood of people, social as
well as political life, and social reality through his plays. The
rules regarding the plot, that might have taken from the epics
Ramayaa and Mahbhrata and so on, had limited his se-
lection. Nevertheless he challenged the society by changing
the plot to his intentions. For instance, he narrated the play
Pacartra, without Mahabharata- war and raised a question
was peace possible? Actually if there is no war, Bhagavatg-
ta might not be the part of the Mahbhrata.All these plays
reveal the importance of humanity and the salient features of
the politics and poetry.
Works Cited
Chakyar, Mani Madhava. Natyakalpadrumam. Cheruthuruthy:
Kerala Kalamandalam, 1975. Print.
Chandradasan. Bhasanatakangal. Grandhalokam 60 (2010):
12+. Print.
Nair, D.Appukkuttan. Introduction. Introduction.
Natyakalpadrumam. By Mani Madhava. Chakyar. Cheru-
thuruthy: Kerala Kalamandalam, 1975. 24+. Print.
Raja, K. Kunjunni. Kutiyattam, an Introduction. New Delhi:
Sangeet Natak Akademi, 1964. Print.
Sagaranandin. Natakalakshan a-ratna-kosha of Sagaranandin.
Ed. Babulal Shukla Shukla. Varanasi: n.p., 1972. Print.
Unni, N. P. Bhasa Afresh: New Problems in Bhasa Plays. Delhi:
Nag, 2001. Print.
A New Approach to Vnara Race in
Vlmkirmya
Sandhya Mohan
Vlmkirmyaa is considered as the first ornate poet-
ry written in Sanskrit. It has highly influenced the life and
culture of the Indians. Rmyaa gives a clear view about
the political and social life, philosophy, religious beliefs of
ancient Indians. It familiarizes different cultures, lifestyles,
traditions and value systems. In an analytical and critical in-
vestigation, a comprehensive picture of ancient Indian cul-
ture and civilization is seen reflected in the Rmyaa of
Vlmki.
Vlmkirmyaa is arguably the oldest surviving ver-
sion of Rmakath tells the full story of Rma, which high-
ly influenced Indian culture and literature. This epic has
been flowing for a long period through the nerves of Indian
traditions and it is palpitating in the soul of all Indians. It
describes the thoughts and feelings of people belonging to
various folks. It depicts the social, political, economical, re-
ligious and spiritual life of ancient Indians. In brief, Rmaya-
na is the first epic which gives a clear and complete picture of
the culture and civilisation of ancient Indians.
Vlmki uses a vast canvas to draw the exhaustive life sit-
uations. It includes the birth and death, education, marriage,
food, dressing styles, Vlmki proficiently presents a line of
Vnara Race in Vlmkirmya Kiraval 91
staring characters in Vlmkirmyaa. It includes different

types of non-human characters like Rkasas, Asuras, Ngas,
Yakas, Kinnaras, Gandharvas, Apsaras and Vnaras also.
Among these the features of Vnara race are very interesting.
The concept of 'Race' included any essential groups of
people, which held them to display inherent, heritable per-
sistent or predictive characteristics and which thus had a
biological or a quasi biological basis. The idea of Race be-
comes a metaphor, helping define perceptions, even when the
language of race was not directly employed. The notion of
Race changed dramatically from the early century, when the-
orists speculated about the distinguishing political and moral
characters of so called ryan and non-ryan races that they
defined linguistically and environmentally, rather than in
evolutionary terms.
Vnaras in Vlmkirmyaa
Rmyaa acquaints different characters of Vnaras such
as Hanuman, Bali, Sugrva, Angada, Tara, Ruma etc.. They
are described behaving like human, nonhuman and divine
beings. Vnaras play a significant role in Vlmkirmyaa.
The Kikindhka mainly refers about Vnaras. Their
main role was to help Rma in searching St abducted by
Rvaa. Vlmki describes Vnaras as a group of people
wearing fine clothes and jewelry made of gold and precious
stones. They had cities, palaces and temples. They can speak,
fight and have some special powers. They are mentioned hav-
ing civilization and culture similar to that of other humans.
Vnaras literally means that they are forest dwellers.
Various views and opinions are aroused based on the name
Vnara. The Sanskrit word Vnara may be a shortened form
of Vnanara which literally means men of the jungle.'Vana'
92 Kiraval Sandhya Mohan
means jungle and 'Nara' means humans. The Samskrtan-

