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PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY

Public Administration and Public Policy -

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Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY

CONTENTS

VOLUME I

Public Administration and Policy: An Introduction 1

Krishna K. Tummala, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA

1. Prologue
2. Public Policymaking and Organizational Context
3. Development of Administration: Ancient
4. Modern Systems
5. Contemporary Developments
6. Administrative Management
7. Public Policy
8. Epilogue

Social Diversity and Development Policy: The Use of Constraints and Incentives 22
Aruna Nayyar Michie, Department of Political Science, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas,
USA

1. Introduction
2. Goals and Requirements of Development
3. Society and Polity
4. State Intervention and Development
5. A Proposal for Effective Decision making
6. Conclusion

Political Parties: Principal Arenas of Policymaking Conflict 41

Ralph M. Goldman, Professor Emeritus of Political Science, San Francisco State University, USA
Former President, Center for Party Development, Catholic University of America, USA

1. Introduction
2. A Brief Institutional History of Parties
3. Types of Party System and their Policymaking Consequences
4. Party Functions and External Relationships
4.1. Parties and Elections
4.2. Parties in the Legislature
4.3. Parties and the Chief Executive
4.4. Partisanship in the Judiciary
4.5. Parties and Organized Interest Groups
4.6. Parties and the Media
5. Factionalism and the Nominating Process
5.1. Coalition Formation and Moderation
5.2. First Elections
5.3. Popular Participation in Nominations
6. Political Parties as Planning Agencies and Policy Advocates
7. Cases of Political Parties Impact on Life-Support Policies
7.1. Personal Safety in Colombia
7.2. Water in India
7.3. Death and Life in Russia
8. Future Development of Political Parties
9. Rights and Responsibilities of Political Parties

Public Administration in Today's World of Organizations and Markets 64

Hebert A. Simon(Deceased), Carnegie Mellon University, USA

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1. Research on Complex Organizations

2. Markets as Coordinating Mechanisms
3. From a Market Economy to an Organizational Economy
4. How Organizations Coordinate
5. Organizational Identification
6. Organizational Innovation and Adaptation to Change
7. Social Implications
7.1. The Distribution of Power
7.2. Distribution of the Social Product: Levels of Employment and Production
7.3. Distribution of the Social Product: Fairness
8. Conclusion

Planned Organizational Change: Essentials for Constructive Action 76

Garth N. Jones, University of Alaska, Anchorage, USA

1. Context
2. Organizations: delineations and specifics
3. Context of change intervention
4. Change components and their dynamic relationships
4.1. Assessing the Social-Technical System(s)
4.1.1. Change myth and doctrine
4.1.2. Change goals
4.1.3. Organizations and operational domains
4.1.4. Structuring of change
4.1.5. Application of strategies and tactics
4.1.6. Evaluation of the endeavor

Organizational Culture: Understanding Theoretical and Practical Applications 92

Suzanne Marie Leland, Department of Political Science, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA

1. Introduction
2. Early History and Recent Development of the Study of Organizational Culture
3. Modern Organizational Culture in Public Agencies
4. Deciphering an Organizations Culture
5. Conclusion: Culture, Leadership and Change

Persian Legacies of Bureaucracy and Public Administration 98

Ali Farazmand, Florida Atlantic University, USA

1. Introduction
2. Early Iran, prior to the Persian Empire
3. The World-State Persian Empire
3.1. The founding father, Cyrus the Great
3.2. Institutions of governance
3.2.1. The King and the central government
3.2.2. The satrapy system of administration
3.2.3. The Persian bureaucracy
4. Administrative Reforms of Darius
5. Persian Legacies towards Administration

Development of African Administration: Pre-Colonial Times and since 113

Kisangani F. Emizet, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA

1. The Pre-colonial Period: From the Ashes of Pharaohs to the Berlin Conference

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1.1. Ancient Civilization of Africa: The Case of Egypt

