Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
RehabiMed
Method 1
Mthode
RehabiMed Traditional 2
Architecture
Traditionnelle
Mditerranenne
Mediterranean 3
II. Rhabilitation
Btiments Architecture 4
Mtodo RehabiMed 5
Arquitectura
Tradicional
Mediterrnea
II. Rehabilitation 6
II. Rehabilitacin
El Edificio Buildings 7
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RehabiMed
Method 1
Mthode
RehabiMed Traditional 2
Architecture
Traditionnelle
Mditerranenne
Mediterranean 3
II. Rhabilitation
Btiments Architecture 4
Mtodo RehabiMed 5
Arquitectura
Tradicional
Mediterrnea
II. Rehabilitation 6
II. Rehabilitacin
El Edificio Buildings 7
EUROMED
11
EUROMED HERITAGE
AGENCIA ESPAOLA
DE COOPERACIN INTERNACIONAL
COLLEGI DAPARELLADORS
I ARQUITECTES TCNICS DE BARCELONA
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Preface
The first Euromediterranean Conference of heads of state in 1995 saw the launch of the 1
Barcelona process, an ambitious initiative ratified in 2005 at the Barcelona +10 Summit. The
priority objectives are intended to seek sociopolitical, economic, cultural and environmental
synergies from a regional and mutual development viewpoint. It was within this context that the 2
Euromed Heritage Programme emerged in 1998, to contribute towards the improvement and
protection of the diverse heritage shared by the different Mediterranean countries.
3
Traditional architecture, as an essential part of the cultural legacy generated by the collective
imagination of the Mediterranean, plays an important part in the actions carried out by Euromed 4
Heritage. In their first years, CORPUS and CORPUS Levant carried out an enormous task cataloguing
and analysing the characteristics and typologies of traditional Mediterranean architecture,
identifying the problems presented and suggesting the best alternatives for preserving it. 5
RehabiMed wanted to continue this stage of analytical study to develop the essential ideas arising
from the needs and urgent requirements detected by these projects promoting effective,
6
respectful rehabilitation.
Today, in a globalised world, where economic and cultural uniformity mark the development 7
criteria to be followed based on standard patterns, RehabiMed's proposal is even more
meaningful. Rehabilitation counteracts the idea of globalisation, and regional wealth, cultural
diversity, different ways of life and particular local features become essential elements to be 8
preserved.
There are many public and private initiatives aimed at recovering constructed heritage; some are 9
oriented towards singular, monumental heritage, which we call Restoration, and others, as is the
case with RehabiMed, are directed towards more modest, more abundant heritage with a
10
greater presence in the territory, such as traditional architecture in historic town centres, rural
villages and dispersed throughout the territory. This is what we call Rehabilitation, always carried
out to provide buildings the majority of them without any kind of heritage protection with a 11
use. This activity involving action on what has been built presents a wide diversity of situations,
if we look at the Mediterranean sphere. In European countries, rehabilitation activity represents
almost 50% of total activity in the sector, while in the countries of the south and east of the
Mediterranean basin, this activity does not amount even to 10% of activity in the sector, despite
its importance concerning economic development and the social cohesion of the population.
To achieve this aim, RehabiMed's approach has been to work in three directions. Firstly, we have
developed some strategic and methodological tools orientated towards rehabilitation; alongside
these, we have carried out various publicity actions and training for professionals in the spirit of
the content of the tools developed; and, finally, we have launched four pilot operations with real
rehabilitation work to test, experiment and demonstrate the importance, possibilities and
positive effects represented by good rehabilitation policy.
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They have been three years of hard work, constructive debates and experiences shared with
experts, with students and, above all, with the population directly linked to our actions, which
has allowed us to meet the objective we initially set. We believe that the results are excellent and
that we have created a good starting point for rehabilitation to get off on the right foot, giving
meaning to the tools created, the training given and the experiments carried out.
I am delighted to present the first volume of our methodological work, the result of the effort of
more than 150 experts from different professional spheres in 15 countries. The texts in this
publication contain the RehabiMed Method for rehabilitation of Traditional Mediterranean
Architecture, which have been considered and drawn up at length to respond to the concerns of
our collaborators and experts. In addition, the publication develops the different points put
forward by the RehabiMed Method to provide guidelines on specific proposals, to facilitate their
application and to show different situations sharing very similar forms of action in the
rehabilitation of the regional and urban heritage of traditional architecture. All this should serve
politicians and officers of the different administrations to make it easier for them to generate and
develop their initiatives to promote rehabilitation from a very broad frame of reference, raising
the awareness of the population and getting it to take an active part in decision-making.
Xavier Casanovas
RehabiMed Project Manager
RehabiMed Method
Traditional Mediterranean Architecture
II. Rehabilitation. Buildings
Preface
Introduction
Traditional Mediterranean Architecture 9
A changing world. Architecture under threat 11
Rehabilitating Traditional Mediterranean Architecture 13
The RehabiMed Method on the scale of the building. The Guide and its constituent tools 14
Part 1.
The RehabiMed Guide to the rehabilitation of traditional buildings.
An integrated approach to the building
I. Knowledge
1. Preliminaries 21
Decision to take action / Interview with the client 21
Preliminary diagnosis 22
The preliminary diagnosis report 22
2. Multidisciplinary studies (analysis) 23
Establishing of provisional hypotheses 23
Programme of multidisciplinary studies 23
Social aspects 23
Historical aspects 24
Architectural aspects 25
Construction aspects 27
IV. Lifespan
7. Maintenance 39
Publicizing the buildings values among the community 39
Choice of the model of maintenance 40
The identity card 40
Maintenance work according to a timeframe 41
Part 2.
The RehabiMed tools.
An aid to the rehabilitation of traditional buildings
I. Knowledge
IV. Lifespan
Introduction
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Introduction
X
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Introduction
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Introduction
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Introduction
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Istanbul, Turkey
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Introduction
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Cairo, Egypt
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First part
An integrated approach
to the building
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Objectives of the Guide It is also a guide that sets out to be, as far as possible, scientific,
objective and precise, and one that places a great deal of
emphasis on the initial phases of diagnosis and reflection prior to
the project; it is a guide that disagrees with interventions in built
With the aim of rehabilitating traditional architecture in a environments carried out without a thorough knowledge of the
conscious, orderly and adequate manner, this document offers the building and its circumstances, on the basis of the fact that this is
architect/engineer a guide1 to follow during the rehabilitation of how its always been done; a guide that mistrusts the excesses
traditional buildings. produced by a blind faith in new technologies applied without
The way we have chosen, though not necessarily the only one, criteria; and, finally, a guide that aims to cut back the habitual lack
first of all defends the need to preserve the fact of dwelling, both of economic control of rehabilitation work.
in the sense of improving the living conditions of inhabitants and It is quite true that for each specific building it is necessary to find
preserving the meaning of this architecture within the community. the scale and scope of each of the stages proposed. The
Secondly, it sets out to recognise traditional architecture as part of RehabiMed guide therefore presents a general outline of maxims
the Mediterranean cultural landscape. Its rehabilitation with a to be adapted to each specific case.
minimum rigour represents the transfer to future generations of The guide takes as its starting point the premiss that if we do not
heritage values (historical, artistic, memorial, testimonial, etc.). know, we are unable to reflect and, therefore, we cannot
We have to point out that acting according to these principles calls rehabilitate. It therefore proposes four divisions of the process
for an arduous task of sensitization: of the technical professionals, (knowledge, reflection and the project, the work, lifespan) within
because most of their university training is based on the which the different stages of work are carried out.
construction of new buildings using reinforced concrete and The aspects of architecture and construction proposed in a guide
industrialized techniques that are hard to reconcile with this of this kind for the rehabilitation of buildings might seem to be
architecture, and of the community, because it is vital for it to well known to all, but the very fact that they are known often
recognise the testimonial value of its architecture. To this end, we leads to false premisses in the various stages, and the quality of
propose mechanisms for the communitys active participation in rehabilitation work tends to suffer.
decision-making. TOOL 1 To close this introduction, we would just like to remind that this
guide acquires its maximum value when it is applied in a broader
area of action, whether on the scale of the district, the town or
the territory, and as part of a coordinated action plan as proposed
in the RehabiMed Method for the rehabilitation of traditional
Mediterranean architecture.
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The phases of the Guide As a rough guide, we might say that, while in general practice the
process comprises just two phases (the decision to take action and
the work itself), RehabiMed proposes a sequential procedure, a
process in four consecutive phases that begins with the decision
RehabiMed observes how, in practice, the client decides on a series to act:
of improvements or changes to be made to a building and
immediately undertakes rehabilitation work. In some cases, the client I. Knowledge: any intervention must be preceded by knowledge
will consult an architect/engineer, but the result of rehabilitation is of the building and its occupants. Stage one (1. Preliminaries)
the reflection of the immediate needs of the moment. Some would includes the clients decision to take action but takes the form
argue that it has always been so, that this is an architecture without of a preliminary diagnosis that makes an initial, objective
architects, but we all know that the organic growth of pre-industrial valorization of the proposal and the object of intervention (the
architecture responded to techniques and conducts that were building and its users). The complexity of the building usually
distilled by tradition and carried out by true professionals, calls for a second stage of knowledge (2. Multidisciplinary
experienced workmen, whether master builders, masons or maalem, studies (Analysis)), based on meticulous disciplinary research to
who all form part of a world that has practically disappeared. The analyse3 social, historical, architectural and construction
proposal of the systematic participation of university-trained aspects.
technical professionals may seem a frankly technocratic alternative,
but we think it responds to the reality of the far-reaching social II. Reflection and the project:once knowledge of the building
changes in the Mediterranean basin. All of these technical and its users has been acquired, we can go on to reflection,
professionals have to be aware of the inevitability of most of these which represents a third stage, 3. Diagnosis (Synthesis), that
changes and the fact that, as Kevin Lynch2 reminds us, they will synthesizes4 the information collected during the previous
probably only be able to manage transitions. phase. This stage individually explores problems and their
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causes, and produces an overview of the buildings potentials IV. Lifespan: it would seem that once rehabilitation of the
and deficits. The fourth stage (4. Reflection and decision- building is complete, the process is at an end, but we also
making) picks up the clients ideas for rehabilitation work and include a seventh and final stage, 7. Maintenance, which
seeks to reconcile them with the reality of the building, its comprises minor cleaning work, repairs and renovations carried
heritage values, economic possibilities for investment, etc. At out according to a timeframe throughout the buildings
this point the criteria of intervention are confirmed (how to lifespan until future rehabilitation (a major operation that will
conserve, to what extent to transform, etc.), and they must restore the building to the standards of the time). Particularly
therefore be guided by a solid professional ethic. And, finally, important in this stage are periodic inspections to detect
on the basis of sound criteria, it is now possible to move on to deficits and new needs before the building begins to decline.
the fifth stage (5. Project) and the drafting of the project
document that enables the contracting, constructing and
control of rehabilitation.
III. The work: Having passed through these two major stages,
phase six (6. Rehabilitation), will be far more precise, preserving
the values of the building, adapting better to the clients needs
and, though apparently contradictory, at a lower economic cost
because the uncertainties surrounding work have been better
defined. But in order to guarantee the quality of physical
rehabilitation work, the contracting of the builder and his
collaborators is vital, be they artisans, restorers or other
specialised companies.
This graph shows the conceptual difference between rehabilitation and As shown in this poster printed by Guarda City Council, although each of the
maintenance: from the moment of its construction, the building starts to age; streets inhabitants carry out with the best of intentions operations that might
if minor maintenance operations are carried out periodically, the building will age be termed rehabilitation, without supervision, a guide or criteria of conservation,
more slowly; finally, it reaches a point when the living standards of the time make the street will ultimately be changed to the point that it is unrecognisable. (Cmara
it obsolete (what we call the end of its lifespan) and a rehabilitation operation will Municipal da Guarda, 1985, Portugal).
be necessary.
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I. Knowledge
X
1 Preliminaries
This first stage brings together all the necessary contacts to begin
a buildings rehabilitation process, once the client has decided to
do so. The themes addressed are very varied in order to allow a
sufficiently open initial approach to the general framework of the
operation. This stage turns around what is generally called the
preliminary diagnosis, a phase of orientation for the client.
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I. Knowledge
X
intervention and perceive the more determinant needs which may Alongside the inspection, the architect/engineer has to investigate
be different to the owners initial concerns. the buildings legal status with a view to finding out the urban
The owner may also have decided on rehabilitation of the building planning obligations and restrictions to which it is subject
for purposes of financial investment, and in this case the (permitted urbanistic use, level of listing, legal protection imposed
architect/engineer has to be a good advisor with regard to the by urban planning, mortgages, censuses, etc.) and the grants that
legal aspects and economic cost of the operation. may be applied for in the event of rehabilitation. The degree of
heritage protection of the area and/or building is generally decisive
Preliminary diagnosis TOOL 2 to the operation. Initial contact with the corresponding authorities
The key point in this first stage is the preliminary diagnosis. This (municipality, regional administration, etc.) may help to clarify this
involves an initial global approach to the building, its values context. It is also necessary to detect the legal conditions of the
(architectural, historical, etc.) and its problems (related to buildings occupants: low-rent tenants, occupied dwellings, sublet
construction, habitability, etc.) by means of a preliminary tenants, etc.
inspection of the building. This first visit takes the form of a visual
inspection in which the architect/engineers experience plays a The preliminary diagnosis report
fundamental role. A visit to the whole building will be conducted After inspection and legal consultations, the architect/engineer has
in an attempt to recognise the construction system used, its an initial understanding of the building and will have detected its
characteristic architectural values, the pathologies affecting it, deficits and potentials.
associated social problems, etc. Particular attention will be paid to The preliminary diagnosis report may clearly include in summarised
the load distribution and water drainage. form the data collected, and must evaluate the buildings state of
All of this information can be compiled in one or various conservation and set forward recommendations. The expert may,
systematized inspection sheets. This is the case of the MER in then, from the start of the process, inform the owner of the
France and Switzerland, and the Test Mantenimiento in Spain, etc. possibilities of rehabilitating the building and technical and economic
Some of these inspection methods have recently incorporated restrictions. At this point, the client has to decide whether to
data associated with the buildings energy behaviour and other continue with his or her initial ideas or reformulate the intervention.
environmental parameters. This report may of course take the verbal form of an interview, but it
In situations of major fragmentation of ownership of the building, is always best to make a written record, as the client may wait several
a series of interviews is required to guarantee the participation of months to make a decision or consult another expert, and the
all owners and users of the building. written word is always more precise.
If the building is in a good state of repair and no major changes are
foreseen, we can go straight on to stage 7 (7. Maintenance) and
propose a preventive maintenance plan. However, 90% of cases call
for a second stage of multidisciplinary studies before starting
rehabilitation.
During the first visit, the architect/engineer has to acquire an overview of the
buildings problems (Como, Italy)
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I. Knowledge
X
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I. Knowledge
X
definitive rehousing of inhabitants with very close links to the knowledge of both cultures and the possibility of combining them
municipality should be organized. harmoniously.
Furthermore, in the world of traditional architecture, anthropology
may provide us with valuable data about the social significance of Historical aspects
the house, use of spaces, customs, etc.all the intangible aspects Architecture, and this also applies to the traditional form, is valued
related to the communitys perception of its architecture. In the when it can be recognised as part of a tradition. The introduction
case of constructions that are as fragile as traditional architecture, of historical studies always helps to set far more solid criteria of
anthropological studies should be promoted to document forms intervention.
of dwelling that are in danger of disappearing. The fact that many First of all, the historical method explores documentary sources
dwellings in traditional neighbourhoods are now inhabited by (notary archives, family archives, old photographs, past projects
people emigrating from other traditions implies the need for for the building) in order to compile data that helps to understand
the building and its transformations. At the same time, the
building itself is a splendid historical document that can be
carefully studied as material culture using the archaeological
method that is generally conducted alongside the graphic survey
of the building (test drilling in walls, analysis of construction
materials, stratigraphic analysis of the building, etc.).
Another historical discipline, oral history, plays an important role in
the rehabilitation of traditional architecture. Asking questions of the
elderly may produce very useful data about the building and also
about traditional construction techniques that are disappearing.
Architectural aspects
Without a good graphic survey of the building it is difficult for the
architect/engineer to understand it and therefore to produce a
project in keeping with reality. The level of complexity of the
building and planned interventions will suggest the most suitable
An understanding of the customs associated with traditional lifestyle is part and
parcel of a careful approach to its architecture. The ethnographer Violant i Simorra
studied the customs of the people of the Pyrenees before transformation.
Rehabilitating a building is not intervening in an object; a house is the reflection of Deeds, wills, bills of sale and old plans form part of a rich documentary heritage
the people who live there, and it is necessary to find out their concerns, aspirations that provides first-hand knowledge about the history of a building (Santa Perptua
and needs. (Baakline, Lebanon) de Moguda, Spain, 1777 ACA).
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I. Knowledge
X
type of plan and its degree of precision. The type of survey may be techniques and their pathologies from a construction
manual (using a tape measure), topographic or photogrammetric. viewpoint. TOOL 4
In all cases, all efforts must be made to produce a precise plan, The way a 21st-century architect/engineer sees traditional
since it will provide the basis for all subsequent work. architecture is inevitably a present-day viewpoint marked by
At the same time, good photographic or video documentation is present-day concerns. It is important to take into account the fact
extremely useful, since it retains elements that may go unnoticed that the very idea of cultural heritage is a cultural construction of
at first sight. the last 200 years. In this respect, the value and authenticity of
A graphic plan is not only an abstract measuring operation. traditional Mediterranean architecture, in all its diversity, cannot
Drawing the building is the best way to discover and understand be valorized by a fixed criterion. The necessary respect for the
it. An important part of the plan is recognition of the buildings cultures of the Mediterranean basis calls for an understanding of
architectural values and the graphic plan of materials, construction architecture in its tradition.
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I. Knowledge
X
In order to discover spatial and constructional transformations, the architectural A building tends to have a long life, and the exterior image may have changed
analysis has to be based on a historical analysis that dates and identifies stylistic several times in its history. Colour studies analyse the layers of painting and/or
influences. (Building in Barcelona, Spain qaba.documentaci histrica) stucco on the faade with a view to discovering its original decoration and how it
has evolved. (Faade on the Rambla in Barcelona, Spain)
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I. Knowledge
X
Construction aspects TOOLS 5-6 The approach to problems has to be as scientific as possible:
This stage includes the identification of all the buildings physical detection of lesions, a preliminary hypothesis as to their causes
and construction elements, and observation of its lesions. Here we and verification of these hypotheses. The architect/engineer will
should point out that the training of architects and engineers since also have access to a series of experts (chemists, geologists,
the 19th century has centred on the study of construction by biologists, etc.) and tests (on site and in the laboratory) that will
subsystems (foundations, walls, floors, facings, etc.); in traditional allow him/her to identify materials, possible alterations,
architecture the building was constructed as a whole, and it is monitoring of fissures, wood boring insect attacks, etc.
important to address it from this global viewpoint. This stage It is particularly important to evaluate the buildings structural
therefore calls for an architect/engineer who is familiar with the safety in order to avoid accidents. This involves soil investigation
traditional construction methods of the region, with a solid (by means of a geotechnical report if necessary), an analysis of the
scientific and technical training in the pathology of traditional structural coherence of the whole and the structures load
buildings. capacity. This evaluation is particularly essential in seismic areas,
where a careful study of the buildings vulnerability is necessary.
This is a particularly conflictive issue, since structural safety
standards are designed for new constructions of steel and
reinforced concrete, and it is practically impossible to assimilate
them to the traditional reality. The dilemma of simultaneously
conserving and making a building secure can be nuanced by
knowledge of the buildings structural behaviour over long periods
of time.
When approaching the rehabilitation of a building, we
recommend introducing criteria of sustainability and
environmental protection. This involves analysing the buildings
water and waste cycles and energy consumption, and studying
winter and summer comfort levels. Mediterranean construction
tradition has countless bioclimatic solutions that should not be
undervalued due to ignorance of them during an intervention.