iruktakoa describes the term Vnara in another way - 'v
vikalpena nara Vnara', a species which is doubted to be
human beings.
Origin of Vnaras
In Vlmkirmyaa, the 17th Sarga of Blaka men-
tions about the origin of Vnaras. This Sarga, known as
Vnarotpatti, says that Vnaras are born from Devas. As
per the direction of Brahman, Devas gave birth to several
Vnaras in Apsara and Gandharva ladies for assisting the
Rmvatra of Viu. A list of Devas and their progenies is
given in Rmyaa. Indra and Srya gave birth to Bli and
Sugrva. Hanumn is the offspring of Vyu. Vivakarma,
Varua, Agni and Parjanya gave birth to Nala, Nla, Suea
and arabha respectively:
Vx i {jx x{h&*
xxp xpxp xVi*
O Vx V{xi{i &**
{iiVxk x *
xJx rxixk**
vxn i& x x Mxvnx&*
E iVxz x **
{E i& z%Mxo|&*
iV niSi xx** (I.17.9-12)
Besides the Devas, Yakas, Kinnaras, Ngas, Vidydha-
ras, s, Gandharvas, etc. also gave birth to Vnaras. Ki-
kindh-ka mainly refer about Vnara characters and
their lifestyle and activities. The Uttaraka explains the
birth-story of Bli and Sugrva. The Hanumaccarita portion
of Uttaraka describes the birth story and Blacarita of
Hanumn.
The Land of the Vnaras
Vlmkirmyaa contains several geographical refer-
ences. It has mentioned many of the places and gave details
of many Rivers and mountains. The habitat of Vnaras is
also illustrated with due importance.
Kikindh
In Rmyaa, Kikindh is described as the Vnara king-
dom and all the members of the Vnara race are located there.
It is the most populous territories of Vnaras. Kikindh has
a significant position in Vlmkirmyaa. This place is
identified as the regions around the Tugabhadr River near
present Hampi in Karnataka(Kapoor 381).
yamka Hill
yamka, is a hill, where Sugrva lived with Hanumn
during the period of his exile (III.72.12). Here he meets
Rma. This place also is found now with the same name.
Ajan Hill
Ajana hill is the birth place of Hanumn. As per the
direction of Sugrva he sends the Vnaras for living there
(IV.37.5). Sarga 33 of Kikindhka also refers Mahendra
mountain, the Himlayas, the Vindhya mountain, the peaks
of Kailsa, veta mountain, which are mostly inhabited by
monkeys.
Life Style and Character of Vnaras
In Rmyaa, Vlmki portrayed the Vnaras as a group
of species who are able to speak, fight, and they have su-
pernatural powers which enables them to change their forms
as they wish. They are educated and have their own family
life, ethics and culture. In the third Sarga of Kikindhka
Rma's opinion about Hanumn is:
xx Eh Eixxx v i*
i%xx x E\Sn{ni*
x J xj{ ] S il*
+x{ S Mj n& ni& CSi** (IV.3.29-30).
In the 5th Sarga of Kikindhka Sugrva told Rma
that he is a monkey, and does Rma wish to have friendship
with him.
ix iE Sk& |*
kSU n xh **
In this first Sarga Bli says Rma that he is an animal.
xS M x&*
B |EiE {i x&**
It seems from these references that Vnaras are mere an-
imals.
In the 18th Sarga of Kikindhka, Blisamvasana
Rma asks Bli why does he behave like a Vnara without
consulting the learnt masters:
+{] r{zx rxSix*
xS{iE kSU**
These features show that Vnara was a highly evolved
one closer to a human than monkey and they could not be
classified under animals. Dr. Kavitha Raman establishes that
Vnara has three natures - animal nature, human nature and
divine nature(Raman).
The social and cultural life of Vnaras are highly devel-
oped in Vlmki Rmyaa. This Vnara society was com-
posed of Rjasa and Sttvika Guas, with Rjasa Gua being
preponderant. Their family was of a loose structure and one
brother sought the help of an 'outsider' to kill his brother.
The wives moved from one brother to another and remained
pleased and satisfied. Sugrva secured the wife of Bli after

his death. The Vnara hero Hanumn stands out as a lone ex-
ception by being a celibate (Brahmacrin) and a real Bhakta
(devotee) and very wise and dependable emissary.
Vlmki's description of Bli's cremation and Sugr-
va's coronation contains the references of materials used by
Vnaras:
Sxnxx S nx EEhi ** (IV.25.14)
+RMnixx jh vx S *
Pi il Mxvx SSj xxi **
i i E QnMSU i * (IV.25.16-17)
ixi&{ | & *
|] Gxi O x **
+\Sxi n& I& *
i {hbVUj {Ei **
C S Vx nhb E *
il ixx h Vvx S ** (IV.26.22-24)
Cx S jh i Sx{x **
Mxvx S x lVxVx S * (IV.26.25-26)
|nJ Sj{i * (IV.26.31)
]{]VxEh {iEvVi *
xM EExvMM ** (IV.26.41)
But Vlmki called them as Kapi, even though their be-
havior and lifestyles were similar to that of humans.
Kamil Bulke says that the Vnaras are not monkeys, they
are really humans belonged to didrvida Gotra(Bulke 13-
32). He observes that Vnara is the symbol of flag of some
castes. These castes are also known as Vnara castes. Ac-
cording to him, Halman is a race of Chottanagpur, where the
meaning of the word Halman isa monkey. Bhurja caste in the

Simhabhuma is also known as Hanumn Vaa. They say
that they belonged to the Pavana Vaa. The Sanskrit name
Hanumn is believed as the transmuted form of the Dravia
word namanti, where 'n' means male and 'Manthi' means
monkey.
According to M. Sreenivasa Iyengar, the Vnaras of
Rmyaa are not monkeys even though their faces have
some close resemblance to them. They are black in colour
and have very strong and powerful body structure. They are
included in the ancient Drvida Gotra, their habitat is said to
have a continent that sunk in the sea(Iyengar 15).
In the absence of dependable internal evidence, various
scholars have made fanciful conjecture, regarding the identi-
ty of Vnaras. Ray in his work 'An Estimate of the civilisa-
tion of the Vnara as depicted in the Rmyaa', recognize
these with the 'Vratyas of the first migration', who had taken
to fresh and pastures new of the Decan on the advent of the
Aryan of the second migration(Sukla 201).
C.V Vaidya in his book 'The riddle of the Rmyaa'opines
that Vnaras were the aborigines of the south who were
called the name from their monkeyish appearance. They
were also like monkeys active, ferocious and given up to the
pleasure(Sukla).
According the C. Bulche in his 'Rmakatha: Utpatti Aur
Vikas' the Vnara were the aborigines of teh vindyas and
opines that the name Vnara was given to them either be-
cause 'Monkey' was their insignia or their totem(Sukla). In
our opinion as the poet describe in vivid colour the manners,
customs food and drinks and the royal family of Kiki'a, the
Vnara were in the contact of neighboring Aryans but most
of them were the wild mountainous tribes.