1.2. Medieval Africa
1.3. Beyond the Medieval Era to the Nineteenth Century
2. Colonial Administration
2.1. The Consolidation of the Colonial Administration
2.2. Beyond the First World War and toward Independence
3. The Post-Colonial Administration and Problems of Development
3.1. Historical and Structural Origins
3.2. Administrative Performance in the Post-Colonial Period
3.3. Administrative Reforms in Africa
4. Conclusions

Politics in the Ancient Near East 135

Yves Schemeil, Institute dEtudes Politiques de Grenoble, France

1. Introduction
2. Ruling and Abiding by the Rules
2.1. Early Components of a Public Culture
2.2. Good Governance and the Art of Ruling
3. Representative Systems
3.1. Political Representation and the Deliberative Process
3.2. Voting and the Electoral Process
3.3. Social Justice and the Judiciary
4. Conclusion

Ancient Bureaucracies of India and China, and Modern Administration 147

V. Subramaniam, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada

1. Western Misinterpretations
1.1. Max Weber's Prebendal Bureaucracy
1.2. Karl Marx's Asiatic Mode of Production
1.3. Eisenstadt's Bureaucratic Empires
2. Comparisons: India and China
3. Indian and Chinese Evolution: Critical Comparisons
4. Confucian Brahmins and Kautilyan Mandarins
5. The European Evolution
5.1. The Roman Empire
5.2. Feudalism and the Catholic Church
5.3. Societal Evolution: Facilitating Factors
6. Some Lessons from Comparative Survey
6.1. The District Collector
6.2. Societal Evolution and State Enterprises
6.3. The Derivative Middle Class

French Public Administration 165

John A. Rohr, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburgh, U.S.A

1. Introduction
2. History of French Administration
3. The Constitution of the Fifth Republic
4. The Role of State in French political Culture
5. The Civil Service
6. The Grands Corps of the State
7. Relation of Administration to the Private Sector
8. Decentralization and the Prefects

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9. Administrative Law
10. Conclusion

Public Administration in America: The Exceptionalism of a Hybrid Bureaucracy 183

Fred W. Riggs, Political Science Department, University of Hawaii, USA

1. Introduction
2. Attractions of Presidentialism
3. The American Exception
3.1. Making valid comparisons
3.2. Power and performance
4. Types of Bureaucracy
4.1. Mandarins
4.2. Retainers
4.3. In-and-Outers
4.4. Functionists
5. Mandarinates
6. Presidentialism and the US
6.1. Patronage and Spoils
7. A hybrid bureaucracy
7.1. Rotation and Spoils
7.2. Teaching Public Administration
7.3. Professionalism
8. Conclusion

Politics and Anti-Politics: American Public Administration in the Nineteenth Century 199
Nicholas Henry, Georgia Southern University, USA

1. Introduction
2. Stunted and Truncated: Public Administration of the Nineteenth Century
2.1. A Stunted Government
2.2. A Truncated Profession
3. A Gentlemanly but Political Public Service
3.1. Dark Tides: Populism and Patronage
4. Jackson and Democratization
4.1. From Democratization to Spoils
5. Reform: Honesty and Anti-Politics
5.1. Early Efforts
5.2. Reform by Murder
6. Nirvana Attained: The Civil Service Act of 1883
7. The Merit Principle and American Governments
8. Reform: The Foundation for the Next Century

New Public Management: Origins, Dimensions and Critical Implications 209

M. Shamsul Haque, National University of Singapore, Singapore

1. Introduction
2. Origin and Globalization of New Public Management
3. Rationales and Causes of New Public Management
4. Major Dimensions of New Public Management
4.1. Theoretical-Conceptual Dimension
4.2. Functional-Professional Dimension
4.3. Structural-Compositional Dimension
4.4. Normative-Ethical Dimension
4.5. Strategic-Technical Dimension

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5. Critical Implications of New Public Management