This phase should not overlook verification of the buildings
connectivity (state and position) with basic infrastructures
(drainage, drinking water, electricity, telephone networks, etc.) in
order to foresee from the start the effective possibilities of
connection, which in some cases would call for work that is simply
unfeasible.
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3 Diagnosis (synthesis)
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The diagnosis phase must bring together all information in orderly fashion (plans of
values, deficits and previous uses). The team of Professor Luigi Zordan at the
Universit degli Studi dellAquila (Italy) has developed a reasoned guide offering
examples of how to represent this data in order to produce a judicious diagnosis
(Luigi Zordan: Le tradizioni del costruire della casa in pietra: materiali, tecniche,
modelli e sperimentazioni, 2002).
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Confirmation of hypotheses
The initial evaluation should produce an overview of the building
and confirm the hypotheses put forward at the start of
multidisciplinary studies, based on observations and tests.
However, it is always possible to raise new hypotheses (initial
hypotheses not subsequently confirmed, appearance of new
conditioning factors, etc.) and return to the study phase in order
to verify them.
Writing a report
At the end of this stage it is once again necessary to establish, in
writing, the knowledge gained about the building. This report will
list the buildings composition, describe and justify its values, list its
deficits and their causes, and offer recommendations. The
diagnosis report will always be written on the basis of
individuation of problems and their causes, according to the
criterion of technical impartiality.
This is a reasoned expert report and must be written so that other
technical professionals external to the process can understand it,
but it must also include a summary that can be understood by a
non-professional reader. The conclusions must be clear, concise
and complete. This note will specify the strong and weak points in
order to show the potential for rehabilitation of the existing
building.
At the end of this stage we will have a report on the state of the building that lists
the causes of its deterioration, abandonment, etc. (Istituto de ricerca sul legno,
Florence, Italy)
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Feasibility
Now, with a perfect knowledge of the building and its users, it is
possible to study the feasibility of the clients ideas. A further
dialogue will take place with the owner about his/her future needs
and economic possibilities with regard to the potential of the
existing building.
The feasibility study will be based on three partial studies: 1. What
we call the transformability map, which simply compares and
contrasts the maps of values, deficits and previous uses produced
in the last stage, showing which parts of the building would be
subject to changes (eliminations, additions, alterations, etc.) and
which parts should be conserved to preserve their value; 2. The
programme of new uses proposed by the client (the brief) and
rationalized (surfaces, relations between uses, etc.) by the
architect/engineer; 3. The evaluation of regulatory conditioning
factors associated with parameters of urban planning and listing
And, finally, it is time to go back to the clients ideas and analyse their feasibility.
of cultural objects. (Meeting at Selva del Camp Town hall, Spain)
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Another two examples from Professor Zordans guide show us how to graphically
represent what he calls the map of transformability and processes of compatibility
with a view to reflecting on the integration of new uses.
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Decision-making
Having confirmed the criteria, the compatibility of the type of
intervention has to be considered, striking a balance between
improvement to the inhabitants living conditions, safety of the
structure, safeguarding heritage values and the available
economic resources.
And, finally, the decision can be taken, with full knowledge of the
type of rehabilitation work (from conservation to restoration).
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5 Project
Outline proposals
The outline proposals are a stage of comprehensive dialogue with
the client, during which it should be possible to activate the
participation of the inhabitants or users of the building. It will gauge
which of the various planning alternatives best adapt to the
proposed alterations and the existing building by applying the
criteria outlined during the previous phase. From the start, particular
attention will be paid to compliance with the legal framework.
Finally, the client will reach an informed agreement as to the type of
intervention contained in the project.
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The design of the project calls for consultation of publications on local construction The project specifies interventions to consolidate and reinforce the building in
(Paolo Marconi: Manuale del Recupero del Centro Storico di Palermo, 1997 / sufficient detail on the right scale. (Reinforcement of the timber floor of Can
Antonino Giuffr and Caterina Carocci: Codice di Pratica per la Sicurezza e la Plantada, Spain Cristina Gonzalo Diego)
Conservazione del Centro Storico di Palermo, 1999).
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Some municipalities have a traditional colour card for reference when drafting the Work on recovering faades specifies colours but also the type of chemical product
project. (LEscala City Council, Spain) to be used and how to apply it and control the quality. (Faade in Barcelona, Spain
Chroma Rehabilitacions Integrals SL)
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Stratgie
III. The work
X
6 Rehabilitation
Tender action
In order to guarantee correct rehabilitation, the choice of the
builder or contractor is very important. In some regions it is still
possible to find builders who are familiar with and use traditional
construction techniques, though they are, sadly, fast disappearing.
In some cases it may be possible to train the builder(s) in specific
techniques, but in most cases it is simply not possible to use
certain techniques because of their economic cost. If working with
a construction firm that has little specialized knowledge, particular
attention must be paid to the contract in order to supervise
materials and techniques. The type of contract will guarantee the
quality of work and the professionalism of the builder(s).
Some tasks of cleaning delicate walls or artistic works call for the
temporary contracting of restoration professionals using specific
methods and techniques.
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Obtaining the building permit work to the planning of the entry of several trades, to studies of
The programming of rehabilitation has to take into account the site accessibility (a great deal of the work is carried out in the
waiting time for the relevant authorities to issue permits. In the narrow streets of historic centres), interior work using small
case of listed buildings, waiting times may be longer. The report machines (low heights, narrow passages, etc.), foreseeing the
may also be unfavourable, necessitating a return to the project protection of certain parts of the building from the elements and
phase. rehabilitation work itself, and avoiding accumulation of workers.
Furthermore, it is difficult to envisage demolition operations on a
Carrying out the work TOOL 10 rehabilitation site; these will in fact be deconstruction or
Works direction in the case of a traditional building calls above all dismounting operations. At the start of work, elements to be
for flexibility and dedication. Unforeseen events tend to arise as dismounted for reuse will be marked (collecting tiles, timber
work is carried out, and it is difficult to only apply what is beams, etc.) and measures will be taken for the correct disposal of
indicated by the project. site waste. The project supervisor must at all times supervise
The follow-up of the work may, then, allow the ongoing revision dismounting work and take the necessary safety measures to
of the project and reinterpretation of the building in the light of avoid accidents due to partial imbalances in the building or the
new discoveries, which, in some cases, may call for changes to the appearance of materials or products that are dangerous for health
project. (asbestos cement, asbestos insulation, electrical transformers with
The project describes construction solutions to reinforce, PCBs, etc.).
consolidate or renovate an element. During work it will be
necessary to establish mechanisms to verify the suitability of the Handover of the work
construction solution and its correct functioning. Upon completion of the work, legal procedures will be carried out
Important aspects to follow up are initial considerations, economic to consider it finished and, in some cases, to apply for grants.
supervision, and control of the effectiveness of solutions to It is important to use this stage to analyse the management,
reinforce and coordinate the safety of work. construction and compliance of the project with planned uses.
During work a mechanism will have been established to produce Though at this point some aspects can be corrected, this feedback
a dossier about all the work carried out, upon completion. This stage should serve to improve the project phase for subsequent
comprises a series of plans that reflect how the rehabilitation as commissions; no opportunity to learn from mistakes should be
built. This document is vital for documenting work in accordance wasted.
with the Venice Charter but also for organizing a maintenance
programme (see stage 7).
There are also a series of organizational aspects of the work that
have to be taken into account, ranging from the programming of
When organizing the work site, it is useful to put up a notice board showing the
main plans to ensure an overview of the process and pinpoint problems at all times.
(Beit Baluk, Damascus, Syria)
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Stratgie
IV. Lifespan
7 Maintenance
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IV. Lifespan
Maintenance extends the lifespan of buildings and slows the ageing process.
(Cairo, Egypt)
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IV. Lifespan
X
The maintenance timeframe programs operations over the year and indicates which
professional should carry them out. (Carnet dentretien, PI-BAT, 1991, Switzerland)
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1 = programme
maintenance plan 7
PRELIMINARIES Good state, with new MAINTENANCE
needs
= extend studies
Serious problems of
I. KNOWLEDGE
go to
habitability (over-
crowding, fire security)
2
Legal framework of
building and users
= extend studies
Serious problems of
structure MULTIDISCIPLI-
NARY STUDIES
= evacuation and
extend studies
(ANALYSIS)
2 Social aspects
Socioeconomic
Historical aspects
Study of documentary
go to
5
MULTIDISCIPLI-
NARY STUDIES
approach
Anthropological
sources
3 PROJECT
(ANALYSIS) Archaeological method DIAGNOSIS
approach
(SYNTHESIS)
Oral history
Establishing Programme
Outline proposals Project
of of
provisional multidiscipli- Architectural aspects Construction aspects Technical parameters Documentation
Planning alternatives
II. REFLECTION AND THE PROJECT
client
Colour and decoration Environmental Sustainability Technical specification
study parameters
return to
2 3 6 Obtaining the
building
permit
DIAGNOSIS REHABILITATION
MULTIDISCIPLI-
(SYNTHESIS)
NARY STUDIES
(ANALYSIS)
Diagnosis
Dossier of work as built Avoid accumulation of
Map of former and/or Contracting specialists
workers
existing uses
Recommendations
Decision- go to
Programme
making maintenance plan
Structural consolidation
Maximum
Publicizing the
Evaluation of
transformation go to building's values go to
IV. LIFESPAN
Fire prevention
5 community
1
PROJECT PRELIMINARIES
Complete rehabilitation
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Second part
An aid
to the rehabilitation
of traditional buildings
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I. Knowledge
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Traditional Mediterranean Architecture.
Territory, landscape and traditional architecture
1 architecture for the concept and actual name of the house to be cisterns, tanks, deposits and supplies of water for human and
used to identify not just dwelling place but also the estate as a animal consumption and watering, such as washing places, water
whole and its associated properties, seen as a symbolic place of troughs, pools, aqueducts and irrigation channels, and the
coexistence and production. constructions and mechanisms that extract water from its natural
These auxiliary architectures vary a great deal in their nature. They courses and wells, such as dams, millraces, crankshafts and
basically serve farming or livestock functions or provide back-up waterwheels, for services such as the forge, the smithy and the
for these productive activities, separated from the house for kiln. Others provided infrastructure for hunting activities, such as
reasons either of function or hygiene, such as stables, sties, ovens hides, kill sites or pits to catch bears, wolves or other vermin. The
and kilns, granaries, silos, barns, drying sheds, storehouses, architectures of civil and religious institutions were represented by
threshing grounds, cellars, dovecots, apiaries, refuges, etc. There the town hall, with various facilities for education, justice, food
are also others that respond to the same needs but are collective supplies, trade, lodging, health, sport and celebrations, such as
in use or ownership, such as granaries, refuges, livestock pens and
folds, etc., some of them permanent and some used in
transhumance.
Another group of architectures provides facilities or public services
to the community, often adopting traditional forms and
organizations, and, on occasion, forming part of the housing
programme. In some cases, these architectural elements were the
property of the council or collective associations, sometimes also
providing revenue for them to support the development of their
activities. These included various types of fountains, wells,
Caseros in La Axarqua (Spain), based around modern raisin production Alquzar (Spain), Al kassar, a town founded in the 13th century beneath the 10th-
century castle of Arabic origin
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Traditional Mediterranean Architecture.
Territory, landscape and traditional architecture
schools, prisons, pillories, counsel trees, markets, souks, shops, fulling mills, saltworks, pottery, glass, iron, lime and plaster kilns, 1
guilds, almuds, corn exchanges, fondouk or khan, salt different artisan workshops, textile mills, tanneries, dyers and
storehouses, psitos, tithe barns, tercias, hostelries, inns, taverns, forges. Extraction activities covered mines, quarries, kilns and
hostels, baths, hospitals, poorhouses, hospices, bowling alleys and mineral-panning sites. There was also the organization and
pelota courts, complemented in some cases by private activity. The elements of certain road infrastructures (actual roads, cart tracks
specifically religious included churches, mosques, synagogues, and paths, livestock tracks, paths, or bridges, pontoons,
oratorios, sanctuaries, wayside crosses and cemeteries. footbridges, sewers, etc.) and systems of irrigation and those
Pre-industrial architecture dedicated to production, which may be associated with sailing and fishing activities, such as ports,
listed under some of the previous headings, included mills driven wharves, shipyards, moorings and hatcheries. Another heading
by beasts of burden, water or wind, olive-oil mills, presses, paper was the treatment of public space (pavements, steps, ramps,
and sugar mills, smithies, coppersmiths, water-driven sawmills, roofs, pergolas, benches and vegetation), elements to form and
enclose farming space, such as terraces, fences, hedges, walls,
enclosures, gates, etc., or these elements organized to this end,
exemplified in such exposed spaces as some African oases, where
the palm grove becomes a solar roof, beneath which fruit trees
grow, and the lower level becomes a vegetable garden, feeding
on the structure of irrigation channels, enclosed by dense
palisades made of palm branches that protect it from the desert
sands.
Added to these organizations are the public spaces they form,
which, in both the urban and the rural worlds, are notably
complex. They are defined and organized by significant buildings
and elements, with specialized uses linked to a whole range of
activities (public, civic and religious, representative, commercial,
festive, productive, access-related, etc.) in squares, avenues,
gardens, streets, alleys, dead ends, open drains, atriums,
fountains, watering and washing places, tracts of land, threshing
grounds, crossroads, fords, etc.
Landscape of terraced crops in La Alpujarra, Ohanes (Spain) The humanization of the landscape: Bentarique (Spain)
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Traditional Mediterranean Architecture.
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1 This represented a whole series of architectures ranging from a truly be termed cultural.
degree of organizational and constructional complexity, the The Charter on the Built Vernacular Heritage drafted by ICOMOS
building of which called for the participation of artisans or in 1999, a continuation of the Venice Charter, provides in its
specialist tradesmen, to other, more basic examples, which were introduction a summarized characterization of this cultural
simply built by the individual in question, alone or with the help of product, tabling an incipient territorial vision:
others. In short, a complex and varied body of architecture that
gives the Mediterranean territory its own specific identity, The built vernacular heritage is [...] the fundamental expression
reflecting both local specificity and cultural relations in the of the culture of a community, of its relationship with its territory
architectural forms that were the result of historical exchanges, and, at the same time, the expression of the world's cultural
and in which each part, no matter how small, goes to shape the diversity.
character of these different Mediterranean landscapes that can
The human scale in rural landscapes: casero in Santa Mara de Nieva (Spain) Salobrea (Spain), Greek settlement on a former island, with the sugar cane
plantations, of Arabic origin, and the Arabic and Christian town centre, crowned by the
citadel
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Vernacular building is the traditional and natural way by which phenomena were dominated by the rural nature of their 1
communities house themselves. It is a continuing process surroundings, based on production and evolution within the
including necessary changes and continuous adaptation as a mechanisms of tradition and therefore associated with a specific
response to social and environmental constraints. territory.
The process of designing and constructing this architecture was
based on models that varied in accordance with individual
Values of traditional mediterranean architecture experiences, needs and possibilities. These variations mean that in
many cases we are dealing with open models, characterized by
Traditional Mediterranean architecture can be characterized as a the presence of significant shared elements, forms or parts. Some
pre-industrial product, set in both the urban and, particularly, the authors even consider types as such not to exist, contrasting with
rural environment, where, until well into the 19th century, urban the so-called primitive vernacular architectures, products of
societies with little stratification and limited economic and social
development, in which the types are more closed and constant.
The forms used by the latter are present in the Mediterranean area
above all in the form of refuges, cabins, shacks and tents,
adopting elementary organizations that exist alongside the most
complex traditional architectures.
Models are the result of the collaboration of many people for
generations, including those who used them and those who
constructed the buildings. In this respect, there are no actual
designers, since everyone was familiar with the models. However,
Farm and storehouse, Valle del Mejerda (Tunisia) Waterwheel, washing place, drinking trough and irrigation channel in a row, Pozo
de los Frailes (Spain)
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Traditional Mediterranean Architecture.
Territory, landscape and traditional architecture
Troglodytic oil press, Galipolli (Italy) Watermill adapted to low water levels, Huebro (Spain)
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Public spaces protected by arches can be used as a place for gatherings and doing Windmills in the port of Rhodes (Greece)
business, Ciudadela (Spain)
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Traditional Mediterranean Architecture.
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1 growth. By this token, it is conceived as something simple, clear daytime, sleeping and eating, and even summer and winter.
and easily comprehensible, in which tradition is expressed as a
form of collective control, even in the field of architecture, as a Historical cultural relations across the Mare Nostrum are often
form of respect for others and the environment. A decrease in the imprinted on traditional architecture in the presence of elements
presence of tradition and greater economic development are and organizations that link architectures from relatively distant
related to the greater individual evolution and diversity of the geographical areas in the Mediterranean, qualifying their exclusive
house, reflected significantly in the differentiation and progressive local specificity. In Spain, for example, the concave undertile,
specialization of living and work spaces, particularly as of the Late known as an Arabic tile, which evolved from the Roman tegula, is
Middle Ages, with the appearance of differentiated rooms for significantly referred to as an Andalusian tile in North Africa, as a
An enclosure and roof for livestock; fold in Sesnndez (Spain) Simplicity and cleanness of detail: drain on a terrace, Arcos de la Frontera (Spain)
Collecting rainwater in a dry climate: rural cistern, Los Almagros (Spain) Classical influences in traditional architecture: house in Minorca.
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result of the arrival in those territories, especially in the 16th and we know of the transport overland and by river and sea, since 1
17th centuries, of the Moors expelled from the Iberian Peninsula, ancient times, of certain special materialstimber, stone and
while the different circumstances of its presence in other marbletransported from one side of the Mediterranean to the
Mediterranean territories give it local names. other. The calceranite from the impressive quarry of El Haouaria in
This architecture uses local materials such as stone, earth, timber Tunisia, extracted since Punic and Roman times, was loaded
and other plant matter, establishing a close relation with the directly onto boats waiting in the caves created at the seas edge.
environment and the place. This use of locally available materials Timber from the Cuenca mountain range was, in the 10th century,
directly relates economy and effort with durability, in accordance transported downriver to the east coast of Spain and the Arabic
with the available building technology and knowledge. Their use ports of Denia and Valencia, where it was used to build ships and
is governed by a hierarchy of quality and durability of the material, buildings, and exported to Egypt.
depending on the budget and the symbolic and functional role of Traditional architecture works with the place, both in establishing
the built work. It is not unusual for the most expensive, long- settlements, seeking prime orientations and preserving fertile
lasting materials to be reserved for the main faade, while the land, and in laying out the house. In the latter case, it adapts
remaining faades, parts and auxiliary constructions, of less knowledge of the microclimate, using simple passive systems
symbolic importance, are built using cheaper and less durable based on the thickness and colour of masonry and differing
materials. It is the use of local materials that determines greater layouts, sizes and coverings of openings to seek protection from
continuity of the different construction types, also influenced by inclement weather. The overall shape of the building and its roof
evolution. It is also important to bear in mind significant changes responds differently to wet or dry climates, with pitched roofs and
produced by a variety of phenomena, such as the replacement of projecting eaves or terraced or flat roofs. There were also specific
plant matter in roofs and visible structures due to fire risk in heating systems, with large kitchens that fulfilled their primary
relatively recent times in many places in our territory. Exceptionally, function as well as comprising the centre of domestic life. The
Coloured renderings in evolved cave dwellings: neighbourhood of La Chanca in Complements for the house: communal oven, Zalduendo (Spain)
Almera (Spain)
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Traditional Mediterranean Architecture.