In some zoological studies realized that Vnara is an ani-
mal included in the animal kingdom Animalia. Vnara come
into the group of primates. The zoological peculiarities of
Vnara are
Kingdom -Annalia
Class -Mammals
Group -Primates
Family -Cercopithecidae
Subfamily -Cercopithecinae (collarbone)
Super-family -Ceropithecoidea
Genus -Colobus.
The Vnara are included in the family of Cercopitheci-
dae. They are more generalised, showing more omnivorous
dietary adaptation and distinctive check pouches for carrying
food. Lamark (French Botanic, his theory is known as La-
markism) and Hugo de Vries (Proposed theory of Mutation)
has put forward some outstanding assumption in connection
with the origin of species.
According to the geographical view, about four miles
south-east of Dhulev, the extensive ruins of an ancient town
near the modern village of Kalyapura is marked as the site
of ancient Kikindh.
Ajana hill
Ajana hill is mentioned in the Kikindhka (37.5) of
Vlmkirmyaa. It was situated in the Mahvana. Now it
is known as the Suleiman range in Panjab. yamka
In Vlmkirmyaa, Rma meets Hanumn and Sugrva
at yamka, a mountain situated eight miles from Angan-
di on the bank of the Tugabhadr. The river Pamp rises in
this mountain and falls into the Tugabhadr after flowing
westward. Setubandha
Setubandha or Rmasetu was built by Rma with the as-
sistance of Vnaras for crossing the sea over to Lak. The
island of Rmevaram is the first link in the chain of islands
forming the Adams bridge, between India and Ceylon. The
island contains the celebrated temple of Rmevarantha,
one of the twelve great Ligas of Mahdeva, said to have
been established by Rma on his way to Lak.
By the time of Rmyaa Ethnological and Anthropo-
logical concepts and knowledge of the Indian sufficiently
crystallised. Paleo-anthropologists have collected materials
and allowed to formulate their interpretations of human evo-
lution. The researchers found that early primitive Australo-
pithecines (Afarensis) have similarities with apes. They are
more primitive than later hominids. They walked two-footed.
Their interpretation is based upon many parts of the skeleton
(limbs, hands, feet, pelvis, etc.), which they have compared
with other hominids, as well as with great apes.
Evolutionary stages and absolute dates of ancient
man:
Archaeological Stage
Australopithecus-4000,000 - 2000,000
(Early stages of Palaeolithic)
Pithe canthropus-about 2000,000 to 200,000
(Later stages of lower Palaeolithic)
Neanderthal man-200, 000 40,000
(Middle Palaeolithic)
Modern Man -40,000 5,000
Upper Palaeolithic
Origin of Human race, Mesolithic Neolithic and
Early Bronze age
According to the Anthropological view, some antipodes