5.1. Implications for Citizens
5.2. Implications for public service
6. Limits and Prospects of New Public Management

Strategies of Successful Administrative Reforms 229

V. Bhaskara Rao, Kakatiya University, Warangal, India

1. Introduction
2. Administrative reforms
3. Politics of reform
4. Characteristics of reforms
5. Approaches to reforms
5.1. Citizens charter
5.2. Re-engineering the government
5.3. Re-inventing government
5.4. New public management (NPM)
5.5. Privatization/contracting out
6. Financial reform
7. Democratization
8. Decentralization
9. The Indian experience
10. Evaluation of reforms

Reforms in the Public Administration Systems in New Zealand 246

Peter McKinlay, McKinlay Douglas Limited, Wellington, New Zealand

1. Introduction
2. Context
3. Political Factors
4. Intellectual Framework
5. The Principal Reforms
5.1. Trading activities
5.2. Restructuring the Core Public Service
5.3. Financial Management
6. Overview and Assessment
6.1. Outcome Accountability
6.2. Policy Advice
6.3. The "Collective Interest of Government"
6.4. Departmental Capability
7. Subsequent Developments

Governance, Facilitative States and Twenty-First Century Public Administration 263

C. A. Newland, University of Southern California, USA

1. Introduction
2. Governance and Facilitative Institutions
2.1. Three Dimensions of Governance as a Global Framework
2.1.1. Social Self Governance and Civil Society
2.1.2. Economic Governance and Markets
2.1.3. The Facilitative State and Political Governance
2.2. Applied Pluralist and Public-Choice Theories and Todays Search for Good Governance
2.2.1. Reconciliation via Governance and Facilitative State Perspectives
2.2.2. Searching Questions and Connectedness
3. Varied and Shared Public Administration Frameworks Within and Among Nations

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3.1. Continental European Thought and Practices

3.1.1. Public-Sector Redefinition
3.1.2. Deconcentration: Dispersed Authority and Responsibilities
3.1.3. Balancing Transparency and Access with Privacy and Security
3.1.4. Government under Law and Governance through Law
3.1.5. Accountability and Responsibility
3.2. New Public Management, Commonwealth Nations, and Related Developments
3.2.1. Post-Bureaucratic Theories and Practices?
3.2.2. Responsive, High-Performance Administrative Cultures
3.2.3. Public Entrepreneurship and Managerial Autonomy
3.2.4. Competition and Private Performance of Publicly Provided Functions
3.2.5. Matching Resources and Functions Performed
3.2.6. Contexts and Theories Underlying NPM
3.3. Shared and Varied American Frameworks
3.3.1. Enduring Civic-Constitutional Ideals and Public Administration
3.3.2. Failed Autonomy of American Public Administration
3.3.3. Complexities of Contemporary Movements
4. International Perspectives and Shared Paradoxes of Public Administration
4.1. Situational Differences and Shared Practices as Twenty-First Century Realities
4.2. The United Nations and World Bank
4.3. Enduring and Twenty-First Century Paradoxes of Governance in a Facilitative-State Era

The Internet, Governments and the Issue of Governance: A New Cartography of Power? 293
Loong Wong, University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia

1. Introduction
2. Towards a New Globalized Economy : A New Architecture
3. The Death of Space?
4. Sovereignty, Electronic Commerce and Globalization
5. Developing a New Global Framework for Electronic Commerce
6. Redefining the Role of Governments
7. Conclusion

Index 311

About EOLSS 319

VOLUME II

Contemporary Public Human Resource Management Systems: Patronage, Civil Service,

Privatization, and Service Contracts 1
Donald E. Klingner, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA
Mohamed Gamal Sabet, Agricultural Economics Research Institute, Cairo, Egypt

1. Introduction
2. Public Personnel Management Functions
3. Public Jobs as Scarce Resources
4. Traditional Values
5. Emergent Values
6. Traditional Systems: Patronage, Civil Service, Collective Bargaining, and Affirmative Action
7. Emergent Systems
8. Conflict and Compromise among Alternative Public Personnel Systems
8.1. A Historical Analysis of Public Personnel System Conflict in the United States
8.2. Historical Analysis of Public Personnel System Conflict in Less Developed Countries