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Plant materials: fence to enclose and protect the oasis of Douz (Tunisia)
Timber and stone: floor structure in the Alpujarra, Pampaneira (Spain) Brick: Mudejar influences in Nezta (Tunisia)
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right-angled pieces of timber. Solutions of this kind are present in over 1,500 m. This distribution, along with an organization of 1
various examples of architecture in North Africa, and they are even compact houses, without courtyards, is in fact the cultural residue
used in the architecture of Turkish tradition in the Egyptian of dwellings of Berber origin that can be related to those in the
maritime centre of Rosetta, in a clear example of historical Moroccan Atlas. The construction and correct functioning of these
exportation. terraces is based on the use of a purplish impermeable clay, with
One of the frequently cited contemporary values of popular a high proportion of manganese, called launa, applied in various
Mediterranean architecture is its function, thanks to these simple layers over floor tiles supported by wooden beams. This represents
yet intelligent climatic adaptations, as an example of the new a complement to public space, very limited due to the orographic
bioclimatic architecture. Here, constructional passivity combines difficulties inherent in these settlements on steeply sloping
with adjustments to sunlighting and the creation of systems mountainsides, using terraces as an open-air workplace and a
incorporating ventilation, the creation of shade and moisture, and space to hang out products to dry.
complementary heating systems in which biomass is the energy Along with judicious adaptation to and respect for place, the use
resource generally used, as methods used by this form of of time-honoured artisan building techniques involving the
architecture to improve comfort in response to the climatic controlled use of local materials and the reuse of any useful
conditions. construction element in existing constructions makes traditional
architecture a useful contributor to sustainable development. It
Nor is there any shortage in the rich and diverse array of certainly expresses and conserves the knowledge, accumulated
Mediterranean architecture of solutions that might be termed and handed down over generations, of the huge diversity of
anticlimactic. The houses in the Alpujarra, in the mountainous historical construction techniques based on different varieties and
region of Granada and Almera in southern Andalusia, feature a characteristics of the local materials used. This shared body of
characteristic terrace-type roofnot, apparently, the most ideal traditional knowledge can be regarded as a true cultural legacy of
solution in this mountainous territory with high precipitation and building know-how in the Mediterranean, an intangible heritage
no lack of snow in winter, with some settlements at an altitude of to add to that of tangible reality, clearly applicable to the recovery
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Gloria stove and trivet in a cave dwelling, section, Castrojeriz (Spain) Gloria stove and trivet in mountainous area (Spain), drawing by Leonardo
Rucabado, early 20th century
Climatic use of vegetation: orange tree in the courtyard of an Andalusian-style Casero with terraced roof in the Alpujarra, Trvelez (Spain)
rural, Testour (Tunisia)
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Street covered by projections in the Alpujarra, Pampaneira (Spain) Terraces and chimneys in the Alpujarra, Capileira (Spain)
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Reuse of old stone materials: Bosra (Syria) A washing place built with reused elements, Arcos de la Frontera (Spain)
Direct, rational solutions as a paradigm of modern beauty: Lucainena de las Torres Simplicity of form and volume as the inspiration for modern architecture: cemetery
(Spain) at Casabermeja (Spain)
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Territory, landscape and traditional architecture
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Rehabilitation of a rural water complex as a tourist attraction. Section of the mill and
hydraulic ironwork in Teixois as part of a rural development programme carried out in
the 1980s.
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processes of the pre-industrial age. As such, it exists as the result Nostalgia is critical of modern society and admires old-fashioned 1
of these processes rather than of a deliberate decision. The very lifestyles (once considerably idealized). From this point of view,
fact of speaking of traditional architectures, of inventing this the idea is to conserve and protect what remains, and preserve
concept, means that there is a historical breakaway from those technical expertise. Its discourse is one of beauty as opposed to
forms of production. To speak of traditional architectures is, in this the truth of heritage. Its intention is often mixed with
sense, a convenient modern concept, despite being a identitarism, insisting the signs of local old societies, regretting
simplification: if there is such a thing as traditional architecture, the apparent standardization of todays world, turning from this
there is also a form of architecture that is not traditional. We have fact to heritage, driven by the passion of finding the differential
seen how the architecture that followed the rupture caused by element. This is a more idealistic stance.
manufacturing and its mass diffusion is, effectively, quite different. Commerce realizes that heritage is, potentially, mass
Yet even before this time, construction was subject to tensions, merchandise.
evolution and the comparison between highbrow and popular (or Functionalism recognises the use value of old constructions and
between architects architecture and artisans architecture, centres on the issue of need to make the old building respond
definitions which are, evidently, not value judgements). to the criteria of present-day quality in association with
In order to be exact, then, it would be better to speak not of economic aspects: the functionalist emerges with the
traditional architecture but of pre-industrial and industrial means disappearance of the illusion of the tabula rasa as a preliminary
of production, as we await the post-industrial, which, I hope, will for constructing the city of tomorrow. This is a realistic stance.
consider both processes for the greater advantage of what is now
called sustainable development. The heritage and functionalist approaches are the two positive
approaches that can serve as a reasoned way of addressing the
2.2 The interest in traditional architecture issue of built heritage, its conservation, transformations,
The usual responses are varying and contradictory: rehabilitation and improvement.
Heritage is interested in the value as testimony of the physical These two approaches are, in theory, complementary rather than
signs of history. The French law on historical monuments, for contradictory, since they bring together the notions of use value
example, refers explicitly to the general interest from a and cultural value. This is even more the case if we add the notion
historical or artistic viewpoint. This is primarily a cultural of sustainability, which brings us to: rehabilitation is better than
reasoning. reconstruction, improvement is better than reconstruction,
sustainable is better than ephemeral, thrifty is better than
extravagant, renewable energies are better than fossil energies,
etc.
Yet the path is not as smooth as it apparently ought to be...
The nostalgia or cultural identity approach seems in theory to be
a rather unconstructive, reactive attitude. Unfortunately, this
approach often creeps into the positive approaches (notably
those of heritage), confusing the truly historical approach of
heritage and an aestheticizing approach that is all the more
dangerous as it is highly subjective.
The purely commercial approach is related above all to tourism.
For the purposes of this article, suffice it to say that tourism is
obviously a good thing for its economic effects, provided it does
not destroy the things it is based on.
If there is a plea to be made for the rehabilitation of traditional
architectures in the Mediterranean, and elsewhere, it is that the
different positive approaches work together: the
cultural/heritage approach and the functionalist/use values
approach. The idea, then, is to combine conservation and
improvement without overemphasizing, forgetting or denying the
economic side. A rehabilitation policy that costs more than new
construction would be socio-economic nonsense: buildings are,
Early 20th-century cement tiles by the firm Escofet (Spain) primarily, to inhabit, to be worked and lived in, not to be looked
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1 at. Likewise, a rehabilitation policy that produced housing or There are just two solutions: to produce new energies or improve
workplaces that were markedly less adapted to modern life than the performance of the existing. So the windows are replaced, as
new construction would merely sentence itself to death. It is no one knows how to repair existing quality windows and
important to know how to both conserve and improve. Perhaps reinforce them (for example, with double glazing). Suddenly,
the happy medium lies in sustainability: we all know now that instead of addressing good technical solutions for
there is no future in the overconsumption of resources as it repair/reinforcement, the debate turns to aesthetics: using glazing
continues to be practised today. bars, using wood... Wood is the automatic reflex reaction: but
are we sure that the wood we use today to make windows, for
2.3 An example of pointless conflict between heritage and the products it contains, for its source, be it known or unknown,
functionalism: windows is automatically as sustainable as all that? Should we not take the
In rehabilitation operations in France, windows are often the cause issue a little further?
of tension when it comes to replacement. So, why do windows
need replacing? This takes us to the limits of our practice: the aesthetic question is
obviously the least important, though it is bought to the forefront,
The first reason is dilapidation due to a lack of maintenance, errors and the real technical and heritage issue is left to one side in the
in the initial conception or, simply, wear and tear. In this case, it absence of suitable technical solutions: as far as I know, it is only
seemsin France, at lastnormal to throw out the old frame and very recently that the Danes started to bring a more sustainable
install a new one. The idea of repairing an old window on a approach to this issue: conserving and repairing existing windows
normal building site would not occur to anyone. I recall seeing with a production chain for this purpose, reinforcing the fittings to
some lovely 18th-century casements sent to the rubbish tip simply obtain better performance.
because no-one had thought to look for a joinersupposing This example serves to show how the rehabilitation debate is easily
there was one in the areawho knew how to repair the bottom distorted when the heritage and the use-value approaches are
part (weathering, sill cove, subsill), as a new in-set window was brought into conflict rather than combined. As in many technical
going to be installed anyway to improve thermal performance. issues in rehabilitation, compromise is necessary, in the positive
sense of the word, leaving to one side the aesthetic questions that
The second reason is to save energy. There is a great deal to be are, by definition, subjective. In the above example, the questions
said about ways of addressing energy saving in older properties. to ask are:
Technical solutions are still the field of great debate, but there is Is the existing window valuable in terms of heritage (for
no space here to add to it. Suffice to say that energy saving is a reasons of age, construction technique) and, if so, how should
major public issue everywhere, that existing housing is frequently it be repaired and conserved?
a very bad pupil in this respect (in France, in any case), and that In this case, how can its heat- and soundproofing performance be
windows are, by definition, an aspect that cannot be neglected. improved: by reinforcing the fittings? With double-glazing? In this
case, what is the appropriate approach to associated issues such
as ventilation?
If the original window is not conserved, what should it be
replaced by and, most of all, using what material?
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products. This is the lesson to be learned, rather than their supposed But it is not enough to conserve: it is also necessary to improve. 1
aesthetics. By approaching the issue in this way, we would avoid the Traditional buildings have used the means available in successive
olde worlde windows we see all too often in protected areas, which ages to translate the needs of these periods. These needs are not
satisfy neither the historian nor the technical expert. immutable; no one would agree to live today in the same
conditions as two or three centuries ago if there is access to what
the present day can do better. To improve is to take into account
3. Traditional architecture: what are the advantages today? constantly changing needs as regards safety, hygiene, energy and
resource saving. The architecture of old is not an ideal Platonic
The above arguments show various reasons to rehabilitate production just waiting to be rediscovered and re-evaluated.
traditional architecture. Hygienism did not go out with the urban utopias of the last
Firstly, and this is the value most recognised by both the century: built works, be they newly constructed or rehabilitated,
informed and the general public, it has a value as testimony, a must still provide fresh air and light, improve the living conditions
heritage value: to conserve it is to conserve a memory, not for the of their inhabitants and adapt, in Mediterranean towns even more
sake of nostalgia or identity, but because it is a human need to than in many other places. Rehabilitation is a project, not a revival.
establish oneself in time and, in order to do so, to retain signs of Ultimately, traditional architecture has a lot to teach us. Without
it in the form of physical traces. This is why conquerors seek to idealizing it, at its best it has brought an economical approach to
destroy not only people but also their monuments and towns. The technical situations in which our modern solutions may work, but
destruction of Warsaw was a drama representing this point of at too high a cost. It uses local materials profitably, it ventilates
view. houses in hot countries without the need for air-conditioning, and
But ordinary architecture cannot serve merely as testimony. It it implements human expertise in the face of both scarcity and
cannot comprise empty shells conserved as museum pieces. There wealth of resources. These indeed are lessons to be learned, not
are monuments for this purpose, in the primary sense of the word. copied thoughtlessly but analysed to make the most of past
Architecture is, above all, functional, and this is its only experience.
legitimization.
The failure of urban renovation policies in the years after World
War II demonstrates the need to maintain and rehabilitate old
towns. It soon became apparent that the systematic destruction of
old centres to build completely new districts was merely a
dangerous illusion that merely by building everything anew it was
possible to create a better world. This utopia, in the etymological
sense of the word (remember, in the 1950s, urbanists thought
they should build for the coming 30 years, then demolish
everything and rebuild it all even better) rapidly came up against
reality in the form of the economic impasse of this approach, not
to mention human reactions. That reaction was so strong that it
has often led to the opposite extreme: the desire to conserve
everything, to condemn concrete (there is a curious ideological
confusion between forms and material), to imitate the styles of old
towns and architectures, as though the town were merely an
abstract stage set (all things considered, the error of pastiche is the
same as that of the old partisans of the tabula rasa: believing that
the form generates the content). Knowing how to rehabilitate
means knowing how to demolish, because it requires a choice.
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Introduction:
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The Social and Cultural Values of Cultural Heritage in Palestine:
Whose values, the practitioners or the owners?
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I. Knowledge Knowledge of traditional architecture as a basis for rehabilitation
The Social and Cultural Values of Cultural Heritage in Palestine:
Whose values, the practitioners or the owners?
1 Since a lengthy discussion is beyond the scope and length of this play a role in the protection? What is the role of governments in
paper the authors of this paper chose to ask the relevant protecting the right of the public? And what is exactly the role of
questions without necessarily answering them. governments central and local? And particularly in the case of
This brings us to the more complex issue or concept of the Palestine, how does the absence of middle class play a positive or
private versus the public: How does the concept of the private negative role in this matter (issues of ramification)?
space/ownership and the public space/public ownership play into Finally we would like to say that only through the economic value
this? How does the "sacredness" of the private property relate to of cultural heritage do people in third world countries start
the public interest and values? And hence the issue of whose valuing their architectural heritage, i.e. when cultural heritage
heritage it is? How does the concept of citizenship or lack of it becomes an economic source of income.
1 For more information see: Inventory of Cultural and Natural Heritage Sites of
Potential Outstanding Universal Value in Palestine, June 2005. The Palestinian
National Authority, Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, Department of Antiquities
and Cultural Heritage.
2 Areas A: Area which was under the security and administrative control of
Palestinian National Authority (PNA) after Oslo peace process. Areas B: only
administrative control o PNA.
3 For more information on this subject see: Benvenisti, Meron. Sacred Landscape:
the Buried History of Holy Land since 1948. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 2000.
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Inappropriate use
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Architectural heritage: adaptation, use and maintenance
Lack of maintenance
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Architectural heritage: adaptation, use and maintenance
Kasbah, Constantine.
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Ramon Graus
Architect
Lecturer in the Department of History and Theory of
Architecture, School of Building Construction of Barcelona
(Technical University of Catalonia), Spain
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Bioclimatic values in the rehabilitation of Traditional Mediterranean Architecture
The malqaf of El Set Wasela (Egypt) and a diagram showing the ventilation system
and Paterna in the Iberian Peninsula, Matera in Italy), cave quickly. In most Mediterranean countries, the houses tended to
dwellings were built, homes dug into ground that was easy to stand two or three storeys high, with livestock kept in a
excavate, to make the most of the thermal inertia of the site. semibasement ground floor to harness their body heat in the
In colder mountain climes, the kitchen (also the centre of energy) winter (in summer they were sent to graze in the mountains and
is placed at the centre of the house with walls that also harness the interior was cool) and the harvest was dried in the well aired
thermal inertia, though in this case to prevent the heat leaving too attic, providing excellent insulation.
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Bioclimatic values in the rehabilitation of Traditional Mediterranean Architecture
Detached house in the Pyrenean foothills in Guixers (Spain), fireplace and loft
However, when the climate is more temperate and there is an night air and keeps the space cool for much of the day, providing
intense cultural residue, the repetition of a specific model of ventilation but not allowing sunlight or sand to enter. In more
architecture is more associated with the culture of a society than benign climates, however, the courtyard is larger but does not
with the climate. Consider the example of the courtyard house. In have a clear bioclimatic function, since it is closely connected to
desert climates, a high, narrow courtyard (for example in the ksar the culture of privacy of an inward-looking house that
of Tamnougalt in the southern Moroccan Atlas), 4collects the cold characterizes Islamic culture.
Courtyard of a kasbah in the Tamnougalt ksar (Morocco) Courtyard of Dar Ben Abdallah in Tunis (Tunisia)
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Bioclimatic values in the rehabilitation of Traditional Mediterranean Architecture
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Bioclimatic values in the rehabilitation of Traditional Mediterranean Architecture
Eaves of a house in Gjirokastra (Albania) The buildings of Ait Larbi in the Dades Valley merge with the surrounding landscape
(Morocco)
ed-dar, the centre of the house, in Arabic) by Islamic culture and comfortable interior spaces. In this way, the surfaces exposed to
the radicalization of its use, turning it inwards. the suns rays absorbed the heat, but since thick stone or earth
It was in Islamic culture that the courtyard found its ultimate walls transmitted it slowly, the interiors remained cool during the
application, together with vegetation and water. Water was day. The walls then stored the heat and transferred it to the inside,
introduced in the form of a fountain or small pool, thereby maintaining a pleasant temperature throughout the night.
creating a microclimate with a degree of moisture. This This phenomenon, explained here in relation to the walls, is also
environmental improvement also introduced vegetation, as in the applicable to the traditional flat roof. The terrace was a flat ceiling
example of the riad of Marrakech. of timber beams covered by a hands span of earth that provided
a roof and also, depending on the time of year, another room
Local materials, breathability and thermal inertia (bedroom, kitchen, drying shed, threshing ground, etc.). Flat roofs
The world of pre-industrial construction was characterized by low- of this kind are found in the North African Atlas, the mountains of
cost labour offset by the great expense of transporting Lebanon, the Alpujarras of Andalusia and, formerly, across a
construction materials to the site. It was therefore natural to try to whole swathe of the Pyrenees7 and the Alpes-Maritimes.
use the materials closest at hand to the site or those that were Another important factor was the breathability of these walls
easiest to use. This led to earth, local stone, lime mortar or plaster that is, their capacity to absorb moisture and dry out, and to
and wood becoming omnipresent materials in construction. Some balance exterior and interior humidity. This was possible thanks to
materials from the agricultural world, such as straw, were used as a culture of using breathable coatings such as plaster, earth or lime
good insulation in many different solutions. mortar renderings, and whitewashes.
It is interesting to see how this subsistence economy configured
the landscape of a territory. The tones of the earth and stone used Light filters
to build houses blended in with the colours of the surrounding Finally, traditional Mediterranean architecture is characterized by
hills to form an inseparable part of the landscape. an infinite wealth of solutions to provide filters on the openings in
At the same time, what was usually a solid earth or stone buildings (doors, windows, balconies), thereby responding to the
construction (rammed earth, adobe, rubblework, etc.) was variations in our temperate climate with the threefold aim of
characterized by using its thermal inertia to guarantee providing thermal insulation, shade and ventilation.
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Bioclimatic values in the rehabilitation of Traditional Mediterranean Architecture
Gallery with a whole range of filters in Sidi Bou Said (Tunisia) Solar Protection with curtains in the Kasbah of Algiers (Algeria)
Making a hole in a faade has always been a delicate task. There graduate the light and, finally, net curtains or drapes tamed the
was a temptation to make a large hole, but caution advised sun and provided privacy. The Mediterranean is full of different
making it smaller. We have to remember that the use of glass (to types of blinds: adjustable elements to control the intensity of
provide insulation, let light in and allow visibility) was a luxury for indoor light. This is the case of the simple cord blind which, with
those societies and a great deal of ingenuity was needed to make its various positions (completely up or down, half up/down or
as large a window as possible without creating an imbalance in resting on the balcony railing) helps to control the indoor
heat gain. Whereas initially these openings had just a wooden temperature. It also applies to the more complex Venetian (or
shutter with a spyhole (a smaller opening with a small opening Majorcan, depending on the place) blind, a kind of lattice of
shutter), they were gradually succeeded by larger openings adjustable slats on a frame. In this case, the light and air let into a
protected by waxed paper, and it was only considerably later that room can be precisely adjusted: completely open, completely
glass was incorporated. This is a good example of how traditional closed and the endless variations between, as shown by the
architecture is not immutable; it constantly changes as it absorbs, images that accompany this article (directing the light to the
we might say, "modernizations". Adaptability is certainly one of ceiling or to the floor, allowing someone inside to look out, etc.).
the foremost values of this type of architecture, as it has Islamic societies combine the climatic need to filter the light of a
demonstrated over the years. It has taken the incorporation of blazing sun and the culture of the veilseeing without being seen.
technologies that are remote from the human scale to bring about Here the mashrabiyyaa comes to the fore. This carved wooden
a breakaway that traditional Mediterranean architecture continues lattice fills the window, allowing in air and very filtered light while
to resist today as a more sustainable and environmentally friendly allowing those on the inside to look out. Much of the opening is
alternative. fixed but it also has movable frames, also made of wooden trellis.