show many similarities with apes and some others with hu-
man. Vnaras of Rmyaa may be included in these antip-
odes. Many studies show that the behavior and physical a
feature of these two have some similarities.
The fossils of higher primates resembling modern an-
thropoids but at the same time differing from them in many
details of structure and forming extinct genera, have been
discovered in various places in Africa and Eurasia(Alexeeve
57).
Conclusion
Vnaras are the key to Rma's success in the
Vlmkirmyaa. Rmakatha of Vlmki will be incom-
plete or there are no Vnara characters. But many interpre-
tations and discussions are aroused on the social and histori-
cal identity of Vnaras described in Vlmkirmyaa. The
meaning of the word 'Vnara' it is quite interesting. 'Vanara?'
is a question asked in modern times. Vnara had some
facial features similar to that of an ape or a monkey and
also of human. Some of them are assumed to be the exot-
ic tribes. But the poet Vlmki called them both the same,
that is Kapi and Nara. These Vnaras represented a rare of
semi-human and semi-monkeys. Their social setup and cul-
ture of Vlmkirmyaa realized that it is not really human
or monkey. But it has some special characters of both human
or monkey. So the Vnara characters of Vlmki may be
imagined, otherwise it should be belonged to an anthropoid
family.
Works Cited
Alekseev, V. P. The Origin of the Human Race. Moscow: Pro-
gress, 1986. Print.
Bulke, Kamil. Rama-Katha:. Trans. Abhayadev. Thrissur: Ker-
ala Sahiya Academy, 1978. Print.
Iyengar, Sreenivasa, M. Tamil Studies. Trans. Chentarassery.
Thiruvananthapuram: Prabath Book House, n.d. Print.
Kapoor, Subodh. Encyclopaedia of Ancient Indian Geogra-
phy: Set in Two Volumes. Vol. II. New Delhi, India: Cosmo
Publications, 2002. Print.
Rajagopal, N.K. Samskrtaniruktakosha. Thiruvananthapuram:
Kerala State Institute for Language, 1999. Print.
Raman, Kavitha, Dr. Daranam, Svapnam - Rmya. Vij-
nanakairali 48.November (2011): n. pag.
Shukla, R. K. The Geography of the Ramayana. Delhi: Koshal
Book Depot, 2003. Print.
Analysis of Karmakaraka in
Krakatattva
Dr Leela.K.N
Vykaraa is the most prominent of the six vedgas.
Different systems of Sanskrit grammer has arisen in India, of
these, the school of Paini has always enjoyed greater popu-
larity because of its accuracy and thoroughness. The study of
sanskrits, grammer has been executed on two lines. One is
the philosophical treatment of grammer. In the other, gram-
mer is subjected to the prakriy style of treatment.
The Author
eacarpi of the 17th century A.D. is the author of
a scholarly work by name Krakatattva dealing with the
kraks. The author dealing with kraks in a scientific way
adopting the Navya Nyya style of expression. eacakrapi
came in the field of Sanskrit grammer preceeded by great
interpreters of Sanskrit grammar like Bharthari, kaiyata,
Bhaojidkita, Kauabhatta etc. He hails from a family
of hereditary scholars, settled down at Banaras. He is also
referred to as cakrpani, cakapipandita and cakrapidat-
ta. His father is eavrevara, panita Jaganntha referes
to eavrevara as his Guru. eacakrapi is the contem-
porary of Pandita Jaganntha. Who is assigned to the 17th
century by P.V. Kane.( 312)
eacakrapi is the authority of three grammatical work
102 Kiraval Dr Leela.K.N
is named krakatattva, prakriya pradpa and prouhamano-
ramakhandana.
Krakatatva the general nature of krakas
eacakrapi tries to explain what is meant by krakat-
va. He points out that by the term krakatva, he means that
quality which demarcates the cannotation of the expression
kraka and it is the awareness of this quality that makes pos-
sible a usage like kraka
oacakrapi gives a three fold explanation of krakatva viz.
+{nxivxii EEi (ii) ={nxvxii EEi
(iii) REixvx EEn: , EEi*
Kraka is a term used by pni in his Adhyyi.
Generally pinis technical terms are short just as 'ti', 'ghu',
'bham' etc. But the term kraka is a long one. The term kra-
ka has not been defined by pni. But the definition
'Eii EE' given by patajali conveys the idea to us.
Mahbhya reads 'ij i: i: Eh Bii|Vx +xlY
l Yi- 'Eii EE'(Mahbhaya 1-4-23) Ngea also
gives the same definition of karaka is 'GxiEi GVxE
i Bharthari is the chief advocate of the theory that kra-
ka is the capacity to produce an action.( Vkyapadya, III,
Sdhana samudea 1)
In Krakatattva, he defines krakatattvam as 'i : ii
EEh ii EEii' In Karakatattva the author deals with
the nature of karakas in general as well as in particular kar-
makaraka - eacakrapi defines karma karaka as '{i
iGVx viliSUnE i ikG E' It means that
one which is the abode of the fruit which demarcates the ac-
tion, denoted by a root and residing in an abode other then
the one mentioned, is deemed to be the krmakraka of that
action. In the sentence 'OMSUi' O Mi etc. grama is
Analysis of Karmakraka Kiraval 103
the karmakaraka of gamanakriya, since the fruit M demar-