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9. Service Contracting and Privatization Outcomes in Developed and Less developed Countries

Revisiting Budgetary Incrementalism 23

Zahid Shariff, The Evergreen State College, Olympia, WA, USA

1. Introduction
2. Basic Issues
2.1. Larger connections
2.2. Some distinctions
2.3. Characteristics of budgeting
3. The Demise of Incrementalism
4. Broader Context, Limited Horizon
4.1. Gentlemanly government
4.2. Denouncing reform
4.3. Either/or
5. Contradictions: Holding on and Letting go
5.1. Rejecting and accepting
5.2. More inconsistencies
5.3. Policy and counseling
6. Encountering Change
6.1. Reducing and increasing conflict
6.2. Governmental (in)capacity
6.3. Imbalanced perspective
6.4. Sympathy and inaction
7. Return to Basics
7.1. Theoretical building blocks
7.2. Different kinds of incrementalism
8. Conclusions

Budgeting for Government Activism and Democracy 35

Irene S. Rubin, Northern Illinois University, De Kalb, IL, USA

1. The Need for Budget Reforms

2. Designing a Budget Reform
3. Budgeting for Government Activism
4. Budgeting for Democracy
4.1. The Budget Hearing
4.2. Citizen Planning and Prioritizing
5. Conclusion

Financial Management and Life Support Programs 48

A.. Premchand, Formerly, Assistant Director, Fiscal Affairs Department, International Monetary fund,
India.

1. Introduction
2. Scope of Life Support Programs
3. Differences between Industrial and Developing Countries
4. Financial Management Cycle
5. Issues in Practice
5.1. Policy Management
5.2. Segmented and Integrated Approaches
5.3. Intent and Outcome
5.4. The Anchor of Expenditure Management
5.5. Delivery of Services
5.6. Fraud and Waste

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5.7. Neglected Fault Lines Transparency and Accountability

6. Tasks Ahead

Elusive Nexus: Basic Needs and Fiscal Decentralization 64

Kurt Thurmaier, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
Kara Lindaman, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA

1. Introduction
2. A Brief History
3. Participation in Development
3.1. The Theories of Basic Needs and Decentralization
3.2. Basic Needs
3.3. Decentralization
3.4. The Nexus
4. Previous Empirical Work
5. An Empirical Test of the Common Ground
5.1. The Model
5.2. Dependent Variable: The Human Development Index
5.3. Independent Variables
5.4. Control Variables
5.5. Final Model Equation
5.6. The Data: Caveats
6. The Results
6.1. The Basic Needs Indices and Decentralization
6.2. The Colonial History Control Variables
7. Conclusions

Measuring Performance in Public Sector Programs 86

Gerald E. Caiden, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA
Naomi J. Caiden, California State University, Los Angeles, USA

1. Introduction
2. Significance
3. The State of the Art
4. Implementation
5. Limitations
6. Institutional Context
7. The Bottom Line

Administrative Law 110

David H. Rosenbloom, Department of Public Administration and Policy, American University, USA

1. Introduction
2. Administrative Power, Discretion, and the Rule of Law
3. Administrative Rulemaking
3.1. How much independence should administrative agencies have in developing and issuing rules?
3.2. What values should be emphasized in rulemaking procedures?
3.3. By what criteria should rules be judged?
3.4. What Are Some Common Types Of Rulemaking?
4. Administrative Adjudication
5. Enforcement
6. Transparency
7. The Legal Status of Public Agencies and Administrators
8. External Review of Agency Operations
8.1. Substantive Review of Administrative Decisions

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8.2. Procedural Review of Agency Actions