There is a whole range of solutions. For example, in Catalonia, a
window opening could comprise the frame and the operable sash Conscientious rehabilitation
of the window, protected on the outside by a paravent, or outer Rather than incorporating bioclimatic gadgets, the rehabilitation
shutter, another shutter in the interior behind the glass to of a building has to bring a sensitive approach to the traditional
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Bioclimatic values in the rehabilitation of Traditional Mediterranean Architecture
elements described here. Conscientious rehabilitation work should criteria (for example, in a thick-walled building the north-facing
not prejudice or ignore them. faade can be hyper-insulated, and less or no insulation used on
However, we also have to accept that these passive systems of the faces that receive more sunlight to exploit their thermal
environmental control do have their limits. In themselves, they inertia), maintains the breathability of the walls (for example,
guarantee reasonable comfort levels, but if we want a constant using lime renderings and breathable whitewashes or silicate
temperature of 20C and relatively humidity of 50% when the paints rather than the cement renderings and vinyl paints that
outside values are 35C and 30%, only an active system will do break with this hygrothermal balance), respects intermediate
the trick. However, this is nothing new: to combat the cold in a places (for example, avoiding the speculative appropriation of
traditional house, the inhabitants light a fire, which is merely these spaces by metal window/door frames) and conserves
another artificial system for producing heat. traditional solar filters (for example, avoiding the systematic
A rehabilitation project has to weigh up the needs of a replacement of frames by simplistic aluminium or PVC solutions).
programme (the clients requirements), the values of the Only after integrating these parameters is it appropriate to
architecture in question (cultural, architectural and also consider the real need to introduce an active atmospheric control
bioclimatic) and knowledge of the current state of the building. system (be it heating or air conditioning).
The RehabiMed method insists on the need for knowledge prior Once the building has been rehabilitated, it is occupied by the
to the interventionthat is, it is necessary to make a careful people who are to live in it. We began this article by saying that
diagnosis of the building (including the thermal balance) before the society that produced this architecture has disappeared so the
undertaking rehabilitation. It is, then, necessary to understand new user might not know how to "work" the building. We think
how the building functions, and to rehabilitate and modernize it that new users have to be told how to use it by means of a short
on this basis. instruction and maintenance manual presented at the end of
Having read this article, readers will deduce that we favour a form rehabilitation work. The Majorcan blind would therefore have
of rehabilitation which, on the basis of traditional construction instructions for use to optimize its functioning, as though it were
and ambient control mechanisms, seeks to adapt the conditions of a domestic appliance.
the building to present-day needs; but also brings a sensitive Although, for example, it requires an effort to maintain a wooden-
approach to thermal inertia as opposed to insulation without framed window rather than install the low-maintenance solutions
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Bioclimatic values in the rehabilitation of Traditional Mediterranean Architecture
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Traditional architecture and climate in Tunisia
1 For these cave dwellers, calculations show that the phase shift of In thermal terms, the courtyard is like a cooling shaft, since the
the annual thermal wave was in the region of six months. cool air cannot escape and cools the rooms that open onto it. The
However, whichever form of cave architecture we are dealing facings of the courtyard absorb the hot air from the interior spaces
with, various other factors and elements intervene in the creation and the walls that receive the sun, then emit it and cool down.
of bioclimatic architecture. Different possibilities were adopted by This coolness is then transmitted to the interior of the spaces. The
our ancestors with a view to obtaining maximum comfort and courtyard is, then, a regulating element that benefits the entire
responding to the demands of the occupants of spaces in hot dwelling.
regions, in order to produce a comfortable form of architecture. Finally, we can say that our ancestors had to take into account a
By way of example, the vernacular architecture of Djerba is based variety of factors and elements to achieve a form of architecture
on isolated dwellings with a central courtyard and thick walls, set that responded to their need for climatic comfort, including:
amid vegetation. This construction is called el menzel. Great use is
made of vaulted and domed roofs. The traditional Djerba house is The form of the roofs
characterized by the presence of one or more rooms raised above In summer, the sun shines mainly on the roof. The east and west
the other spaces, situated at the corners of the dwelling. This walls receive half the radiation of the roof. This is why the form of
room, or ghorfa, has a small opening near the top of the space the roofs is important to comfort inside the dwelling.
that allows natural ventilation. Due to their form, vaults and domes are less exposed to the suns
In the case of the vernacular architecture of Tozeur, palm groves rays and the wind. The use of this type of roof therefore helps to
provide a filter to the hot air and the suns rays. The building is reduce the impact of the suns rays at roof level and then in the
situated on the north side of the palm grove, protected from the interior space itself.
sand-bearing south winds. The characteristic faades of this
region of Tunisia are built of solid brick in such a way as to create The openings
projections that offer a variety of shaded areas. The minimization of openings to the exterior is one point of
The exterior spaces of the old towns are also treated with a view consideration. Some faades have no more than an entrance door
to obtaining a degree of climatic comfort. The sabat was created with an opening above it (air vent).
for this purpose, forming shaded areas and reducing the incidence This design and organization of the openings ensures good
of solar radiation on the house faades. ventilation, giving the home interior comfort at all times. The high
This concern is also found inside the house, where the solution of position of openings facilitates the exit of hot air. As a result, cool
building around a courtyard means that there is always shade, air comes in through the doors and out through openings high up,
with a minimum of solar radiation on the various faades of the generating a natural ventilation system.
construction in the course of the day.
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Traditional architecture and climate in Tunisia
Colour
The use of light-coloured cladding for the roof, floor and walls
ensures minimum absorption of the suns rays. Whitewashing or
painting them a light colour (particularly white) helps insulation by
reflecting solar radiation.
Kairouan, Tunisia
Tunis, Tunisia
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A tool to develop the use of solar cole des Mines de Paris, France
This atlas offers a unique instrument dedicated to the knowledge irradiation values (going from daily to hourly values, conversion
and exploitation of the solar resources in the Mediterranean basin. from horizontal to titled surfaces), spectral irradiance, illuminance,
It is a powerful tool for architects, engineers, meteorologists, daily mean profiles of temperature and other statistical quantities
agronomists, local authorities, tourism professionals, as well as (central moments, extremes, probability, cumulative probability
researchers and students. It covers the period 1981-1990. and utilizability curves). Graphics can be displayed in 2 or 3
It offers fundamental knowledge on the solar radiation available dimensions. Some applications studies on solar engineering can
at ground level, which is of primary importance for both the life be performed too.
and the climate (including the ocean) since it is the primary source This Atlas has been realised on behalf of the European
of energy on Earth by far. The Atlas co-ordinate by K. Scharmer Commission, by a team led by the company GET (Jlich,
and J. Greif, published by Les Presses de l'Ecole des Mines as The Germany), and comprising the Deutsche Wetterdienst (Hamburg,
European Solar Radiation Atlas - vol. 1: Fundamental and maps, Germany), Armines / Ecoles des Mines de Paris et de Nantes
describes the course of the Sun across the sky as it varieties (France), Instituto Nacional de Engenharia e Tecnologia Industrial
throughout the year and with the geographical location. The (Lisbon, Portugal), the Technical University of Lyngby (Denmark),
interactions of the solar radiation with the atmosphere and its the World Radiation Data Centre (Saint-Petersburg, Russia), and
components (haze, turbidity, clouds, etc.), and the separation of Institut Royal de Mtorologie (Brussels, Belgium), John Page
the radiation into the direct and diffuse parts are discussed. The (Sheffield, United Kingdom) and Robert Dogniaux (Brussels,
importance of the solar radiation in various domains is presented, Belgium) acting as advisors.
with an emphasis on solar engineering, where solar energy is used
to provide electricity in photovoltaics systems, to supply hot water
or heat houses.
Ground radiation measurement techniques and instruments are
described. Satellite images are also used. They are combined with
ground measurements to provide a synoptic view of the
distribution of the solar radiation over Europe. The structure of the
database and its main applications are described.
Here, we present 4 of the 26 coloured maps (ten years average
1981-90) that describe the solar radiation and its direct and
diffuse parts. They also detail the changes with time.
The value of the atlas can be usefully extended by using it in
conjunction with the complementary volume and CD-ROM called
The European Solar Radiation Atlas - vol. 2: database and
exploitation software, also published by Les Presses de l'Ecole des
Mines. The database offers spatial (every 10 km approximately)
and temporal knowledge for different time scales (from
climatological means - more than 700 stations - to hourly values -
7 stations -) on the solar resources: irradiation (global and its
components), sunshine duration, as well as air temperatures,
precipitation, water vapour pressure, air pressure in a number of
stations. The software uses the database in either a "map" or a
"station" mode at user choice. Once a station been selected, the
program looks for all the data available for this station. The
software includes algorithms covering the following fields: solar
geometry, optical properties of the atmosphere, estimation of
hourly slope irradiation under cloudless skies, estimation of solar
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Knowledge of traditional architecture as a basis for rehabilitation I. Knowledge
A tool to develop the use of solar energy in Mediterranean basin:
the European Solar Radiation Atlas (ESRA
Global irradiation on horizontal plane. Monthly mean of daily sums. Tens years
average. March.
Global irradiation on horizontal plane. Monthly mean of daily sums. Tens years
average. June.
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A tool to develop the use of solar energy in Mediterranean basin:
the European Solar Radiation Atlas (ESRA
Global irradiation on horizontal plane. Monthly mean of daily sums. Tens years
average. September.
Global irradiation on horizontal plane. Monthly mean of daily sums. Tens years
average. December.
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Steps for an engineering (and non-structural) survey in pre-diagnosis phase
The main typical historic building technology. A good or fair condition of materials and elements could be
The main historic and existing structural engineering systems of conditioned and affected by an engineering solution, bringing
the building. a series of acts that could jeopardize the architecture and the
2 The structural engineering condition of the main building and conservation value of the building, or influence negatively on
its secondary additions. the economic part of the rehabilitation.
The engineering condition of materials and elements which will A good or fair condition of architecture elements might be
affect in a positive or negative way the overall engineering affected by a structural engineering solution, bringing together
survey in the pre-diagnosis phase. a negative influence on the architecture and the conservation
The general physical condition of architectural elements that value of the building itself or on the economic part of the
might be that will be affected negatively by potential structural rehabilitation.
engineering solutions. The pre-diagnosis report is especially meant for the clients that are
The main possible directions of structural engineering not generally professionals in the field of engineering conservation
solutions. and rehabilitation. For this reason, it has to be short, clear to the
clients & non-professional staff, as well as professional and useful
Some questions have to be asked and answered. Why shall one to the professional building staff. An example for any topic dealt
also deal in this pre-diagnosis engineering survey with the ancient with, has to be added in the form of photographs in the written
technology, material conditions and architectural elements report.
condition? There are three reasons for that: Having all these stages and approaches in mind, the first question
will be: is there such a professional person who has all the qualities
Not only is the ancient technology of the main structure described before? How many of these professionals are in each
responsible for the existing structural condition, but it also country/region/place? Can there be a separation between the pre-
conditions the possible solutions from the structural, diagnosis engineering survey phase and the latter phase of
economical and conservation points of view. documentation, survey and design planning? Should they be
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Steps for an engineering (and non-structural) survey in pre-diagnosis phase
The first part of the summary will address the overall report of
the physical and structural condition of the building today.
The second part will present the professional engineering and
structural opinions on the needs for the rehabilitation, for both
the old and new uses.
The third part will point-out the indirect influences of the
different potential engineering solutions on the architecture,
economic and conservation values of the building.
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Steps for an engineering (and non-structural) survey in pre-diagnosis phase
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Support material for the preliminary diagnosis stage
main features, it is time to move onto a more detailed For greater ease of use of this list, the toolslike the contents of
examination, with a strictly organized visit to form a balanced the doctors bag used in the examination of a personhave been
initial assessment of all components and prevent attention grouped into five sections.
2 centring on specific aspects.
During this preliminary diagnosis stage, the form, precision and Collecting and representing the information
quantity of information to be collected are, of course, different to
those of the subsequent stage of multidisciplinary studies. This Drawing board, paper, pencil, rubber, pens, etc.
initial moment is characterized by a search for fundamentally Inspection sheets for the systematic collection of information
qualitative values. Plans or diagrams on which to record interesting aspects
Digital camera
The diagnosticians bag Camera with different lenses to take quality photos of general
views or details and inaccessible places
Below, though in no way pretending to be exhaustive, is a list of Pocket tape recorder
tools that may be useful when carrying out a technical inspection
of a building and which are increasingly joining the contents of For geometric measurements
what I refer to as the diagnosticians bag. This is not a
comprehensive list of the tools needed for any type of inspection; 5-m flexible tape measure
it is merely a few suggestions with a view to preparing the 25-50 m measuring tape
inspection, which must be assessed according to the objectives Sonic measure and laser distance meter, to take measurements
set, the type of building to be studied, its constructional in inaccessible places
characteristics and the lesions that have been detected. Telescopic tape measure for measuring faades
Tachaeometer
Automatic level
Manual level
Flexible tube water level
Steel ball
Picks and ropes
Bevel protractor
Slide gauge
Weavers glass
Plumb line
Compass
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Support material for the preliminary diagnosis stage
Knife
Punch 2
Metal detector
Damp detector
Concrete pH test kit
Reagents to check the existence and type of salts
All the information compiled during this phase will serve to help
the client make a decision. This phase is therefore usually
completed by a written preliminary diagnosis report that clearly
and succinctly suggests a course of intervention to the client (from
inaction or a campaign of studies preparatory to rehabilitation
work to immediate vacation of the building due to the risk of
accident).
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Support material for the preliminary diagnosis stage
Owner
Contact data:
2 Address:
District / Town:
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Height of adjacent building on left: GF+ Height of adjacent building on right: GF+
UTILITIES
Sewerage: Telephone:
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Support material for the preliminary diagnosis stage
FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material onto street)
Claddings and renderings
Balconies
Door and window frames
Railings, grilles
HERITAGE ASSESSMENT (Find out the buildings historical and artistic values)
Spatial structure
Ornamentation
Singular elements
Historical value
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Support material for the preliminary diagnosis stage
Owner
Contact data:
2 Address:
District / Town:
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Built m2 [CTC] Sales price [CSP] Built m2 [CTC] Sales price [CSP]
Control 1 m2 __ Control 4 m2 __
Control 2 m2 __ Control 5 m2 __
Control 3 m2 __ Control 6 m2 __
ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT
[SRV]=[CSRW+LP*ASP*BS]
[VWMB]=[1.1 x ASP x BS]
[CRV]=[CCRW+LP*ASP*BS]
[RMB]=[CRMB+LP*ASP*MSB]
[MBV]=[1.1 x ASP x MSB]
[VNC]= [CNBW+LP*ASP*MSB]
The information included in this document is valid for the following 6 months as of the above date.
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SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Height of adjacent building on left: GF+ 1 Height of adjacent building on right: GF+ 3
UTILITIES
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Support material for the preliminary diagnosis stage
Chimneys Brick -- --
FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material into street)
Balconies -- -- -- --
Generalized damp in walls and floor Ask for a diagnosis to find out the
Damp in the interior 3 A
at ground level cause of damp
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HERITAGE ASSESSMENT (Find out the buildings historical and artistic values)
OBSERVATIONS
The building is an excellent example of the traditional architecture of the old town. It was originally a solid building for a humble family that has been
extended various times over the years. Probably only the ground floor conserves medieval elements.
In the last 10 years, the building has undergone a major process of degradation. The absence of maintenance has led to rainwater leaking into the
interior, causing the deterioration of the timber structure of the roof and upper floor.
At the same time, the building is situated in one of the districts oldest streets and forms part of a whole that is of modest construction but with a high
historical value.
Recommendations:
- Shore up the damaged structure under the direction of an architect/engineer
- Ask for a complete diagnostic study of the building (structural analysis, damp study, historical study)
- Consider a rehabilitation project, since an initial cost study does not suggest the advisability of demolition and the building has historical value in the
street where it is situated.
The information included in this document is valid for the following 6 months as of the above date.
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Built surface area [BS]: 150 m2 Surface area of courtyards and gardens: 80 m2
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Built m2 [CTC] Sale price [CSP] Built m2 [CTC] Sale price [CSP]
ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT
[SRV]=[CSRW+LP*ASP*BS] 358,442
[VWMB]=[1.1 x ASP x BS] 504,485
[CRV]=[CCRW+LP*ASP*BS] 429,242
[RMB]=[CRMB+LP*ASP*MSB] 539,117
[MBV]=[1.1 x ASP x MSB] 573,430
[VNC]= [CNBW+LP*ASP*MSB] 537,878
The information included in this document is valid for the following 6 months as of the above date.
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The preliminary diagnosis. The Cyprus experience
all its elements (original traditional materials, architectural d. All uses allowed by the Planning Zones can be applied to Listed
details, decorative/painting elements etc.) as well as the Buildings/Ancient Monuments under the condition that the
conservation of its environment and its scale. This excludes any special character of the buildings (typology and morphology)
modification leading to the change of volumes, typology, is respected.
2
materials and colors.
b. The new extensions/additions must respect all parts of the In the cases of designated buildings or other structures, the
building, its traditional framework and the connection of the Cyprus Government has developed and established a generous
environment; in parallel, they must differentiated from the package of incentives.
original parts of the building and be reversible as possible, As an example, the package of incentives currently available for
allowing the recall of the pre-interventions status of the listed buildings includes direct cash grants for up to 50% of the
building (principle of reversibility). approved restoration cost for listed buildings located within rural
c. To use, in general, traditional materials and construction settlements or in the countryside and 40% for urban listed
methods; only in cases that these cannot be applied, modern buildings (with a maximum amount of grant C40.000,00 in both
methods with proven efficiency (empirically and scientifically) cases), transfer of Residual Building Coefficient (only for urban
and compatibility with the traditional materials can be used listed buildings), Donated Building Coefficient so that the
instead. owner may sell extra square meters to increase the amount of the
grant up to 50% in cases when it is less, tax exemptions (
including exemptions of restoration costs and rents obtained from
a listed building from income tax, exemption of property tax and
refund of property transfer fees).
The package of incentives currently available for ancient
monuments includes direct cash grants for up to 50% for the
first C60.000,00 of the restoration cost, 30% for the next
C40.000,00 and 10% for the rest of the restoration cost for
buildings of residential use and direct cash grants for up to 30%
for the first C60.000,00 of the restoration cost, 20% for the next
C40.000,00 and 10% for the rest of the restoration cost for
buildings of commercial/tourist use (with a maximum amount of
grant C50.000,00 in both cases) and tax exemptions.
With the collection and study of the above elements, the
designers brief the owner of the building of their preliminary
findings, views and proposals for the restoration/rehabilitation
Wall built of light materials (ntolmas timber structure with infilling of plaster, plan to be followed (requirement of supports, proposed use,
reeds and stone), Nicosia application for listing of their property as historic/ancient
monument), before the kick off of the main study of the building.
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Camilla Mileto
Doctor of Architecture
Lecturer in the Department of History and Theory of
Architecture, School of Architecture of Valencia (Technical
University of Valencia), Spain
3
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The programme of studies
Historical study
However difficult it may initially seem, it is important never to leave
out a historical study, albeit simple, of the traditional building
requiring rehabilitation or, in its stead, of the surroundings, area,
village or town in which it is located. This historical study may be a
simple recompilation of old photos of the building, the
documentation of oral sources gathered with due precaution as
regards possible partiality or subjectivity, the study of buildings of
similar morphology, the consultation of previous cases of restoration,
and so on.
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between the various floors to facilitate the subsequent location of the mortars, the interior plasters, the exterior renderings, the
the floors with reference to them. timber used for the beams, joists, door and window frames, the
Similarly, it is important not to take as read the existence of partition walls, the uprights, the glass, types of floors, roofs, tiles,
horizontal planes, as both ground and upper floors often have flooring, and so on. And not only the materials, but also the way
deliberate slopes, pathological inclines or structural deflection that they are grouped and combined to form the constructional details
may be very useful to understanding the building and drawing up of the building that have two aspects to be considered: function
the restoration project. and mutual physical compatibility.
The mapping of arches, vaults and domes has to faithfully What is the objective of this task? The precise identification of the 3
reproduce their trajectory in space, producing at least one section various construction materials and techniques used in the building
for each curve, and a series of sections in the case of a longer firstly facilitates the drafting of the stratigraphic study but
vault. These curves in section, compared to the theoretical line of secondly, and most importantly, it represents a step further in
pressure, allow us to analyse the state of health of the knowledge of the built object, allowing us to choose and design
construction element. the best processes of consolidation, treatment and repair of the
individual elements that form part of the whole.