cating the action MxG denoted by the root M resides in
grama and since the action MxG resides in the one, the
other then the grama. Here the part {i in the definition
excludes devadatta from being designated as karmakaraka in
the sentence 'nHk: O MSUi' so also the part viiiSUnE
excludes {n being designated as karmakaraka in the same
sentence. This is taught by the rule 'Ei{k E' (1-4-49) .
esacakrapani adds that in the sentence {Si nnkx
Ynk: Devadatta is the abode the fruit viz pakavyapara which
demarcates the casual action denoted by thehVxi root and
residing in Ynk different from devadattva and so Devadatta
can be rightly characterized as the karmakraka of the caus-
al action. Hence he points out that the rule Mir|ix-
lnE EEhh Ei h (1-4-52) is a xj which
restricts EY to the |VEi of the roots mentioned in
the said rule.
By the rule 'Ei{k E' (1-4-49) Pini defines that
karman is what the agent ( kart) seeks most to attain by his
action. Bharthari says that this karman is of three main kinds
and four minor kinds.( Vkyapadya, III 45& 46)
They are
xiS E\S |{\Si jv i
iSShii E Sivxi E{i*
+nxx i |{i SS Eix{i
YxixJi tSS{x{E**
esacakrapani says that the rule ilH\Sxhi (1-
4-50) comprehend as karman those which though not iptata-
ma are united with the action, exactly like ipsitatama. Thus
this rule comprehend dvesya and udsna. He says nx
104 Kiraval Dr Leela.K.N
Eh: RM 'ilH\Sxhii' j* In the sentence
+nx \Vx Ri and O MSUxih {i, poison and vil-
lage denoted by and O form the example of dveya
and udasina respectively. EYvE other sutras are also
explained in detail.
The author also points out that in the sentence i
the rule 'Gl{{n S Eh lxx': (2-3-14) enjoin Sil
H in : and in the sentence x%i ih x the
rule xEhxn |h (2-3-17) enjoin Sil H
in ih and this Sil H denotes karmakaraka so also
in the sentence {j Vxi the rule Yxi Eh (2-3-
22) enjoins trtiya vibhakti in the sense of karman and in the
sentence ihb {E: the `H denotes karman by the
force of the rule EiEh: Ei (2-3-65)
Conclusion
Krakatattva of eacakra pI is no doubt an erudite
and scholanly treatise on the six klrakas. He dealt with six
krakas in the Navya Nyya style. It is notworthy that he
does not put forward any view argument showing disagree-
ment with what has been postulated or explained by pini,
patajali and Bharthari. The power of penetrating descrip-
tion of the author is evident in the elucidation of each kar-
akas. Though there are many works dealing with the princi-
ples of Sanskrit grammer and written by many distinguished
scholars, rarely can we find a work in which the six kraks
are handled as in karakatattva by eacakrapi.
Aswamedham Play and Film:
A Review of Adaptation
Dr. Sheeja R.S.
Thoppil Bhasi is one of the most-loved Malayalam play-
wrights of all time. Socially relevant, lively subjects that
reflect the issues of the contemporary milieu were always
safe in his hands. Aswamedham, the play tells the poignant
story of a woman whose life takes a turn for tragedy due
to leprosy, which was once considered an incurable disease
that invited a considerable amount of social stigma. It is
possibly one of the best plays of Bhasi. The play was adapt-
ed into a film by noted film maker A.Vincent. This paper
is concerned with the changes that occur in the transfor-
mation of a work of art from one medium to another, here
from the form of drama to that of film, and the differences
in the final product necessitated by the change of medium
and the similarities occasioned by the similarities in the
operation of the media themselves.
The Play and the Cinema
Our visual arts tradition has a long history. The play
which has, at all times, possessed an inseparable connec-
tion with the human life and has strongly reflected the hu-
man nature is made different from other literary forms by
the visual element as well as its histrionic possibilities. The
beginning of drama was in religious rituals. A rich tradi-
tion of theatre in India was made possible by the contribu-
tion of Sanskrit drama. One could say that the birth of the
modern era in Malayalam theatre happened in the 1940s.
From there the Malayalam stage was transformed over a
106 Kiraval Dr. Sheeja R.S
period of time by contact with the literature of the West as
well as the practices of the Western stage.
In modern times, the play and the motion picture are two
mediums that greatly influence the emotionality of visuals.
In the nineteenth century, literary consciousness under-
went a sea change following the emergence of a new world
view that took form with the intermingling of cultural tra-
ditions and the new waves of reasoning in the thought pro-
cess and scientific rationalism that it occasioned. The play,
in its modern form, and the motion picture made their first
appearance as a rejection of a visual consciousness based
on the enactment of subjects deeply rooted in the religious
myths of the Puranas. Accepting the ideas of Renaissance
modernity, both these media led to the moulding of a new
emotionality that uniquely reflected Kerala. The produc-
tion of the motion picture is a process that is completed
by the confluence of a number of different arts. As a liter-
ary as well as visual text, the influence that drama had on
film began as early as the 1950s and 60s. The backstage
operations of theatre spilt over to cinema and these two
different but similar manifestations of the visual art were
equally accepted by the spectators. There were a number
of writers, leaders, and artists in general, who at that time
were active equally in both cinema and theatre. The liter-
ary text of the play was transformed into the script of the
motion picture. This tendency had its first blossoming in
1950 when the play Sthree, by Thikkurissi Sukumaran Nair,
was adapted into a movie of the same name. Following this,
several plays were made into movies. At this juncture, em-
inent writers like Thoppil Bhasi, Ponkunnam Varkey and
S.L. Puram Sadanandan came into the scene. The plays of
the 1940s and 50s were influential partners in the political
agitations of their times and were instrumental in rewrit-
ing the cultural history of the period. This theatrical cul-
ture has had a pivotal influence on the transformation of
the subject content and the structure of Malayalam cinema.
Aswamedham Play and Film Kiraval 107
Both the play and the motion picture have attracted
popular attention and adoration as media of visual art. The
play as an art form has always invited great attention from
the populace. Similarly the motion picture bears testimony
to a popular life-culture. Both are arts of the visual. The vi-
sual exists in both as a cultural activity. Narration, subject,
characterisation and action are all levels on which these
two media exchange common clusters of ideas. Although
both are arts of the visual they differ in the manner of exe-
cution. The play is limited by both the structure of the stage
and its demands and the fact that it is directly executed in
the presence of the spectator. Cinema, on the other hand,
mediated by the eye of the camera, shapes the visual recep-
tion on a secondary, unreal level. Thus the play and the mo-
tion picture deliver different visual experiences. Acting is a
matter of talent. The actor is engaged in the performance of
this talent irrespective of the medium. Therefore it could be
said that the nature of the activity of the actor is the same in
both cases, but the manner of execution is not similar. For
the actor, the stage of the theatre and the screen of the film
offer different challenges and possibilities.
On stage, the presence of actors is required until the
germ of action grows into its final conclusion. Therefore
the only necessity on stage is the presence of the actor.
Without the actor the stage cannot be. On screen, however,
the continuity among the numerous images is developed in
the perception of the spectator. The actor in cinema, thus,
is only one among the many desirables of the medium.
Madhu Iravankara points out a major difference in the way
reality is recreated in the two media (p.32). The play cre-
ates the mood and the physical setting through suggestion
hence the effect of reality is never quite created. In cinema,