9. Conclusion

The Ombudsman Office 133

S. E. Aufrecht, University of Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage, AK, USA

1. Introduction
2. The Historical Creation of Ombudsman Offices
3. What is an Ombudsman?
3.1. The mission of the ombudsman
3.2. What is a classical ombudsman?
3.2.1. Independence from those being investigated
3.2.2. Impartiality and Fairness
3.2.3. Credible Review Process
3.2.4. Confidentiality
3.3. The International Ombudsman Institute
4. The Current State of the Ombudsman Concept
5. The Ombudsman Office in the Context of other Correction Mechanisms
5.1. The Specifics of the Ombudsmans Job
5.2. Ombudsman Office Compared to Other Avenues for Remedy
6. The Effectiveness of the Ombudsman
7. Conclusion

Ethics in Public Organizations 145

Kathryn G. Denhardt, University of Delaware, USA

1. Introduction
2. Ethics at the Institutional Level
3. Ethics at the Organizational Level
3.1. Prevention, Investigation, and Prosecution
3.2. Leadership and Organizational Culture
4. Ethics at the Individual Public Servant Level
5. Conclusion

Technology Transfer and Diffusion 156

Kenneth L. Nichols, University of Maine, USA

1. The Beginnings of Technology Dissemination

1.1. Technology: Multiple Definitions
1.1.1. Languages and Codes
1.1.2. Customs, Traditions, Rituals, and Rites
1.1.3. Applied Concepts and Knowledge
1.1.4. Manufactured Goods and Tools
1.1.5. Natural Objects Adapted for Use
1.1.6. Aesthetic Objects and Performances
1.2. Impact on Societies
1.2.1. Level of Impact
1.2.2. Nature of Consequences
2. The Process of Technology Dissemination
2.1. Stages in Technology Dissemination
2.1.1. Stage 1: Innovation
2.1.2. Stage 2: Communication
2.1.3. Stage 3: Adoption
2.2. Technology Dissemination depends upon People, Things, and Places
2.2.1. People: The Actors and their Roles

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2.2.2. Things: The Donors Technology and the Recipients Need

2.2.3. Places: The Settings across Times and Localities
3. Policy and Practice in Technology Dissemination
3.1. Purposes and Formal Organizations
3.2. Factors Affecting Policies and Practices
3.2.1. Cultures
3.2.2. Resources
3.2.3. Relationships
4. Technology Dissemination: Prospects and Ramifications
4.1. Development Cycle
4.2. The Pace of Dissemination
4.3. Bottom-line Ramification

International Environmental Policy as a Life Support System Response 175

Renu Khator, University of South Florida, USA

1. Environmental Policy Challenges in the Twenty-First Century

1.1. Global Capitalism versus Individual Economies
1.2. Northern Consumption versus Southern Population
1.3. Environmental Security versus Diplomatic Security
1.4. Political Sovereignty versus Global Public Sphere
1.5. Individual Accountability versus Global Responsibilities
1.6. Anthropocentric Values versus Environmental Ethics
2. Environmental Policy as a Response System
2.1. Environmental Ethics as the Foundation
2.2. Global Responsibility as the Principle
2.3. Local Decision-making as the System of Governance
2.4. Quality of Life as the Goal
3. Concluding Remarks

Developmental Issues and Environmental Policy in South Africa 190

Ignatius W. Ferreira, Port Elizabeth Technikon, South Africa
H. R. Lloyd, Vista University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa

1. Introduction
2. The South African Context
3. Growth, Development and the Environment
4. Sustainable Development
5. Natural Resource Economics Policy in South Africa
5.1. Integrated pollution and waste management
5.2. Linkages with macro-economic policy
5.3. Approaches to integrated pollution and waste management
5.4. Operation of environmental management policy
6. The Environment as an Asset
7. The Design of Environmental Policy
8. Environmental Management as an Integral Part of Business Strategy
9. Conclusion

Corruption in Asian Countries: Can It Be Minimized? 201

Jon S. T. Quah, National University of Singapore, Singapore

1. Levels of Asian Corruption

1.1. Measuring corruption
2. Anti-Corruption Strategies
2.1. Hopeless strategies

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2.1.1. Peoples Republic of China