Photographic plan By way of example, a wall of bonded masonry or plaster made
This is basically for the buildings external and internal faades. It with earth or lime mortar are different things, and each element
involves producing a map with the help of photographs requires different attention. Various types of timber behave
superimposed with data (photomaps) and put together like a differently in the event of damp and the attacks of wood-boring
puzzle. This requires the use of a computer, as it involves taking insects and fungi. Precise knowledge of a constructional section
digital photographs (or photos that are then scanned), rectifying can provide explanations for a buildings pathologies, and this is
them using one of the many computer programs currently on the just one example.
market, manipulating them and printing them to a certain scale.
A photographic plan of a buildings faades or a photomap is far
more powerful in terms of expression and communication than
the information offered by a metric and descriptive plan. A
photomap represents the object with its exact measurements, but
it also provides information about the colour, material, texture,
state of conservation, etc. A scale photomap offers the same
information as the metric and descriptive plan, plus a great deal of
added data that the drawing is unable to reflect, to the extent that
it can replace the first mapping.
In fact, if you have a photographic map, you can produce the
metric and descriptive plan by tracing the information provided by
the photomap in line form. This might initially seem a pointless
task. However, the manual exercise of reproducing the lines
provided by the photograph reveals to the hand things that go
unnoticed to the eye.
However, it is not important if the means to draw up a
photographic map are not available. Simple photographic
documentation to accompany the metric and descriptive plan
allows the same type of real approach to the architectural object
and provides the same amount of information as a photomap,
with the difference that the measurements can only be obtained
from the metric and descriptive plan.
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The programme of studies
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The stratigraphic study reveals data not recorded in any written documents but
present in the stonework. Traditional house in Sesga (Valencia)
present any signs on its surface, and it will be necessary to look for phenomena may be superficial or deep-seated erosion, air
other signs of its existence. pockets, disintegration, flaking, pockmarking, spalling,
Before starting, it is important to distinguish between two types of subflorescence, etc. Of the materials of animal origin occasionally
phenomena: alterations and degradations. Alterations are used in construction, such as leather, bone (horn), animal fibres
modifications in the material that do not necessarily involve a (wool) or the various additives used to make mortar in different
worsening of its characteristics from the viewpoint of parts of the world (eggs, glues, fibres, hair, honey, etc.), it is animal
conservation. Degradations, conversely, are transformations in the fibres that are most subject to attack by moth and similar insects.
material that do represent a worsening that endangers its integrity In plant materials such as timber, reed, wicker or straw, the
and permanency. phenomena of degradation may be the various types of biological
Alterations do not compromise the existence of the building and attack by fungi or wood-boring insects (anobids, curculionids,
are therefore not the object of concern or interventionon the termites, etc.).
contrary, they mark the effects of the passing of time on the
building and, within reason, form the patina that allows the Study of fissures and deformations
observer to identify the value of its age. Degradation, conversely, The overall symptomatology of the cracks and deformations in the
should receive attention, as ignoring it could compromise the traditional construction as a whole provides valuable data about
existence of the building in the short, medium or long term, the buildings structural pathologies. Often, the simple
depending on the gravity of the case. observation of an isolated crack, without the context of fissuring
It is important to reflect on the plans all the observations made and deformation of the whole building, may be deceptive.
about the stonework with regard to the phenomena of Likewise, sometimes the confluence of various phenomena can
degradation present in the surfaces of the materials. In mineral cloud a hasty initial examination lacking in thorough analysis.
materials, such as masonry, rammed earth, mortar or plaster, these The record of fissuring should be made on the metric and
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The recording of pathologies on the metric plan is another step towards the
restoration project. Old waggoners inn in Torrebaja (Valencia)
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The functional study of the buildings past will help to provide a reasoned function A detailed study of cracking and deformation of a building helps to explain the
for its future after restoration. Traditional house in Sesga (Valencia) historical evolution of its afflictions and the reasons for them. Apartment building
in Plaza del Pilar, Valencia
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The interest in traditional architecture is relatively recent. For centuries, studies have Historical studies must treat each building as a unique, unrepeatable work.
been based on monumental architecture. Tomb of the Kings of Judah. 1842. Negative C-46374. 1925 IAAH-AM.
Private collection.
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of the specific in all fields, historical studies have to reinforce Egypte2, the encyclopaedic rigour of which includes the
differences rather than similarities, and treat each building as a description and analysis of an entire territory and society with a
unique, unrepeatable unit. This understanding will facilitate centuries-old culture. This masterwork includes splendid
rehabilitation in keeping with the evolution of the building. descriptions of the traditional crafts. Along the same lines, also the
product of enlightened mentality, were the first, mainly descriptive
studies of rural areas, such as the work of Gaspar Melchor de
3
On the symbolic interpretations of traditional Jovellanos3 in Spain, and of construction, such as the work of
Mediterranean architecture Antoine Desgodets4 about building tradition in Paris.
The symbolic interpretations to have recreated traditional Although it was the Romantic artists who introduced popular
architecture in the Mediterranean over the last three centuries themes into their highbrow works, the resulting creations were
have been innumerable and of differing natures. From idealized, always idealized. References to local custom were incorporated
picturesque, exotic, typical approaches to more creative, into all artistic genres, from painting to short stories, including
pedagogical readings, these interpretations convey different music. Recognising the influences of exoticism in the seguidillas in
values of an architecture that has, as yet, been unable to cast off Bizets Carmen or visualizing the popular Sicilian ambiences in the
stereotypes. tarantellas of Mascagnis Cavalleria Rusticana are just a small
We find the first interpretations in the accounts of pilgrimages. example of how themes traditionally remote from everyday life
The descriptions in the Rihlas1 centre mainly on the citys more progressively incorporate popular elements.
monumental buildings, like on the Grand Tour, quests for
knowledge undertaken by an enlightened mentality, which Stage sets of traditional architecture
offered descriptions of monumental Greco-Roman architecture. In The first sets of traditional architectures, Mediterranean or
both cases, though the nature of the journey was very different, otherwise, can be traced back to the national and international
the offerings of knowledge about traditional architecture were exhibitions. As a result of progress and innovations, some
always incidental. Yet it was this same enlightened mentality that exhibitions reproduced architectures that symbolized the
generated the first works of detailed analysis and description of unification of territories. A recently unified Italy organized the
some areas. An emblematic work is Yves Laissuss Les savants en Italian General Exhibition in Turin in 1884, with the construction
Ethnographical and anthropological studies are a basic and necessary tool for The light and colour of Mediterranean cities are the most important values in the
understanding traditional architecture as a whole. Spain, 1940. artistic production of the first half of the 20th century. Istanbul.
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of a Borgo Medioevale that still exists today. Geneva hosted the In these circumstances, it is difficult to separate reality from fiction.
Swiss National exhibition in 1896, triumphing with the New symbolic interpretations, developed in accordance with the
construction of the Village Suisse, reproducing the countrys main needs of the tourist boom as of the mid-20th century, have turned
traditional architectures. This was the precedent for the Pueblo old towns and rural areas into veritable theme parks, where the
Espaol built in Barcelona for the 1929 World Fair, one of the most important value is not just unbridled speculation on the
biggest draws of the entire event, which can still be visited today. territory and short-term profits on investment, but creating a
3
As in the case of the Village Suisse, the Pueblo Espaol went standardized product that has almost all the characteristics of the
further than the reproduction of architecture to create an typical villages of international exhibitions. Revitalizing the
ahistorical public space that denies any possibility of future, territory should not mean rejecting this architecture. Nor should it
change or mutability. It is an island in time, a perfect set design, oblige us to create landscapes that never existed, overlooking their
set outside time. Its streets have provided sets for all manner of past and creating frozen images of indeterminate date.
recreations of the past. Last year, the most spectacular scenes of
the film Perfume were filmed in its Plaza Mayor. It is both Traditional architecture and historical studies
interesting and surprising to see how Jean-Baptiste Grenouille As outlined in the considerations above, no type of architecture is
drives the whole town mad in the main square of Grasse, while in immutable, particularly if the architecture in question is traditional.
the distance we spy the Mudejar tower of Utebo in the Pueblo Mutability and changes in configuration or appearance are implicit
Espaol. in traditional architecture, with remodelling or additions of new
In any case, it is quite natural that scenery should be used as such. structural and ornamental elements. We are accustomed to a
What is more striking is the use and manipulation of certain perception of architecture as something practically permanent and
natural settings, considered heritage for their value as traditional definitive, with almost imperceptible changes that are
complexes, as film sets. At Benhaddou, in Morocco, still has a incorporated into our perception and rapidly fade from our
great doorway built in 1962 to film Lawrence of Arabia. This memory. On these premisses, it is difficult to understand
doorway is nearly as real/unreal as the sets built in 1937 in the traditional architecture as mutable, fluctuating and elastic.
Hollywood studies for the film Algiers, during which Pp le Moko Any element in any building, from its foundations to the smallest
is chased by the police through the narrow streets of the Casbah. of decorations, is always the result of a precise happening in
Coinciding with their success at the 1929 World Fair, the journal La Ilustracin Today, the Mediterranean house has become a typical standardized retail product at
Iberoamericana offered its readers this cut-out model of the church of Alcaiz and newsstands.
the bell tower of Utebo.
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space, and also in time, and events related by links of causality, Approaching a methodology
simultaneity or coincidence are what we might call a process.
From a historical point of view, architecture is a process, in that The need to know the context
time is vital to its configuration. A building has to be analysed The analysis of the context involves as precise as possible a
from a chronological and, therefore, historical viewpoint. In very determination of the action, the agents taking part and the target
few cases does a chronological process achieve such a tangible of intervention. There is no reason why each event should have a
3
and obvious physical concretion as in architecture and heritage. It single agent, and an action may be carried out or taken on by
is its most basic, elementary meaning because it provides us with various, each with its own specific contextual circumstances.
intrinsic knowledge of the singularity and essence of each house. It is contextualization that gives significance to the event and
Each process is unique and unrepeatable, as are the results. No knowledge of it, because it explains and gives specific meaning to
two buildings are the same, just as no two sequences are the its constructional form. The elements of context affecting a given
same. action vary a great deal, ranging from maintenance to the repair
Sequential development in traditional architecture is one of its or reconstruction of damage caused by war, natural disaster, etc.,
fundamental characteristics. Irrespective of geographical situation, to other more subjective but equally relevant criteria such as need,
traditional architecture has always taken a long time to develop ostentation, etc. To this end, two types of context can be
and its manifestations share an ongoing dynamic of adaptation distinguished: endocontext and metacontext.
and modification. It is the essentially utilitarian function of this The endocontext is the conditions imposed most directly on the
type of buildings and their long chronological development that agents and, therefore, on their actions. It directly affects each one
explains how a single building may include structural and of the agents and is, in short, what most directly defines the
decorative elements from different periods that may be conserved motives of their actions: physical spaces, social condition and the
according to the criteria selected at different times as priority or immediate circumstances. The metacontext affects various agents
pertinent. This architecture takes the form of the permanent at once and there is no direct control over it: regulations, customs,
juxtaposition and manipulationaddition or subtractionof the technical systems, symbolic values, etc.
existing elements. It therefore requires a dynamic, evolving Knowledge of the city and the territory, their legislative and legal
approach that is never static. framework, and their cultural tradition will tell us why two houses
are alike and inform us as to their similarities. Knowing who lives
in the house, the activities that took place in it, the family
members and their social representativeness will tell us why each
house is different. In short, the endocontext explains why two
houses are different and the metacontext explains why they are
alike.
The historical study has to prioritize the contextualization of each
event in the houses constructional sequence, because without
knowledge of the context there is unlikely to be any knowledge of
the action beyond the merely anecdotal. It is important to know
who the agents were, what the house was used for, where it was,
and how it was built and designed. This involves answering the
basic questions what, when, how and why, which will underpin
our knowledge. Contextualization prevents oversimplification and
reductionism and allows us to identify and give value to
singularities and discrepancies, and this is why the historical
approach incorporates and interrelates evidence of all kinds and is,
in itself, plural and integrative.
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A single building may contain decorations from different epochs, and they must all
be studied and valued equally.
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The documents generated by the actions of the agents have always been Exceptionally, artistic work produced to commemorate the construction of a house
considered the classical documentary source for historical knowledge. can provide valuable information. Transcription: In 1631 Al-Haj Muhammad, son
of the late Haj Jalim, son of the late Al-Haj Tamoun, constructed this house. It is
situated near the mosque of Ibn Toloum. The house was finally transferred to a lady
from the island of Crete, and this house shall therefore be called Bayt al-Kritiliyya.
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Summing up
The novelty of an approach of these characteristics to traditional
Mediterranean architecture means that it lacks, to some extent,
the necessary tools for correct historical interpretation. It requires
a typological systematization of the construction techniques
The spoken word is a value associated with tradition which allows knowledge to be
historically used in each place and time, the application of
passed down through the generations and transactions to take place without the
techniques of archaeology of the subsoil and vertical archaeology mediation of written documentation, with houses being sold and works being
in the analysis of structures and walls, listing and inventory of the contracted orally.
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It is vital to know about the evolution of buildings throughout their history before
undertaking a rehabilitation project. Traditional architecture has for centuries
maintained its process of gradual growth by means of successive interventions.
Knowledge of them is the basis for respectful intervention. The Torre del Fang:
growth and transformations over seven centuries. Photographs: 1 (1890); 2 (1920),
3 and 4 (2006).
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3
Before drafting the rehabilitation project for a building, it is
necessary to have comprehensive knowledge of its history and
elements in order to form a complete picture: its successive
phases, evolution in time, the changes undergone and the causes
for them. Only after discovering these things is it possible to
decide how to proceed in the rehabilitation process: which
elements to keep, restore or highlight, and which to demolish.
In this way, it is possible share with others the sometimes thrilling
history hidden in the walls and the subsoil of the building. In order
to make the building speak, we first have to get to know it.
There are various ways of achieving this, all based on research,
with recourse to other disciplines beyond the specific field of the
architect: history and archaeology.
Archaeology is a science that detects, examines and analyses
material evidence. Removing the earth to reach human vestiges, The remains of a medieval convent uncovered by a recent excavation beside an
studying and documenting their successive phases, reading the early 20th-century building in the old town of Nicosia
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outlines of arches and bricked-up openings beneath the Detecting the renderings. Sometimes the walls give the impression
rendering, which need only be removed from this specific place in of never having been rendered, though this is not always the case.
order to show the opening and rehabilitate it. In important or A careful examination of the masonry may reveal traces of
delicate cases, thermography, endoscopy or other non-destructive rendering in a corner, at the top of the wall, protected by the
tests may be applied. projection of the roof or remaining in the gaps between the
It is difficult to date masonry in itself, because Cypriot masons stones. Sometimes it is enough to observe the technique used to
3
have used more or less the same construction techniques for build the wall in order to deduce that it was originally rendered:
centuries. This calls for an examination of the mortar used as stone masonry built to be rendered (with plaster, for example) is
bonding. The components of the mortar may help to date the not very neatly constructed because it is not meant to be visible
masonry approximately. If it is not possible to identify the mortar and is made irregular to allow the rendering to take more easily. It
by organoleptic means, it can be sent to a laboratory for testing. is also necessary to observe the general style of the building and
All of this information must be documented to complete the plan
and obtain the clearest possible image of the phases of evolution
and their associated modifications.
Observing construction techniques. Walls built using a single
material, such as stone, are not homogeneous to the eye. This
irregularity is due to different construction techniques. A wall may
include a different section representing a later phase, such as an
upward extension to replace a flat roof with a ridge roof. Some
construction techniques can be dated to a precise period and this
is of great assistance in understanding the phases of the building.
Walls on the lower levels may often be more modern than those
higher up due to changes made at any point in the building; as far
as walls are concerned, there is no vertical stratigraphy.
Observing the renderings. The renderings of a building do not
necessarily belong to the same period. Further, the renderings and
their application technique may vary according to the use of the
rooms, a factor that must always be taken into consideration.
Knowledge of the period when a given rendering material was Excavation on the site of a large 18th-century townhouse in Nicosia revealed two
introduced into the country therefore helps to date the building or superposed floors dating from different periods (18th and 19th centuries)
its historical phases. In Cyprus, there are four easily identifiable
types of renderings used for dwellings: earth, earth mixed with
chopped straw, lime and plaster, the most recent. There is also
whitewash, either on its own or mixed with a colorant, such as
indigo. The walls of rural houses may present successive coats of
rendering; they may be of the same type or different, such as an
earth and straw rendering beneath plaster, a material that was
considered to be noble and rarely used before the early 20th
century.
An observation of renderings should not be limited to material
alone. The frequency of application is another factor. An
apparently uniform rendering may actually comprise several
successive coats, as in the case of the whitewash that the
occupants applied to the walls every year before Easter.
The technique used to apply the rendering must also be taken into
account. In urban homes, plaster is applied using screeds to obtain
completely even surfaces, whereas in rural houses, the rendering
is applied freely, following the irregularities of the wall. The The wall of a medieval manor near Nicosia presents the original masonry of dressed
stone reddened by a 15th-century fire recorded by chroniclers of the time and the
architect has to recognise this difference in renderings and apply rubble and adobe construction of the Ottoman period
them accordingly.
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Archaeology as a tool for finding out about the building
individual architectural elements (frames of dressed or carved Examining the joints of the walls. In Cyprus, most of the houses
stone around door and window openings, projecting timber built using traditional architecture grew with the family and its
frames) to understand whether now bare walls have always been needs, occupations and economic possibilities. The original cell is
so or whether their covering was later destroyed or removed. The very often the makrinari or a dichoro, a single room of varying
case of Lefkara, a village where elements of urban architecture size, to which others were gradually added, first on the ground
were introduced by people who made their wealth from selling floor and then the first. This procedure can be seen at the point
3
embroidery, is characteristic. The fashion of bare stone led to the where the walls meet, showing the original wall against which
general removal of renderings from houses that had hitherto another was later built. In this case, the walls are not joined
stood out for their plastered and painted faades, a sign of wealth together, and this can be seen if the walls are not rendered. This
at the start of the century. lack of ties often leads to the walls separating.
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Archaeology as a tool for finding out about the building
In the same house in Lefkara, the difference in renders between rooms suggests
different phases in the history of the building: the whitewashed, uneven earth
rendering pre-dates the 20th century, whereas the gypsum plastering with its
perfectly smooth, even surface could easily date from the early 20th century.
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Intimately linked with its historical origins in the context of
memory stretching back thousands of years, traditional
architecture in Lebanon is characterized by its close integration
with the territory and its adaptation to local resources. Typically
Mediterranean in its materials, forms and colours, the Lebanese
vernacular habitat dots landscapes as varied as the coast, the
plains amid mountain chains and even the high inland plateaus.
Whether rural or urban, these traditional houses are a melting pot
of the collective memory and serve to anchor nostalgias and
identities.
Poorly treated, destroyed and often abandoned, it is with great
difficulty that the traditional house has survived the vicissitudes of
the times and changes in lifestyles. In those cases when it is not
completely transformed or recovered, it is the object of many
interventions in which in-depth knowledge of their construction is Preliminary visual plan (Debban house, Salhiyeh)
often lacking.
Recent rehabilitation projects in the Lebanon are however starting
to apply similar methods to that of the archaeology of the according to the laws of gravity. This method is not limited to the
building. This relatively recent branch of archaeological science is diachronic aspect of the succession of layers, seeking above all to
generally applied to listed historical monuments with a view to integrate the ethnographic aspect of occupation. Unlike an
developing an upward reading of chronological indices, archaeological excavation, the sequences are read in elevation, by
fundamental elements in a stratigraphic analysis. The building construction or intervention phase, rather than by the
studied is, then, analysed as an element of material culture in its accumulation of strata.
own right. The historical study has recourse to various registers in order to
Traditional architecture essentially belongs to a pre-industrial interpret these transformations and restore the configuration of
world. Its evolution with society and the numerous modifications the different stages in the life of the building:
it undergoes to adapt to the needs and the new means available
to each age make it an excellent support that bears the traces of Morphology
these transformations. Architectural typology
The aim of this analysis is mainly to implement a relative Construction materials
chronology of the architectural object and its life in a historical Built structures
context. A concern for comparative typology completes this Coatings and renderings used
approach, along with potential research into the techniques
implemented in the building. This methodological interpretation
of the built work contributes to a better rehabilitation project.