on the other hand, any kind of reality in the physical setting
can be recreated maintaining the feeling of the real. An ac-
tor on stage comes face to face with an audience that is live
and capable of response. Apart from performing, he is giv-
en the opportunity to receive the response of his audience
as soon as each fraction of performance is completed. The
actor in the motion picture is sending out his images to an
inanimate entity: the camera. He will have to wait a while
for his performance to reach the intended audience and to
get a response. Its immediacy makes the play an art form
dependent for its narrative progression on the progression
of dialogue. Thus the progression of the plot in the play is
sustained by dialogue and hence it is very much dialogue-
dependent.
The way the passage of time is perceived in film and the-
atre is entirely different. The realisation of subject in cine-
ma is accomplished mostly through visuals and dialogues
do not have the same quantum of significance as in theatre.
There are considerable differences in the way the visuals are
distributed and received in the two media. The distance be-
tween the stage and its spectators is always fixed. The action
on stage is perceived throughout the play from the same
angle. However, in cinema this distance between the visu-
al and its spectator is virtual in that the mediation of the
camera ensures that the visuals approach or recede as they
become bigger or smaller.
Even though the real time distance between the spec-
tators and visuals on screen and on stage remain the same
throughout the span of action of the motion picture and
the play, the visuals in cinema come to its spectator in dif-
ferent views and angles that are specifically arranged and
mediated on different planes by the director and copied
through a camera before coming to the intended spectator
in the movie theatre.
The actors in a play come to the spectators in their full
living vigour. The absence of retakes ensures that any flaw
in the performance is directly visible to the audience and
cannot be corrected. The actor in the play has to become
one with his audience for the performance to be whole.
All aspects of the play- the setting/background, the char-
acter, the occasion - must all be performed and conveyed
by the actor. The actor in cinema who performs in front
of the camera has the comfort of retakes that will enable
him to hone his performance to perfection. The shooting
of film is dependent on several factors like the availability
of the actors to be present in a scene, the location etc. Indi-
vidual scenes are shot with no one to one correspondence
to the chronological or otherwise ordering of the scenes
in the final product. The narrative progression is not exe-
cuted by the actor but by the editor and his art. The actor
may not even be aware of the story in its entirety. How a
movie turns out in all its elements, what should be retained
and what should be kept out is decided at the editing table.
Hence Karamana Janardanan Nairs opinion that the true
enjoyment of the acting process is available only to the ac-
tor on stage is validated. Cinema as an art belongs to the
director. Only those shots that he decides are crucial to the
final product will reach the silver screen. As soon as the
curtain is raised in theatre, the director of the play must
recede to the margins and leave the play to unfold between
the actor and his audience. He no longer has any control
over his creation. The costumes and the movements of the
actors on stage and the screen differ so much because they
are enacting different languages and different grammatical
requirements that are dependent on their respective me-
dia. For example the execution of dialogue is natural in
cinema while the actor on stage will have to over-act and
over-enunciate for even the quietest whispers on stage be-
tween the characters must be audible to the person in the
last row.
Thoppil Bhasi and Theatre
Thoppil Bhasi was a playwright who made noteworthy
contributions to a stage that was intended for propaganda.
His plays were the product of their age. Intense and forceful
protest against the status quo, exhortations to struggle for a
better tomorrow and the preoccupation with socially rele-
vant subjects were the hallmarks of his plays that aimed for
the betterment of society as a whole. This was also the time
when concepts regarding the perception of the visual and
its appreciation were beginning to undergo revolutionary
changes.
It was through his plays that Thoppil Bhasi conversed
with the intellectuals of his age. Ningalene Communist
Aakki (You Made Me a Communist), Surveykkallu (The
Survey Stone), Visakkunna Karinkali (The Hungry Hoard-
er), Mudiyanaya Puthran (The Prodigal Son), Mooladha-
nam (The Capital), Puthiya Aakasham Puthiya Bhoomi
(New Skies, New Earth), Aswamedham, Sarasayya, Koot-
tukudumbam (The Joint Family), and Thulabhaaram are all
path breaking plays that were penned by him.
Most of these have social reformation as their theme
and purpose and were welcomed on stage and screen with
great enthusiasm. This was during a time when the culture
of the theatre was making a transformation over the choice
of subject and the structure of cinema possible. Thoppil
Bhasi was someone who had accepted the communist ide-
ology as his personal philosophy. He was exposed to expe-
riences that bore with them the heat of many complex lives
while he was carrying out revolutionary propaganda with a
palpable threat to his own life. When his politics and his art
reached a confluence, Ningalene Communist Aakki was
born. This was a revolutionary development in Malayalam
theatre. Malayalees are most indebted to the reinvention of
the professional theatre to K.P.A.C. - Kerala Peoples Arts
Club- and Thoppil Bhasi. Bhasi selected a theatrical tech-
nique that believed in going down amongst the masses. His
plays are a beautiful blending of art and propaganda. He
was able to create social awareness through plays that held
captive the imagination of the audience.
In both Aswamedham and Sarasayya, Bhasi tried to
portray how a disease that has social stigma attached to it
can affect the life of a woman. The plays depict with strik-
ing clarity the fear with which the society of the times
looked upon leprosy and the consequent disgust that was
piled upon lepers. An insight is provided into the life of
leper-beggars who are reduced to the lowest level of social
existence .In Aswamedham, we find the female protagonist
Sarojam losing everything she possessed with the onset of
leprosy. Published in 1951, the play reflects the prophetic
power of its creator. All of Bhasis plays have acquired social
relevance as works of art brought within its narrative scope
the lives of ordinary human beings and the struggles that
they are forced to undertake.
Aswamedham is Bhasis seventh play. This was a play
intended to generate awareness about leprosy in order to
aid in its eradication. The disease had a demonic aspect as
incurable in the minds of the common populace. This was
a time when legislation that made it possible to imprison
any leper found on the common streets was being active-
ly considered. It is in this context that the play becomes
a beacon of scientific progress that was resolute on dis-
pelling the darkness of superstitions. Bhasi has stated that
the Aswamedham in the title is that of science. He was
able to successfully develop on stage with serious intent the
correlation between diseases and society often operating
through social stigma. Aswamedham realises several mo-
ments of intense emotional turmoil in human relations.
Bhasi was inspired to conceive the play with his experienc-
es as a regular visitor at the Nooranadu Leprosy Centre. He
has explained that the moment of epiphany came when the
doctor-in-charge at the centre, Dr. Unnithan, asked Bhasi
Is disease a crime?
The Plot of Aswamedham
Kesavaswamy a man of nearly 55 years is the head of a
family, married to Lakshmiyamma. They already have five
or six children and Lakshmiyamma is pregnant again. A re-
ligious man who also caters to several superstitions, Kes-
avaswamy is against hospitalising his wife for confinement.