2.1.2. Indonesia
2.1.3. Bangladesh
2.2. Ineffective strategies
2.2.1. The Philippines
2.2.2. South Korea
2.2.3. Thailand
2.3. Effective Strategy
3. Lessons from Singapore
3.1. Reducing opportunities for corruption
3.2. Reducing incentives for corruption

Politics of Preference: Lessons from India, The United States and South Africa 218
Krishna K. Tummala, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA

1. Introduction
2. The Case for and against AA
3. Policy Initiatives
4. Politics of Preference
5. An Assessment
6. Conclusion

The Role of Business and Industry 233

Hazel Henderson, St. Augustine, Florida, USA

1. Introduction
2. Historical Background
3. Evolution of Corporate Charters and Stock Markets
4. Globalization of Corporations, Technology, Markets, and Finance
5. Rethinking Capitalism beyond Textbook Models of the Public and Private Sectors
6. Changing Scorecards of Progress
6.1. Employment
6.2. Income
6.3. Shelter
6.4. Infrastructure
6.5. Energy
6.6. National Security
6.7. Health
6.8. Education
6.9. Public Safety
6.10. Human Rights
6.11. Environment
6.12. Re-creation
7. The Third Sector: Voluntary Civic Society Organizations Challenging Businesses on Life Support
Issues
8. New Business Models of Capitalism
9. Toward "Stakeholder Capitalism"
10. The Role of Corporations in Voluntary Standard Setting and Codes of Conduct
11. Obligations of Corporations and Business to Enhance Life Support Systems
12. Conclusion

Sustainable Development:The Role of Business 276

J. Aloisi de Larderel, Director, Division of Technology, Industry and Economics, United Nations
Environment Programme, France

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1. Introduction: Why Is the Role of Business So Important for Sustainable Development?

2. Why Is It in a Business Interest to be Environmentally Sustainable?
3. What Is the Role of Business for Sustainable Development?
3.1. Goals
3.2. Strategy
3.3. Practical Measures
4. Conclusions

Institutional Dimensions of Global Environmental Change 297

Oran R. Young, Institute on International Environmental Governance, Dartmouth College, USA

1. Institutions and Environmental Change

2. The Nature and Role of Institutions
3. The Research Agenda
3.1. Causation
3.2. Effectiveness
3.3. Design
4. Models and Methods
5. Future Directions

New Principles of Governance in the Global Age 314

A. V. Anttiroiko, Department of Local Government Studies, University of Tampere, Finland

1. Introduction
2. Remarks on the Trends in Power Politics
2.1. From the Westphalian Model to the Post-Cold War World
2.2. Human Rights and Sovereignty of the State
3. Institutional Aspects of Global Governance
3.1. New Premises of Global Governance
3.2. The United Nations and International Peace
3.3. International Organizations and Agreements
3.4. International Conferences
3.5. The Dilemma of Accountability
4. Corporate Agenda
4.1. Towards the Global Free Market Policy
4.2. The Power of Multinationals
5. Changing Role of the Nation-state
5.1. External Pressures on the State
5.2. Intra-State Tensions and State Capacity
6. Regional Institutions and Local Governance
6.1. Aspects of Regionalization
6.2. Formation of Macroregional Institutions
6.3. Global Orientation in Urban Governance
6.4. Expressions of Regionalism and Localism
6.5. Networking and Partnership as Working Methods
6.6. Social Balance and Sustainable Development
7. Civil Society and NGOs
7.1. The Concept of Civil Society
7.2. Civil Society and the Principles of Good Governance
7.3. Identity and Citizenship
8. Future Directions
8.1. Problems, Threats and Risks
8.2. The Need for Multi-Level Governance

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Corporate Social Responsibility:Managing and Minimizing the Abuse of Power 345

Bruce Lloyd, Professor of Strategic Management, South Bank University, London, UK

1. Introduction
2. Core Principles
3. Innovation and Change
4. Stakeholder Management
5. Social Auditing
6. New Partnerships
7. Leadership
8. Power and Responsibility
9. Educational Challenges

Index 361

About EOLSS 367

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