The so-called archaeological approach is essentially based on the
collection of data that serves as a support to develop analyses on
the following themes:
- The evolution of the building as recorded in documentary
sources
- The evolution of the building in terms of its physical
interpretation by means of stratigraphic analysis.
The stratigraphic process refers by definition to a study of
chronologically sealed layers, from the lowest to the highest, Sampling the construction materials (Debban palace, Saida)
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I. Knowledge Overall knowledge of the building
Applying the archaeological method to Lebanese architecture
The information needed to carry out these analyses will be connections that are not visible to the naked eye. Surveys are vital
obtained by various means: to an understanding of built work and are used very discerningly
due to their destructive approach. The material (constructional or
Document collection, directly or indirectly related to the object domestic) collected by these surveys contributes to an
of study: administrative, cadastral, property and photographic understanding of the problem raised.
documents, newspaper articles, publications and correspondence Samples are used to carry out visual or laboratory analyses (fig.
06) of the materials or supports with a view to defining their
Oral sources, drawing on the occupants memories components and proportions. The analysis of samples backs up
Written sources (administrative documents, correspondence, visual observations by providing precise, tangible support.
publications, etc.) The information gathered about construction techniques used in
Iconographic sources (drawings, paintings, photos, etc.) the traditional building can be compared with other, similar
studies in the framework of a multidisciplinary approach.
A preliminary plan provides the basis for reconnaissance at the This approach, often regarded as long and tedious, has the
global scale of the building: based on a visual examination, it must advantage of providing exhaustive information about a form of
quickly be transcribed in a summary graphic form (sketch) and architecture mistakenly classified as primitive. Generally applied
photographs. exclusively to monumental and historical constructions, the
A detailed, targeted plan enables more in-depth research and archaeological method helps to promote the vernacular building
delimitation of the buildings specificities: it will be primarily to the status of architecture that is worthy of interest. The
graphic and metric as the basis for all the necessary supports information gathered in this way serves as the basis for a varied
(plans, sections and elevations). This graphic support at scale database, a comprehensive form of documentation of this
serves to record all the visual observations made in every nook and disappearing architecture.
cranny, completed by photographs. These observations must
however be methodical and differentiate the themes in question
(materials, claddings, pigments, disorders, etc.).
It is in this approach, particularly in the elevations, that the
interpretation and collection of data coincide most with the
stratigraphic method. The vertical dimension of the construction
phases will be worked on the basis of detailed sections and
elevations.
Surveys, judiciously located on the basis of the definition of a
specific problem will reveal intermediate supports and potential
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Some preliminary issues about the method existing building, and the method should be the same, though
adapted to the case: the scientific method. There is no need to shy
The aim of this text is to assist anyone who has to rehabilitate away from this term, because the scientific method is no different
traditional Mediterranean architecture in the essential process of to the rational attitude of everyday life or other fields of human
knowledge and understanding that must precede any decisions as knowledge. Historians, detectives and even plumbersall human
to intervention. beings, in factuse the same basic means as physicists or
A simple way of establishing the concept of knowledge is to biochemists when trying to solve a problem or answer a question.
define it as the capacity to answer different questions: What is it?
What is it like? What is it made of? They all share the aim of
describing the object in question, both the obvious and, The reason why
particularly, the not so apparent. If we answer some of these
questions, we have established what we know. It is a question of following the five basic phases of the scientific
However, it is very probable that we do not understand it. At least, method:
we can say that understanding does not derive directly from
knowledge in itself. In order to understand, we have to be able to Tabling the problem or question requiring an answer
answer a different key question: Why? The reason for all the Formulating a hypothesis that temporarily provides the solution
above: why is it like it is, why is it made of what it is made of, and or answer
so on. Organizing proof or observations to verify it
If we take action on heritage that is distinguished as the Developing the proof or observations, and
consequence of an intense historical evolution, the aim of Checking the applicability of the supposition embodied in the
knowledge has to be broadened to what it was like or how it hypothesis.
evolved from a given state to its present state. As regards the
why, we have to establish why it was initially like it was, why it In order to be efficient in our work, it is very important for the
has evolved in a way that has made it like it is, etc. initial hypothesis to be as close as possible to the reality we are
We have to be aware that this is an activity in which neither aiming to discover. This will depend largely on our prior
architects nor engineers are trained, for a very simple reason. Our knowledge of possible answers to the questions. The general lack
training is technicalour aims mainly involve designing artefacts of knowledge of historical construction is undoubtedly a great
according to a process in which the artefact comes first in our hindrance to this process.
minds and, then, by means of the protocols of industrial or This text aims to facilitate this process of interrogation and the
constructional production, we make it reality. search for answers, especially with regard to historical
When we are faced with an existing building, the situation is very construction, bringing to bear a series of basic whats and
different. We are facing an artefact that already exists and that is whys with a high degree of certainty. In each case, more
not in our minds. Knowledge and understanding of it necessarily questions must be added and more answers found by formulating
require a different method to the one applied in the design of explanatory hypotheses which, on many occasions, it may be
artefacts. impossible to compare and contrast.
Furthermore, if a historical building is constructed using means In general, things produced by technical activity are the result of a
and mentalities that are practically unknown to us, the difficulty fundamental fact: the object in question has to have a value in the
increases by several degrees. environment in which it is produced and this value, when
In this situation, the method should be similar to that of disciplines speaking of buildings, is its utility or, more generally, its purpose.
in which the principal objective is to know and understand One way to find answers to the question why is to pinpoint the
something external to ourselves, like the scientific disciplines that purpose that brought the object into being and the means that
seek to understand our environment. Biologists, astronomers and made it possible. As in many other areas, it is a problem of ends
geologists do not design the objects of their study; they try to and means.
understand them. This is what we should do when faced with an However, if a rigorous study of any kind of object is difficult, one
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A comprehensive understanding of the building
about something as complex as traditional Mediterranean space that is different to the natural space, in most cases by using
architecture may seem insurmountable. vertical elements that support other elements added to them at a
An overview of this enormous diversity (which can be found in the slope, horizontally or in the form of an arch.
splendid book Traditional Mediterranean Architecture) suggests These elongated vertical, horizontal or arched forms have to be
that there are features common to all cases, allowing us to find a constructible and only exist in the imagination of the builder if
common explanation (even if it is masked by the features deriving they have been built beforethat is, they are not imagined forms
3
from this enormous diversity). of which there is no experience.
In this article, I set out to find the common elements shared by all However, any act of construction, as we all know from a very
cases and the variables in diversity. young age, comes up against a major difficulty: gravity. If the
To begin, we could say that the essential purpose of buildings is elements are not judiciously positioned, they will fall down, so this
not the only common denominator; there are also facts that affect constructible form has to be stable from the very start. This
every site, such as something as obvious as the action of gravity, essential issue marks the existence of all masonry buildings though
which is perpendicular to the plane of the sitei.e. vertical. it does not explain them entirely, which leads us to the following
As regards diversity, this emerges both from the means and from variables.
the end as the result of the variations encountered in different Behind any popular building there is a scarcity of resources
places, not just from the viewpoint of climate, an important factor requiring the builder to apply his ingenuity to production
in diversity, but also with regard to the resources available and the efficiency; any solution has to be applied with the maximum of
cultures that harness them, which also change with time. benefits and the minimum physical effort not only for the builder
In order to address all of these points, I will follow the method we but also for the population in general as regards the extraction
use when teaching at the Barcelona School of Architecture. and stockpiling of materials. Almost all traditional Mediterranean
houses are built of materials available near the building site and
based on constructible forms that are stable from the very start.
Points in common Nonetheless, time passes, it is windy, it rains, is hot or cold, and
what initially solved a series of problems loses its initial form or
The end result of any building is always the consequence of a some of its materials and begins to deteriorate. To prevent this
synergetic sum of decisions made about various constructional happening, the builder tries to find out what has failed and comes
elements that respond simultaneously to different ends. It is the up with a new way of making the construction longer lasting. He
consequence of a more or less conscious, reflective process of also identifies the periodical care it requires. This is the principle of
synthesis of various factors. It is a process that does not respond long-term integrity.
to a single pattern and which is, therefore, different in each case The result of applying this principle is a well built, lasting space,
and every place. but this is still insufficient, because it also has to provide the
A study of the building requires these ends and means to be occupants with a comfortable habitat.
broken down into parts to be analysed in isolation. The success of The basic reason for building a dwelling is in fact to adapt the
the operation depends largely on the extent to which this environment. Throughout history, peoples have sought to
breakdown is representative of reality. improve external environmental conditions: to protect themselves
According to the above-mentioned teaching method, any element from the rain and damp ground; from excessive heat or cold; from
in a building is, largely, the consequence of the need for: too bright a light, etc. If we follow the methods required by these
points, we will have an adapted, efficiently produced space that
A space delimited by a built material form that is stable from lasts a long time.
the very start But nor is that enough; the dwelling also has to produce a
A production method that is as efficient as possible pleasing visual landscape, of which we are proud and that serves
A construction that is as long lasting as possible with the aid of to say who we are. The textures, colours, patterns and forms we
suitable maintenance see, apart from solving practical problems, have to be in keeping
Improvement of the natural environment with our visual and symbolic culture. This is what we call aesthetic
Satisfaction, on the part of the forms and materials, of the convenience. If we manage to achieve all of these ends, we have
desire for beauty that all peoples, however simple, owe to their produced architecture, and it is quite safe to say that any artefact
human condition. belonging to the field defined as traditional Mediterranean
architecture can be explained by these five ends.
Let us take each of these principles separately. To focus on the most usual case, settled construction (leaving
The analysis of any construction shows that the aim is to create a nomadic constructions for another moment), the exterior is always
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A comprehensive understanding of the building
separated from the interior space by a series of elements that we Mediterranean basin. The point is to address the consequences of
might call the envelope. It comprises vertical elements, faades diversity, which are the means to meeting those ends which also
built almost always with walls and elements that close the top of respond to a series of ends specified by the placethat is, the
the construction, which we will refer to as horizontal, though its elements used to construct the building. As the first step on this
lines may not strictly that: flat or sloping roofs and, in quite a few path, I will examine the most representative element of the
cases, domes. envelope: the wall.
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The envelope is the essential element that provides the solution to
almost all requirementsspace, environment and aesthetic The wall
convenienceand is subject to the main agents of deterioration. The wall responds to various practical requirements such as the
It will provide the focus for a study of diversity. need for stability from the very start, maximum duration and
separation of the exterior from the interior. It also has to be seen
as a fundamental element in the symbolic, aesthetic support of
The diverse the building.
In form, it is a parallelepiped with its long sides (length) and short
Having defined the common elements, it is necessary to establish sides (depth) perpendicular to each other and parallel to the
criteria for addressing diversity. There is no point here in producing ground; the third dimension, height, is situated vertically. This
a list of the existing places, climates and material resources in the form is the result of its role in shaping the space and, at the same
time, as we all learned when we were very small, it is also the best
way to build a stable vertical element that stands up to the
immediate action on it of gravity.
The long dimension is defined by the buildings floor plan; the
intermediate dimension, or height, is defined by the height of the
space we hope to achieve, and the third dimension, the depth,
which is key to structural behaviour, is conditioned by the
demands of stability and the material or construction procedure
used to build it.
Diversity is the consequence of finding the different responses that
a wall can provide to the ends listed above: stability from the very
start in order to create the space, adaptation to the place from the
viewpoint of available materials and techniques (rammed earth,
brick, stone, etc.).
A common factor in all walls is the fact that they are the result of
the means available near the place as regards materials and
efficient means with regard to the techniques of execution.
But there would be no point in a wall unless, while separating us
from the exterior, it allowed us to communicate with it by means
of something as obvious as the openings that enable us to enter
and exit, see out and in, and renew the air that we breathe. There
is no point in talking of walls without openings or in considering
that openings weaken the wall. There are no walls without
openings; the openings are the wall and the wall is the openings.
The key element in the opening is the upper element that
transfers the weight of the wall above onto the two sides of the
opening or the jambs. This is usually a lintel, generally made of
timber, or a segmental arch built using the same material as the
rest of the wall.
Nor must we forget the vertical elements that delimit porches or
semi-exterior spaces: columns or props. Their dimensions depend
on the horizontal elements used to organize the porch, be they
straight-lined or arched.
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A comprehensive understanding of the building
At the same time, all together, blind wall and openings, it has to Horizontal elements
be long-lasting and the answer is obviously very different if there The major difficulty in constructing a building arises when it comes
are suitable stones on site to make ashlars that can be left visible to the elements that subdivide the space horizontally or close it at
or if there is only earth to make a rammed-earth wall. One of the the top. While the vertical wall works in favour of gravity, the
most frequent causes of degradation is water, either from above horizontal elements by definition defy gravity. A wall rarely falls
in the form of rain or from below by capillary action. (due perhaps to seismic movement), but a poorly supported
3
If a homogeneous material such as rammed earth is used, the horizontal element will invariably fall, or, if excessively
whole thickness is built of the same material. If it is built of small compromised, it will buckle and break, something that rarely
elements, such as brick or rough stone, depending on the relation occurs in a wall.
between the size of each unit and the total thickness, two or three This difficulty, given the diversity of histories, environments and
withes will be needed. In either case, these two or three withes techniques, has generated a rich catalogue of solutions based on
must be perfectly connected, otherwise they may act two key elements: timber materials, which due to their genetic
independently, generating a high risk of sagging. origin are resistant to bending, and the inventiveness of the
If the material is vulnerable, it has to be protected by an outer human constructor when timber is scarce: the arch, the vault and
facing to limit deterioration due to contact with the elements. This the dome.
facing also has to meet the needs of beauty and identity. Of all of these elements, the one with a special role in the exterior
It is important to remember that the wall in question has stood image of the building is the one that closes the top. The roof may
there for a long time since its construction; the wall, and any be sloping, vaulted or domed. It is normally a key element in the
element in the building, is an extraordinarily valuable document aesthetic and symbolic expression of the whole.
for revealing its own history. Changes, additions, degradation and In most cases, the vertical subdivision of the interior space
repairs all go to constitute a document that can help us towards generated by the walls and the upper facing or roof comprises
the key factor that is an understanding of its history. plant materials, generally tree trunks, which are characteristically
However, the elements in which we find greatest diversity are resistant to traction and compression, and, as a result, bending.
those that subdivide the space horizontally. The applications in the face of the two demands on these
elementsstrength and resistance to bendingdepend on the
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A comprehensive understanding of the building
form (the span covered and the edge or vertical dimension) and There is an important tradition in much of the Mediterranean
the material, resistance to traction and rigidness. basin of building a kind of vault that is known by different names
In general, long rectilinear elements that can bridge a total span according to the place. In the ma de pla, in foglio or even
are costly, so, to reduce the number needed, they are combined Saracen vault, the bricks were laid parallel to the intrados. It
with smaller elements that bridge the span between two main became widespread due to the presence of Catalan builders
rectilinear elements. The unit they produce together is the floor. throughout Spain, France and the Americas, and is therefore also
3
The elements that bridge the span in the roof element are known as the Catalan vault, volta a la catalana or vote catalane.
normally sloping beams which do not form a triangular It requires as least two layers of bricks, the first being bonded with
framework structure due to the difficulty of tying the different plaster, as this removes the basic need to construct any kind of
elements. In general, we find a main beam on which a short prop centring, which is not needed in the Catalan vault.
supports two sloping beams, each bridging half the span and
generating the slopes of the roof.
In places where the atmosphere is drier there are flat roofs which,
in static terms, are the same as the floors, though subjected to
greater loads due to the material that has to be added to them in
the form of not totally impermeable layers in order to make the
whole impermeable.
Nonetheless, the elements to have represented the greatest
invention on the part of their buildersand the greatest
admiration and number of unanswered questions today, in view of
their disappearance from academic teachingare those that
describe a curve: arches, vaults and domes.
Arches can generally be built in one of three ways: with dressed
stone voussoirs; with rougher pieces of stone, or with bricks laid
to follow the radius of the arch circumference, bonded with
mortar. The mortar bond in the two latter cases provides the
different thicknesses in the intrados and extrados to achieve the
curve.
To understand an arch, it is necessary to consider two key points:
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A comprehensive understanding of the building
The building
Finally, we come to the building as a whole. The construction of
the building requires the builder to understand the relation
between all of the elements. The same understanding is
necessary for the agent intending to rehabilitate the building.
The building is generated by the interrelation of space and the
elements that delimit it. The dimensions of the space are
conditioned by the possibilities of these elements. If no large
trees are available, it will be difficult to build large separations
between the walls. If there are no trees at all, it will have to be
built using vaults that require thicker walls, etc. Though space is
defined by the initial end of housing a function, it is limited or
favoured by material and technical resources.
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Restoring a traditional building is to know the local architecture
and the traditional way of life. Only this way can one understand
the typology, morphology and the building materials of the local
dwelling.
The simple life of the people connected with earth and nature is
reflected on the simplicity of the traditional Cypriot house. The
minimal needs of the family do not force the mason to look for
complicated forms of houses. All that it needs is a shelter space
under which the Cypriot family joins all their activities. The form
of the house simply follows the construction without being
influenced by the interior.
An important factor in the formation of the traditional settlements
in Cyprus was the variation in the landscape. On the plain areas
the settlements consisted of a series of closely packed houses with
1
flat roofs. A high wall surrounded each house thus leading to the
formation of a yard. On the mountains, the houses were built
attached to each other continuously and packed, exploiting as
much space as possible, having tiled roof. 1), and sometimes less in the side of the road. Rectangular or
The variety of Cyprus topography allowed the anonymous mason square small openings (arseres) were made for ventilation.
to provide splendid examples of housing complexes, avoiding The most popular simple traditional house is the platimetopo
monotony even when the facades are plane and simple. Important makrinari (fig-4). It consists of a rectangular covered space. As the
factors in the shaping of the house are the local materials and the various functions of the people increased and life became more
experiences and skills of the mason. Local masons built houses complicated, bigger space was needed: The makrinari-dichoro was
without any architectural plans and with materials available from then created (fig-5). This was accomplished by joining two makrinari,
the surrounding area. The houses were constructed mainly from using an arch. The new space allowed more comfort, movement and
adobe and stone. The openings (doors and windows) are few (fig- organization. At the same time, illiakos appeared (fig-6).
2 3
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Architectural analysis of buildings. Typologies in Cyprus
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Architectural analysis of buildings. Typologies in Cyprus
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Introduction
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Thermal confort in existing homes
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Thermal confort in existing homes
Can the same parameters be applied to comfort in the past, The answer may be to change our behaviour, using new
comfort today, comfort when on holiday and comfort at home? technologies and salvaging our forebears knowledge of building
Humankind has always aspired to comfort, but the concept of in harmony with the climate, using suitable materials and systems.
comfort has changed throughout history, according to cultural
models, technological progress, and even with circumstances.
When we are on holiday, in the mountains, for example, away Hygrothermal comfort for people
3
from it all, an ideal situation sought just for a few days, our
appreciation of comfort is quite different to what we want at We seek comfort: not too cold, not too hot, no annoying
home in the city. That cold, damp, draughty hut actually seems draughts.
comfortable. However, its temperature and humidity content are In the same space, one person may feel comfortable while another
far from our usual comfort parameters. feels uncomfortable.
Not so long ago, in our grandmothers day, when we were cold in The appreciation of comfort depends on the individual, though by
the house we would put on a thicker sweater, or even two. playing with essential parameters such as temperature, air
Today, even when the temperature drops, we walk around the movement and moisture levels, it is possible to obtain a balance
house in T-shirts, and even the buses are heated! that suits most people.