Of their children, only Sarojam, Sarala and Sathyan are at
home. The eldest son is in Bombay. The younger ones are
staying with relatives. Sarojam is in love with Mohanan.
Their wedding has been agreed upon. Sarojam is an artist
and develops numbness in one of her fingers. She consults
a doctor and is informed later by a health visitor that she
is suffering from leprosy. The news destroys Sarojam com-
pletely. Doctor Thomas also confirms the diagnosis. She
informs her fianc about the diagnosis and moves herself
to the sanatorium for fear that her disease is contagious.
Kesavaswamy also suffers from leprosy. He is not ready to
think about the disease or undergo any kind of treatment.
Dr. Thomas is also facing issues at the home front as his
wife is unable to accept the close attention that he pays to
his patients and leaves him. By this time Sarojam has al-
ready listened to several gruesome stories about leprosy.
She confronts her doctor with the question if disease is a
crime. He is disturbed by her challenge and decides that it
is time it was not just the disease that needs to be cured but
also the social stigma that the patients are facing as a result
of their disease.
Meanwhile Saralas marriage has also been fixed. It is
only when she arrives to seek blessings from her sister at
the sanatorium that she understands that Sarojam is com-
pletely cured. Sarojam happily accompanies her sister home
but is surprised at the hostile reception she receives there.
Everyone looks upon her with fear and disgust and when
Sarojam leaves home; her mother is unable to withstand
the stress and dies of cardiac arrest. Sarojam goes back to
the sanatorium where her doctor consoles her saying that
Mohanan will surely accept her. However, Mohanan feels
differently and unable to believe that leprosy can be cured,
is unwilling to accept her as his wife. The doctor, at this
juncture, disgusted by the attitude of the society decides
to challenge the social stigma by inviting Sarojam into his
life as his partner. Sarojam, however, refuses to accept his
generosity and after many emotional protestations requests
the doctor for a nurses uniform. Firmly holding her hands
together, the doctor declares, Science has no defeats, Sa-
rojam, but it has many martyrs. With these powerful lines
the play comes to an end.
The Lessons of Adaptation
Adaptation (anukalpanam or anuvarthanam) is a
process by which a work of art is uprooted from one medi-
um and planted into another. The term adapted story- anu-
kalpanakatha- is a reference to any literary work, recorded
events or historical incidents that are transformed into the
story and script of a film. In adaptation, especially when a
literary work is transformed into a movie script, the pri-
mary process is the rearrangement of plot, characters and
events in the source work in a manner that makes them all
appropriate for the medium of cinema. Histories, novels,
legends, short stories, plays and autobiographies have all
been adapted into films.
Someone who attempts an adaptation must be faithful
to the source work while creating a new work of art. Mad-
hu Iravankara suggests that one of the inspirations to ad-
aptation is the belief that the enjoyment generated by the
work of art in the original medium can be enhanced in
the adapted medium (p.98). Adaptations have always been
there both in World and Indian cinema. The 1950s were the
renaissance period of Malayalam literature. This was a pe-
riod when many novelists and playwrights were emerging
as game-changers. Thus the following decade became the
golden age for adaptations. K.S. Sethumadhavan was one of
the forerunner filmmakers who tried to adapt Malayalam
literary works for the silver screen. The plays of Ponkun-
nam Varkey, Thoppil Bhasi, S.L, Puram Sadanandan, T.N.
Gopinathan Nair and K.T.Muhammad were also adapt-
ed as films. It was in 1967 that Bhasis Aswamedham was
adapted for the screen by A. Vincent.
When Aswamedham Became a Film
The popularity of Aswamedham as a play must have
been the reason why it was made into a film. The ideol-
ogy of the play was kept intact with only minor changes
to certain incidents and the climax so that the characters
retained their fullness and complexity. In the movie, it is
a numbness experienced during tailoring that disturbs Sa-
rojam and makes her seek medical help. The doctors wife
Girly leaves her husband forever in the play but in the mov-
ie she is made to return with apologies after realising her
mistakes. In the movie the doctor does not invite Sarojam
into his life. Instead when Sarojam returns to the sanatori-
um after being rejected by her family, the doctor refuses to
accommodate her as she is no longer ill. At this juncture,
the doctors wife refers to Sarojam as her little sister and
declares that she will be staying with her at home. The film
ends with Girly taking Sarojam along with her to her home.
Although the ending of the film is different from the mov-
ie, the director was able to come up with a visually beautiful
climax that exhibits great emotional control. A conscious
effort has been made to retain all the characters in the play
and their dialogues. The play was enacted at that time by
the members of the K.P.A.C.
In the movie, the role of Sarojam was played by the ac-
complished actress Sheela. Sathyan played the role of Dr.
Thomas while Prem Nazir played Mohanan. Madhu played
Sarojams brothers role and P.J. Antony handled the role of
the superstitious Kesavaswamy. The actors all played their
respective roles with lan and a competition in the art of
performance is apparent. Comic relief was offered by Baha-
dur who played the role of the health visitor. His hilarious
performance adds to the nuances of the film. Apart from
these actors, almost all accomplished thespians of the time
like Sukumary, Santhakumary, T.R. Omana, G.K. Pillai and
Baby Sheela were part of the film. The script and dialogues
of the movie came out of Thoppil Bhasi himself. Hari Po-
than produced the movie under the banner of Supriya. In
a cinematic tradition that sets great store by the original
score, the responsibility of music was undertaken expertly
by legends like Vayalar Rama Varma (lyricist), K.J. Yesudas,
P. Suseela, and Vasantha (playback singers). The film pro-
duced several hits rendered in the divine voices of its play-
back singers like Ezhusundararathrikal, Karuthachakrava-
lam and Oridathu jananam oridathu maranam.
Conclusion
Aswamedham can be considered the best adaptation by
A. Vincent. The practice of adapting literary works includ-
ing plays to the wonder world of cinematic technique is as
old as the art of cinema itself. Since theatre and cinema are
such different media, the process of adaptation has to face
many complex technical challenges. Although Aswamed-
ham the film is an excellent example of social realism, it is
questionable whether the film has gone much further be-
yond being a mere translation of the play, A. Vincents en-
try into the world of film adaptation was with the transla-
tion of Bhasis Aswamedham. He has exercised his creative
freedom as a director by changing certain incidents while
retaining the core of the play by keeping the characters in-
tact. It can be said that he was successful in adapting the
play to the medium of cinema in its technical aspects of au-
dio-visual adaptation.
Works Cited
A., Gopinathan Dr. Cinemayam Samskaravum. Thiruva-
nanthapuram: Bhasha Institute, 2005.Print.
A., Sheelakumary. Thoppil Bhasiyude Natakangal Thiruva-
nanthapuram: Prabhath Book House, 2000. Print.
Critics World. Nov-Dec 2009. Kerala Film Critics Asso-
ciation. Iravankara, Madhu. Malayalacinemayum Sa-
hithyavum. Kottayam: D.C. Books,1999.Print.
Madavur, Bhasi. Malayalanatakasarvaswam.Vattiyoorka-
vu: Chaitanyam Publications, 1980.Print.
Panmana Ramachandra Nair. Natakapathanangal. Kotta-
yam: Cunent Books, 2007. Print.
Pillai, G. Sankara. Malayalanatakasahityacharithram.
Thrissur: Kerala Sahitya Akademi. Print.
Thoppil, Bhasi. Aswamedham, Thiruvananthapuram : Pra-
bhath Book House, 2005. Print.
Thiruvoth, Rajan. Natakam Charithrathinte Kannil. Thiru-
vananthapuram: Bhasha Institute, 2007. Print.