The last century was characterized by uncontrolled exploitation of
our planets resources. Today, an awareness of dwindling resources Hygrothermal and respiratory comfort depend on various factors,
presents us with the dilemma of how to maintain our comfort in including:
a world without petrol, while conserving the ozone layer. The individual:
His or her metabolism,
The clothes he or she is wearing,
What he or she is doing.
Temperature and humidity
The mean radiant temperature of a given wall or room
The temperature of objects in contact with our bodies
The movement of the air on and around our skin
Reminder:
Radiation
The emission of infrared rays. As a result of this thermal energy,
any object that is hotter than the surrounding bodies gives off
heat to them. Thermal exchange takes place between the skin
and the solid elements in the environment.
Conduction
Unlike radiation, conduction requires direct contact between
the objects. It is the transfer of heat between objects that are
directly in contact with each other.
Convection
Exchange between the body and a moving fluid, almost always
air or water. The importance of convection can be considerably
modified by exterior conditions.
Vegetation naturally reduces the heating of an opaque wall: pergola and lattice
walls. Hence the interest of using deciduous plants to warm walls in winter and The interaction between the objective data of the environment
protect them in the summer. and the perception of human beings is a complex process.
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Thermal confort in existing homes
Variables associated with people The bioclimatic diagrams indicate the comfort variables as regards
humidity and temperature.
How we dress. By adapting our clothing to the demands of What interests us is the relation or balance between temperature
comfort, we can adapt quickly to climatic variables not only and moisture, as shown in the diagram below:
outside the building but also inside. The values of thermal If the hygrometry of the air is high in relation to the air
insulation of clothes are measured in clo, the clothing insulation temperature, the evaporation of sweat is slowed, preventing the
3
unit that gives a person at rest a skin temperature of 33C in body from adapting to the climate, and prompting us to speak of
radiant temperatures of 21 C. discomfort.
1 clo is equivalent to 0.16m2C/W of thermal resistance.
Comfort: difficult balance between temperature and moisture: Controlling direct and indirect solar contribution to the exterior
The balance between air temperature (dry-bulb temperature) and
the relative humidity of the air (quantity of water vapour The first step towards obtaining thermal comfort in dwellings
contained in the air), always measured inside the building, are vital draws on common sense and consists of controlling exterior solar
data for measuring hygrothermal comfort. contribution.
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Comfort in winter.
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What strategies? (e.g. capturing, storing, releasing)
Controlling incidence of sunlight, drawing it into the building in winter. The simplest form of heating is the most direct: a south-facing window may be an
efficient way of capturing sunlight.
Storing the energy that comes into the building (by means of the thermal inertia of the walls and floors, which can store this energy and return it to us)
Avoiding the impact of the wind on the building and outdoor living spaces
What is our perception near a cold wall? The temperature we actually feel is the mean of the air and
Avoiding the cold wall effect the radiant temperature (mean radiant temperature). When the difference in temperature between
the different walls is too large (hot walls/cold walls), we feel a sensation of discomfort.
The hierarchical system of spaces ensures the transition between inside and outside: in-between spaces, which are apparently no longer in vogue, play an
important thermal role. This buffer space helps to prevent the energy loss caused every time the door opens and creates a space of thermal transition
between indoor and outdoor temperatures, providing a comfortable adaptation.
Collector walls: they capture solar energy, store it in their mass and pass it on in the form of heat to
the interior after several hours, thanks to their thermal inertia (Trait darchitecture et durbanisme
bioclimatique). This is the case of the Trombe wall (whose performance is conditioned by climatic
factors and the orientation and inclination of the wall) or air collectors (walls or window).
The inertia of the ground can be used to stabilise the indoor atmosphere, thereby obtaining comfort. The ground has thermal insulation capacities that are
much used in vernacular architecture. The ground can even be used, thanks to its inertia, to preheat the air in winter (the temperature of the ground
being higher than that of the air) and to cool it in summer (the ground temperature in summer being lower than that of the air). These systems allow us
to obtain thermal comfort at the lowest cost to the environment.
The movement of air is directly related to comfort. This includes two possible speeds: the very low speed corresponding to natural convection, i.e. without
ventilation, and the maximum admissible speed of a (hot) air current obtained by means of ventilation. The result is two curves that represent the outer
limits of comfort with and without ventilation.
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Above we explained how solar thermal radiation basically Curtains and films applied to the glazing
comprises direct or indirect solar contribution in the form of
radiation, which conditions our sensation of comfort far more A comparison of the efficacy of solar protection in the summer
than the intrinsic temperature of the air. shows, for example, that exterior protections are in general
Solar contribution essentially comprises the solar radiation that appreciably more efficient than on the interior; those integrated
finds the surface of buildings. between layers of glazing are of intermediate effectiveness. A white
3
The radiation acts on the envelope of buildings, walls and roofs, Venetian blind on the interior, fully let down, will reduce the radiation
and on other materials such as the floors or pavements that through the glazing by 44%, whereas on the outside it will be 85%
absorb the radiation and re-emit it. effective.
The energy (manifested in the form of heat) is stored in the walls, Most exterior protections at an opening will allow just 5 to 15% of
enters the building, travels through the floor structures and other the energy reaching it to enter the premises (CEBTP Caractrisation
associated construction elements. , p. 57).
This radiation is the source of discomfort. Another notion to remember is the influence of the colour: a white
There is direct solar contribution through openings and windows, cloth interior blind, fully let down, will lessen the radiation
and indirect solar contribution through exterior walls and the transmitted by 60% as compared to a scant 20% for the same blind
associated construction elements through which they penetrate. in a dark colour, in the same conditions (Victor Olgyay, Arquitectura
Direct solar contribution constitutes a large heat load against y Clima).
which solar protection is effective. These protections may be adjustable and even motorized to adapt to
Indirect solar contribution is principally due to the insufficient or the intensity of radiation.
poorly designed thermal inertia and/or insulation of the dwellings According to the materials and systems used, they may be more or
envelope (walls, roofs). less difficult to maintain. It is important to bear in mind that
Furthermore, the untimely entry of overheated air, not cleanliness will affect their performance.
indispensable to good ventilation, is also an aggravating factor. Some protective elements
The role of closing and protective elements as regards thermal
comfort and energy saving. Blinds: blinds are most effective if they are opaque and placed
Closing and protecting elements ensure: on the exterior. In these circumstances, they can massively (34-
59%) reduce solar contribution, thereby helping to improve
Direct mechanical protection by means of an obstacle comfort by lowering solar radiation and the surface
(intrusion, fire, bad weather, wind) temperature of glazing.
Protection of the building (heat, cold, corrosion) Special glazings: glazings whose characteristics give them
A source of comfort (thermal, visual, acoustic) specific properties. These characteristics depend principally on
Filtering of natural light. the thickness of the air cavity, the composition of the gas
present between the two lights, and the nature of the frame
They also serve to characterize and give architectural value to elements.
faades. As regards solar radiation, closing and protective Sunshade and projecting roof: architectural elements that
elements act thanks to the application of two essential principles: project to provide increased shade and absorb excess solar heat
in the summer, allowing the sun to shine in during winter
Insulation (a heat or light screen to radiation) without concealing the field of vision from the window.
Reflection (partial return, reflected from their outer face, of Louvred blinds: exterior adaptable frames made up of
radiation) openwork panels that can be folded back.
Curtains: their efficiency can be considerably increased by
Depending on the nature of the closing and protecting elements, backing them with reflective aluminium fabric, placed as near
it may or may not be possible to combine the presence of each of the glazing as possible.
these two types on the same glazed opening. Shutters: adjustable panels to close openings.
The different types of closing and protective elements can be Roller blinds: horizontal elements such as rigid slats that roll up
grouped as follows: horizontally and block out the sun.
Vegetation: preferably deciduous trees and vegetations that
Closing elements: shutters, blinds allow sun to shine in during the winter (seasonal shading).
Protection: essentially blinds, subdivided into exterior, interior Deciduous trees protect the faade in the summer and allow
and incorporated into the glazing energy gain in winter. Vegetation oxygenates and cools the air
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consumption of each apparatus, which is listed in the that is naturally maintained at a lower temperature than that of
manufacturers notices. the exterior atmosphere, as it is sunk deep in the subsoil. This
system also serves to preheat the air in the winter, as its
passage through the conduit raises the temperature of the air
Natural cooling systems taken in. Performance is largely dependant on installation
conditions: the nature of the earth, the diameter, nature and
3
Ventilation. Natural cooling by means of ventilation is feasible length of the conduit, the rate of air flow, topography and
and worthwhile when it is cooler outside than it is inside. In thermal insulation of the parts of the conduit above ground,
general, at night the exterior air temperature is lower than etc.
inside dwellings (except during the hottest period), and
ventilation should take place at the coolest hours of the night
(between midnight and six a.m.). This night-time cooling effect
can be increased by opening windows in opposite faades,
where possible. In dwellings built on two levels, the effect is 1 Contact : Maria.Lopez-Diaz@anah.gouv.fr
even more marked if the open windows are in opposite faades
on two different levels (chimney effect).
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Noise is way ahead at the top of the list of nuisances bemoaned
by the French1, being all the more unbearable when it affects
them in their own homes. We therefore have to consider the
physical reality of noise and its effects, which depends largely
on its source, type, time of emission, emergence and
repetitiveness, etc.
For example, a dripping tap can ruin a nights sleep, though the
noise represents just a few millionths of the sound energy of a
vehicle in the distance that does not bother anyone.
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I. Airborne noise
a. Exterior airborne noise
Apart from the preferred process of reducing the nuisance at To counter exterior airborne noise, rehabilitation work has to focus
source, which is not always practicable, the main obstacle to principally on the weak points, specifically doors and windows, air
exterior and interior airborne sounds are horizontal and vertical inlets, rolling shutters and roof structures.
facings, walls and partitions. These walls are all the more effective It is necessary to ensure that these interventions do not compromise
3
against airborne noises as they are not generally susceptible to ventilation systems; the interior comfort of the dwelling could
vibration, and heavy walls in particular are highly efficient in acoustic otherwise be affected and the built fabric will suffer.
terms. Of course, a heavy wall with windows in a poor state of
repair is less of an obstacle to airborne noise, since it is the weakest Doors and windows
part, the window, that governs the overall effectiveness. The principal aim is to suppress any direct entrance of air and,
There are, however, also light walls, partitions comprising two with it, all means of transmission of exterior noise. A careful
gypsum plasterboards joined together by a metal frame, that also examination of the situation by a professional, known as an
have excellent soundproofing qualities; the air trapped between the acoustic diagnosis, should produce the best solution for the
two elements then acts as a buffer and attenuates airborne noise. budget available.
Their level of efficiency can be further improved by filling the space
between the plasterboard with special fibrous materials, generally Conservation of the opening leaves, fitted with acoustic
mineral wool. glazing. In this case, it is important to ensure that the fixed
It is also possible to increase the number of gypsum wallboards, this frame and the opening leaves can bear the additional weight
being a particularly appropriate solution for the rehabilitation of old of the glazing, which is considerable.
dwellings, as the resulting partition is lightweight and represents a Replacement of existing doors and windows by new airtight
minor added load on the buildings structure, at the same time elements fitted with acoustic glazing. If the fixed frame is in a
offering comparable efficiency to heavy walls. These solutions, good state of repair, it may be conserved.
however, can only be employed for interior partitions. Construction of a double window. When correctly carried out,
The use of absorbent material attenuates noise Construction of a double window. The passage of air transmits exterior noise
transmission
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this solution is highly effective and also conserves the exterior denser materials and blocking up all direct entry of exterior air. If
appearance of the faade, an important factor when dealing possible, the inside of the box can also be lined with insulation
with valuable heritage. materials such as mineral wool or absorbent foam (see above).
If replacement is chosen, the element should be substituted by
NOTE: Double-glazing for insulation generally makes little difference window blocks with built-in rolling shutters, which are good
to soundproofing, especially if the two lights are the same thickness acoustic performers.
3
and quite close together. It is advisable to choose specific windows
(with opening leaves and fixed frames) and glazing whose acoustic Roofs
properties are specified on the product. Roofs are particularly sensitive to exterior noise, especially aircraft
It is also advisable to ensure that the ventilation systems generally noise, which is particularly annoying after building a loft
associated with windows do not counteract their acoustic conversion. An initial solution is to have thermal-acoustic
performance. insulation fitted. If this proves to be insufficient, it will then be
necessary to have recourse to more extreme solutions, such as
Air intakes separating the roof from the rest of the buildings structure.
There are specific air intakes, referred to as acoustic, with facings
that are lined with absorbent materials. These cut out exterior b. Interior airborne noise
noise and allow correct airing of the dwelling. Interior airborne noise calls for interventions to structural
If the replacement doors and windows are not fitted with built-in floors, separation walls or landing doors and partitions.
air intakes, it is advisable to restore ventilation, possibly by
effecting openings in the masonry. Structural floors (and ceilings)
Structural floors (and ceilings) may be acoustic weak points as a
Rolling shutter boxes result of the pipes that run through them. This may be due to gaps
These boxes often constitute an acoustic weak point in the faade. that let sound through, in which case elastic sleeves or
The situation can be improved by replacing the existing boxes by soundproofing materials should be fitted, or to excessively rigid
Acoustic weak points. Common walls in dwellings. A light wall does little to reduce the noise
perceived behind
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connections of pipes to structural floors, in which case the a metal frame. The same solution can be applied if the
elements should be separated, for example using vibration transmission of noise between dwellings is caused by structural
cushioning to prevent the vibrations of the pipes being weakness of the common wall.
transmitted to the structural floor or ceiling.
The direct passage of noise through the facing is counteracted by Landing doors and partitions
packing the gaps with soundproofing material. Landing doors with acoustic weaknesses should be replaced by
3
If the noise is transmitted directly by the structural floor of the officially approved doors.
dwelling upstairs it may be necessary to consider the construction Partition walls between a dwelling and a landing can be addressed
of a double ceiling according to the same principle used in the in the same way as partitions separating dwellings (see above).
case of common walls. It is vital to carry out a diagnosis of
secondary transmission, particularly by vertical partitions, since
this may be the primary cause, making the construction of a II. Impact noise and equipment noise
double ceiling both expensive and ineffective.
Furthermore, the routes taken by sound in old buildings can be The lighter a wall is, the more transmission of noise will be
complex and require professional analysis. facilitated by direct contact between the facings of a dwelling and
the parts subject to impact or vibration.
Common walls Various resources are available to resolve this problem, including
Thermal insulation materials placed on the interior of dwelling anti-vibration supports, cladding laid over underlay, floating floors,
walls are often so rigid that they reduce the acoustic performance suspended ceilings, etc.
of the facings between homes. It is advisable to replace them with It is important to remember that pipes can carry impact noises a
suppler thermo-acoustic materials, which are attached by bonding long way.
or inserted between the wall and a gypsum wallboard attached to Likewise, the slightest error in the fitting of soundproofing
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mechanisms can ruin the entire noise attenuation system. In water pressure is not excessive. Likewise, an extractor outlet
particular, any point of direct contact of a floating floor with its will hiss if the airflow is not balanced.
support will render this major investment ineffective.
Passive equipment such as pipes must in all cases be attached to
Impact noise heavy walls by non-vibrating clips.
The structural floor Intrinsically noisy equipment such as an extract ventilation motor
3
The principle of intervention consists in preventing the element can be effectively suspended and enclosed in casing lined with
from vibrating when subjected to stress due to the impact of absorbent materials.
an object. One solution is to cover the floor of the dwelling
where the noise is created by a form of cladding that will Reverberation
absorb impact (carpet, plastic flooring with resilient underlay, Acoustic correction consists in general of cladding walls with
etc.) or to introduce a resilient layer between the support of the absorbent coverings; in this case, the characteristics of the facing
structural floor and the floor cladding that is sensitive to impact with regard to airborne noise are not modified.
noise, such as a tiled floor or rigid parquet.
Another, fairly extreme solution would be to build a floating
floor, which should be entrusted to an experienced professional
to ensure its proper construction.
1 See the technical leaflets published by the ANAH, particularly Bruit et confort
Intervention on the structure acoustique and Bruit.
If it is not possible to intervene in the dwelling where the noise 2 The idea of the illustrations are provided by the CSTB on behalf of the ANAH.
is produced, it will be necessary to introduce barriers to prevent
their transmission. This requires a diagnosis carried out by
specialists, requiring the intervention of an acoustician.
Equipment noise
Intervention on equipment
In France, most electrical domestic appliances, boilers and
plumbing fixtures have an NF mark that specifies their acoustic
performance; nevertheless, their application will be dependent
on external factors that have to be taken into account and
corrected as applicable. A quality tap will only be silent if the
Noise perceived behind a heavy wall is The use of absorbent material improves the
considerably reduced sound comfort of the room but does not
decrease the transmission of the noise to the
room next door
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It is difficult to argue the issue without referring to the Charter on has shown that many surveys, sometimes conducted by great
the Built Vernacular Heritage, ratified in Mexico in October 1999, architects, are very poor in content, serving as mere reminders of
and above all to its familiar introduction, which clearly defines the parts of the building.) 4
concept of vernacular heritage and warns us of its fragility. Finally, I grant myself the utopia of not having a time limit to carry
This is why, when asked to write this article, I could not pass up out the graphic survey, a premiss that is very rarely found.
the opportunity to make my own contribution to the huge effort I will now go on to analyse the stages in the working process.
that must be made if its continuity and protection are to be
guaranteed. I should also point out, evident as it may seem, that
although rural heritage has its own characteristics, the Defining the task
methodology and techniques used in its graphic survey differ very
little from those used to survey the other buildings that make up It is very important to maintain close contact with the institution
built heritage. Perhaps the biggest difference lies in its irregularity, or person who requests the graphic survey with a view to clearly
requiring greater precision in data collection. defining their purpose and discovering the use to which the data
Having said that, I thought it interesting to base this section on we supply is to be put. The survey will be approached differently
graphic surveying, listing the various phases in the order I believe according to its purpose: restoration, rehabilitation, consolidation,
they should be carried out. A detailed description of this process collapse, documentation, etc. Since the content of the work is
will serve to establish principles that will guarantee successful basically the same, we have to complement it in different ways,
results of the graphic survey. using different systems of representation, varying scales or
I would also like to establish some preliminary conditions. studying different types of detail. The directionality of the survey
Our work forms part of a complete architectural survey, involving is important. Who is the work for, and in what form do they wish
various specialists. The correct coordination of them is vital to the to receive it? Should the presentation be varied depending on
results. whether it is for an architect, an archaeologist or an engineer?
The graphic survey has been requested by a third party, who could
be the director of a master plan, with a view to future intervention
in the building being surveyed. In other words, the work we carry Reconnaissance
out is not for us. (Before beginning work on a building, it is
necessary to consult any graphic surveys that have already been I start out from the premiss that the time and money I invest
carried out, as they contain valuable information that serves both during the preliminary information-gathering process will always
as a starting point and to compare and contrast results. Experience be profitable and save work later on. I therefore suggest:
An alignment system situates the detail of the various rooms in a distribution and
therefore correctly defines the thickness of the enclosing walls.
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4
A closed station system will correctly produce the environment of the building to be
mapped.
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to produce plans of the initial project, and, if we continue, we may drawing program, and sectioning and projecting it onto as many
come to intuit the original idea that led the master builder to plans as necessary. Further, it is obvious that data collection for the
define the spaces and volumes and their interrelation, the original two processes will be different. The photograph is the ideal
idea that generated the project, or the phase of the project we are support for data collection when using a non-prism total station,
analysing. If so, we will certainly realize the greatness of the mind particularly these days, with the immediacy of digital photography.
that conceived it. Unfortunately, this does not always happen, but In its absence, we would have to produce multiple free-hand
if we reach this degree of knowledge, it is the ideal place to start perspectives that would allow us to identify points in space. I do
conducting our survey. not, however, mean that we should give up classic data
During the reconnaissance process we will decide what collection using dihedral or axonometric systems, which is still vital 4
projections are needed to satisfactorily define the geometry of the and in most cases would complement the data obtained using
building, the systems of representation and appropriate scales to other systems.
use, and the order in which to carry them out. I particularly stress It is important to use the appropriate method of measurement
the concept of order, because many mistakes can be avoided (itinerary, base alignment, polygonal, radiation, etc.) for each type
and, with them, the journeys to correct themif we are sure of of construction or combine several of them, in this case with
having the correct information that could have been provided by particular emphasis on the way in which the various methods are
a projection that we have deferred. related. Evidently, the ideal method is the one that guarantees the
least accumulation of errors.