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Revathy K.M is is Research Scholar in the Department of
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The New Trivandrum Sanskrit Series

Sanskrit Research Foundation

Plato explains his philosophy in general, but according-

The need of self actualization is the one which according

the grarasa. As Bharata felt that his sons or other actors

Nayrs the actresses of kiya

as Cualakttu is the same as Cayrkttu but is performed

Techniques of flowing Nayrs feat

Plays performed by Nayrs

ment so far as the performance tradition of kiya is

10. Glory of trees

6th loka as- Having bathed becoming pure putting on clean

be bad, middling and excellent. The distance between shrubs

of a hog, removes quickly the diseases by wind. rgad-

the merit of Rajasuya sacrifice. He, who plants knowingly

father was Muktintha or Muktinthrya. But in several man-

in the year 1905 (xix).

the king Narasimha who reigned Orissa during the thirteenth

century, Ttparyadpik by Viupadita son of Raga

Bhsa's plays presented in Kerala theatre in the form

ka, Panthattka, ephalikka, Puthudka, Svapnka and

Lokadharmi in their whole presentation portrayed the

staring characters in Vlmkirmyaa. It includes different

means jungle and 'Nara' means humans. The Samskrtan-

pleased and satisfied. Sugrva secured the wife of Bli after

meaning of the word Halman isa monkey. Bhurja caste in the

of them were the wild mountainous tribes.

According to the Anthropological view, some antipodes

the karmakaraka of gamanakriya, since the fruit M demar-

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