In the interiors of buildings with few divisions, it is generally
Field and desk work advisable to use a network of stations to provide data about both
the floor plan and sections and elevations. Conversely, when the
Each projection you decide to carry out requires a twofold process: interior distribution is important, the base alignment system tends
data collection in the field and subsequent application at scale. to work best. However, I do not aim to dictate a working system;
I have to stress the fact that new technologies applied to these each case has to be weighed up individually, and the construction
processes make them increasingly interdependent. As of the first itself question will govern the appropriate work system.
sketch, it is necessary to start thinking about the right way to The irregularity of vernacular architectures is real, not merely
obtain a correct interpretation. To give just two examples, the apparent. Though the aim may have been to obtain parallel lines
attempt to represent at scale the multiple projections generated and symmetry, the lack of perpendicularity in the various rooms is
by a groin vault, starting out with the traditional dihedral system characteristic and the varying thicknesses of the walls, both in the
sketch, will be considerably more complicated than reconstructing floor plan and in section, is considerable, and verticality is relative.
the same vault in three dimensions, using a good computer-aided This all depends on the construction phase, the system of support
used for the ceilings on the different floors and the skill of the
workers, normally the occupants of the house, in most cases
directed by an expert. All of these factors require horizontal
working plans in order to guarantee the correctness of our work,
relating the different floors by means of non-bearing elements
(stairwells, courtyards, faades) and never on the basis of
supposed verticals that rarely exist.
It is often necessary to use different systems to measure the
interior and exterior of a building, or its different floors. In these
cases, particular attention should be paid to the correct relation of
the two systems. Each method must be based on its own system
of dimensioning (partial, point of origin, polar, etc.), thereby
guaranteeing the least accumulation of error.
An issue that has always caused some uneasiness on my part is the
dichotomy between the precision of the latest measuring
apparatus and the irregularity of the buildings that make up our
Photographic back-up is vital when taking points using a non-prism total station.
The camera should be placed in the same position where the station will vernacular architecture and built heritage. Just how precise do we
subsequently be set up. If the points are surveyed vertically, as in series 3-6 and 82- have to be? Do we have the right to simplify the data obtained?
86, we can determine the verticality of the edges during the data collection
process. An arch can never be defined solely by surveying three points.
Should this produce two different surveys? I leave the question
open to the floor.
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the TPA on the Catalan masia, based mainly in the areas around Collsacabra and
Above, I mention the interrelation between field and desk work. It
the Montseny, two regions that are very close, separated only by the river Ter
is important for the two to coincide in time, as this will assist us in basin, with very similar orography but quite distinct evolution of their masies and
the task. It is not a good idea to let field data build up, unless it is in both cases, unfortunately, with discouraging results.
The masies in Collsacabra tend to be large, the casa pairal or family seat, some
unavoidable, putting off later desk work. It is easy to forget details
the product of endless extensions, others reminiscent of the regions old noble
that may be determinant in the process. Writing up the days families. The orography of the area meant that they mainly concerned themselves
material makes us reflect on the efficiency of the data collection with stock-keeping, with small tracts of land devoted to agriculture.
process and introduce possible improvements. The support
represented by completed projections for the collection of new
4 data is important, as it allows us to check our figures on site.
It is important to remember, as I mentioned early, that our graphic
survey is just one part, though important, of the architectural
survey that will be used by the other professionals involved, as
material to support their interventions. Archaeologists, geologists,
art historians, property cataloguers, etc., will need a graphic
survey to contextualize their contributions. Before the start of
work, a series of agreements should be made as regards unity of
language in order to facilitate greater ease of comprehension of
the overall architecture survey.
By way of conclusion, I would like to say that this article is to a
large extent the product of study and the reflections generated by
many mistakes made in the course of what is now a good number
of years devoted to architectural survey, but most of all to the
shared experience with my colleagues and research students in the
Taller de Patrimoni Arquitectnic2 (TPA, Architecture Heritage
Workshop) at the Polytechnic University of Catalonia.
1 The built vernacular heritage occupies a central place in the affection and pride
of all peoples. It has been accepted as a characteristic and attractive product of
society. It appears informal, but nevertheless orderly. It is utilitarian and at the
same time possesses interest and beauty. It is a focus of contemporary life and at
the same time a record of the history of society. Although it is the work of man it
is also the creation of time. It would be unworthy of the heritage of man if care
were not taken to conserve these traditional harmonies which constitute the core
of man's own existence.
The built vernacular heritage is important; it is the fundamental expression of the
culture of a community, of its relationship with its territory and, at the same time,
the expression of the world's cultural diversity.
Vernacular building is the traditional and natural way by which communities
house themselves. It is a continuing process including necessary changes and
continuous adaptation as a response to social and environmental constraints. The
survival of this tradition is threatened worldwide by the forces of economic,
cultural and architectural homogenisation. How these forces can be met is a
fundamental problem that must be addressed by communities and also by
governments, planners, architects, conservationists and by a multidisciplinary
group of specialists.
Due to the homogenization of culture and of global socio-economic
transformation, vernacular structures all around the world are extremely
vulnerable, facing serious problems of obsolescence, internal equilibrium and
integration.
It is necessary, therefore, in addition to the Venice Charter, to establish principles
for the care and protection of our built vernacular heritage.
2 My principal experience of recovering rural heritage is the work we carry out in
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As well as being a simple measuring operation, the graphic survey materials, construction and structural systems, etc.
of the condition of premises report also constitutes a database Architectural analysis may also provide information about the
that can be used to determine the historical and cultural values of function and the activities that took place in the building.
the monument. This analysis enables us to identify and understand the specific
characteristics of the work of architecture: a report on the
Colour studies dimensions, modules, architectural typology and spatial values.
We can as a result tell the original parts from later
The survey includes a colour catalogue: the stone, renderings, transformations.
4 timber and paint used in the building. This survey must identify
the different colours of the various layers of paint or whitewash Conclusion
and their type: oil- or lime based, etc.
Files comprising the location, drawing and colour will serve as Above I highlighted the importance of the survey to the current
documentation for comparative studies of colours or for future condition of premises report, which is an absolutely vital
analysis or research. preliminary to restoration work or historical research.
A detailed survey must be completed by a written description and
Architectural analysis of the building a photographic and petrographic catalogue in order to present all
aspects of construction. Information gaps in the survey may hinder
The scientific survey of a work of architecture represents a whole the historical or archaeological hypotheses proposed for
series of lines of investigation: knowledge of techniques used, interpretation.
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The stratigraphic relation of covering/covered by (the plastering covers the wall) The stratigraphic relation filling in/filled in by (the arch is filled in with bricks)
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I. Knowledge Making the graphic survey of the building
Stratigraphic analysis of architecture and its application to traditional architecture
study of fissures and load analysis. In many cases, the structural the key points and traces in the building to be protected and
pathologies or problems are determined by the very history of the conserved by restoration, and the design of the restoration project
building, the use to which it has been put or changing loads as an addition to the construction history of the existing structure.
throughout the life of the structure. Architectural stratigraphy Restoration of this form can now be seen as a series of actions
therefore provides a series of data that can be used in the overall that add history to the building without eliminating or hiding the
study of the building. history of previous stages. The difference in this case lies only in
the way in which a single action is carried out: completely pointing
Architectural stratigraphy also plays an important role in the masonry represents the loss of stratigraphic data, whereas
4 development of the restoration project. Stratigraphy shows the selective pointing, applied only to the gaps, will conserve the
forms of stratification of the materials and presents the traces left historical material and meet the objectives of decoration, material
on them by historical interventions. The restoration project, conservation and structural efficiency.
seeking to conserve the materiality of the historical architecture, The practice of stratigraphy will develop in the project architect an
can employ the stratigraphic forms to superpose itself on pre- increasingly sensitive approach that examines the forms of
existing elements and become one stratum more in the buildings construction, the building materials and techniques, and the
complex existence without erasing the traces of the preceding traces left by tools and instruments. This sensitive approach to
phases. material history appreciates differences, the multiplicity of
Knowledge of the stratigraphic forms enables the identification of construction solutions, the complexity of history, the passage of
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Stratigraphic analysis of architecture and its application to traditional architecture
time that ages materials. The restoration project benefits from this
sensibility, which can conserve the matter of architecture in order
to guarantee history, a guardian of memory and a witness of
passing time.
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Stratigraphic analysis of architecture and its application to traditional architecture
Timber element salvaged from panelling, with two types of groove into which the
complementary pieces are fitted
Panels of polychrome coffering with two coats of paint and the traces of its new
and different position
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Cristina Thi
Fine Arts graduate
Restorer with the specialist company CHROMA (Barcelona),
Spain
The tourist guides might insist in showing us a traditional lime (they need to be resistant to light, air and pollution). Only
Mediterranean architecture that is pure white, but we must not let inorganic pigments (minerals) can tolerate damp and high
them delude us tooit is also other colours. It may well be temperatures. The tradition range includes, for example, blue (the
Andalusia white (Spain) because a Spanish king of old ordered copper sulphate used traditionally to whiten the wash), as well as
that it should be so for reasons of hygiene; a house in the Saint Johns white (calcium carbonate), black, ochre, green
Maghreb may have white-framed doors because its owner has earth and others.
returned from hajj, but the architecture of the Mediterranean is The colour of the faades can be determined by the characteristics
bluish in Chaouen (Morocco), bright greens, blues and reds in of the construction material (colour of the rammed earth, of
Burano (Italy), earth-toned in Siwa (Egypt), yellow in Tuscany stoneware, of brick) or by a layer of a coloured coat or rendering
(Italy)... (the colour of a paint, such as fresco techniques using lime, casein
It is also true that it cannot be simple any colour, because not all or mezzo secco, or the colour of stucco). We might go as far as to
pigments stand up to the elements. Furthermore, the pigments say that there is always colour in architecture.
used have a very small range that can resist the caustic action of Colour distinguishes traditional architecture with the changes in
Girona (Spain), Agios Artemios (Greece), Cagliari (Italy), Vic (Spain), Lefkara (Cyprus),
Kairouan (Tunisia).
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The colour study, the first step in rehabilitating a faade
hue of its walls, but it also draws on frescos that imitate marble
cladding, highlight openings or in some cases emphasize orders or
imitate cultivated architectures (trompe l'il), and distinguishes a
house from its neighbours or causes it to merge with them,
depending on the context.
The logic of colour in traditional architecture does not exactly obey
our scale of present-day values, based on readings of Ruskin and
Viollet-le-duc, in which beauty in architecture is the synonym of
4 truth and sincerity. In pre-industrial society, it was usual to coat or
render a wall in order to protect it and give it distinctionwhat
Professor Paolo Marconi has referred to as the sacrifice layers, a
layer that protects a wall of brick, stone or rammed earth that is
replaced with no concern for architectural sincerity when it begins
to deteriorate. It is also a coloured layer that often imitates other
materials, such as when stones are painted "stone colour", a brick
wall is stuccoed imitation brickwork, marble-effect stucco, etc.
When rehabilitating a building, a colour study should be
conducted by as broad-based a multidisciplinary team as possible
(architects, historians, conservators-restorers, geologists, chemists,
photographers, etc.). The study has to obey a given methodology
in keeping with the heritage values of the work and the economic
possibilities of the intervention.
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The colour study, the first step in rehabilitating a faade
identify pigments (basically studied using the drop and techniques used, since an organoleptic study is not always
method since the early 19th century) and chemical enough to reach entirely reliable conclusions.
analyses to determine the nature, composition and It is vital to consider the exterior rendering of the building, which
qualities of a given substance. gives it presence and character. Among many other questions, the
7. Establish rigorous criteria (guidelines for action) of colour study of a faade seeks to answer the following: what
observation with a view to safeguarding the integrity of colour is the present-day faade? How are the colours combined?
buildings cultural values. Without a theoretical basis and Might there at some point have been others? Is the colour of the
knowledge of the work, in the form of material and faade in keeping with its architectural style? Might it present
images, any intervention, despite using the most partial or complete repainting of the elements in the faade? 4
advanced techniques and products, may be open to
error. Naming the colour
The answer to the first question has to be the name of a colour
To help define the colour of a faade we need to conduct a red, for example. However, we are all aware that there are
cleaning test. Once the test has been carried out, we can see the different kinds of red. We could be more specific and call it
colour beneath the dirt, identify the pigment in question and the cadmium red, in reference to a specific oxide, but it could still be
ageing it may have undergone due to the effects of pollution, more or less watered down.
damp and the passing of time, and deduce the original colour. This is why a method is needed to establish a colour reference.
Using this method, the analysis mentioned above and the Munsell Here, we will refer to one that is not too sophisticated, as it does
method (see below), it is possible to determine with a fair degree not require specific monument restoration tests such as those that
of precision the original colour or colours of the faade when the use colorimeters or laboratory analysis to identify the colour. We
building was constructed. propose a visual analysis by comparison with a Munsell Atlas. The
We have to take into account all of these factors when drawing Munsell System2 is based on identifying a colour on the basis of
up the colour report, because it also helps to identify the materials the visual perception of small differences visible to the human eye
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The colour study, the first step in rehabilitating a faade
from a colour wheel featuring equivalent colorimetric intervals. 2.5YR 6/8 (Hue Value/Chroma).
The Munsell system specifies colours based on three attributes: There are in fact two Munsell colour charts: the Munsell Soil
Colour Chart, used to compare matt hues, and the Munsell Book
Hue: attribute of perception that makes us see an object as of Colour Glossy Finish Collection which serves to compare
green, red, etc. glossier hues.
Lightness or value: attribute of perception that sees an object
as lighter or darker. Combinations of colour
Chroma: attribute of perception according to which an object Generally, a faade is not painted a single colour. Various colours
4 has a certain degree of purity of colour with regard to its are used to highlight the elements in the faade. Therefore, the
degree of lightness. colours are combined in the faade according to a given logic that
To determine the colour of a faade, the correct procedure is to has to be studied.
isolate the colour to be studied on the wall with a neutral grey An initial list of elements to be identified in a faade might be:
surface (such as those used in photography) to prevent
interference caused by surrounding colours, and compare it to the It is also important to remember that some faades may include
chart to find the nearest colour. In this way we would call our red fresco or sgraffiti, or ornamentation that has to be documented
Background
Reliefs
Cornices
Faade Fascias
Pilasters
Bases
Eaves
Frames
Jambs
Sills
Munsell Soil Colour Chart.
Arcades
Openings Mouldings
Capitals
Railings
Balconies
Balcony soffits
Frames
Windows
Balconies
Joinery
Galleries
Doors
Blinds
Railings
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The colour study, the first step in rehabilitating a faade
(traced and studied iconographically) for subsequent recuperation compared at those points where it has been maintained with
as appropriate. The colour may also be provided by the use of tiles, fewest changes, for example, just beneath the balconies, inside
terracotta and stucco or stone bas-relief, which also have to be jambs and lintels, underneath cornices, etc.
studied. We are also aware that due to the lack of resistance of the paint
In order to reach reliable conclusions as to the type of colour used itself, the building will have been repainted. The most easily
for each element, knowledge is required of the different artistic accessible part, for example the ground floors, will probably have
periods and the combination of colours most used in each. been repainted most times.
If the different layers of paint can be removed with a scalpel, they
A history of layers of colour should all be documented, in order to understand the reason for 4
However, colour on faades also ages and, depending on the each colour in each period, not just the first coat. If the building
pigment used, it may have been faded by the sun, washed out by has a combination of colours, an attempt should be made to
rain or darkened or toned (not necessarily darker) by urban relate each colour to those of the same period.
pollution. For example, with pollution, white lead turns black. In By exfoliating the painted surface, we will discover the colour the
order to identify the original colour of the faade, it has to be faade was originally painted, but it is also necessary to decide
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I. Knowledge Making the graphic survey of the building
The colour study, the first step in rehabilitating a faade
Colour in context
The context of a faade is space and time. The time is historical
and artistic. The space is that of the street or the square in which
it stands and, at another scale, the district and the city in which
Chipped faade showing changes in colour of the building according to the tastes
of each epoch. Nicosia, Cyprus. the building is located.
For this reason, the study should also include information about
the colour of the neighbouring faades (background, fascias,
bases, frames) and those of the entire street or square (dominant
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The colour study, the first step in rehabilitating a faade
colours). The local council may also have produced a colour chart
for the town or city. In this case, it will be necessary to check
whether the colours found coincide with the municipal colour
chart and, if not, to find out why and to justify the need to adapt
to the official chart or consider the building as a well argued
exception.
State of conservation
Finally, the study has to reflect the state of conservation of the 4
finishing coat and the underlying support, with a view to
recommending conservation, consolidation and total or partial
renovation.
Below is a possible outline for characterizing the skin of the wall
and its lesions.
Material
Surface Dimensions
Complementary materials
Site
Map of Location
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The colour study, the first step in rehabilitating a faade
Polychromy
Painting procedure fresco al secco oil/enamel tempera/encaustic
4
Pigments
Timber
Colouration
Metal
Material iron bronze brass lead
Decoration incisions repouss painted
Profile smooth moulded others:
Construction wrought cast
State of conservation good average poor
Ceramics
Colour
On-site installation
Situation
Pathologies
Support microfissuring fissures cracks losses hollow
Concretions salts black scab calcareous
Biological attack fungus lichens / plants fauna excrements
Action humaine vandalism graffiti old recent
Polychrome layer pock marking dust
Surface layer fumes dust grease others:
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The colour study, the first step in rehabilitating a faade
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The colour study, the first step in rehabilitating a faade
1 There are various useful photographic techniques for documenting and studying
the surfaces requiring treatment, such as macro for details; photography with
oblique lighting, which highlights irregularities or unevenness in the surface;
infrared photography (IR), which allows us to observe the underlying pattern in
some places and the thickness of repainting, and ultraviolet photography (UV) is
useful to a study of the surface and repainting, and recognising certain pigments.
Finally, X-rays (XR) serve to identify inorganic materials.
2 Albert Munsell (1858-1918), artist and art lecturer, devised a system (A notation
of colour, 1905, Atlas of Munsell Colour System, 1915) for reliably establishing
and naming colours.
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Since its invention, photography has been a very useful tool in the
world of architecture and particularly in the field that concerns us
here, that of rehabilitation. 4
In the past, architects used engravings and paintings to find
information about the original condition of a building or element
requiring restoration, but the photograph naturally took over,
generally offering a more faithful likeness than the interpretations
of painters and engravers.
We are witnessing an important and interesting moment in the
history of photography: the transition from traditional or
chemical to digital photography. What at first sight might seem
to be simply a change in support is in fact a revolution that is
affecting all activities related in any way with photography.
Proof of this change is the fact some major manufacturers have
stopped producing cameras for film except some top-range
professional models and simple pocket cameras. The same goes
for film and photographic paper manufacturers. The former have
drastically reduced the list of emulsions available, and traditional
paper manufacturers can be seen to shift their production towards
the photographic printer paper market.
It must be said that traditional photography can achieve practically
the same results as digitalthough the processes are more
complicated, requiring much more time and work, and practically
always much more expensive.
Photograph of the faade before rectification.
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I. Knowledge Making the graphic survey of the building
The applications of digital photography
The advantages that digital photography represents for our work This type of database, or photo bank, has the advantage that the
include: images occupy hardly any physical space, particularly if we
Immediacy. We can see the result of each photograph and, if we compare them to filing cabinets full of photographs on paper.
are not satisfied, we can take another, changing the settings or They also have the great advantage of distance access and
the viewpoint, and thereby avoiding the need to return another consultation by means of a simple Internet connection. In
day. addition, should we need an image, we can download it as a
The increase in the number of options for developing digital file and process it as we wish.
photographs. They can be printed at home with a photographic It is also a useful tool for reproducing with maximum fidelity
4 quality printer or taken to a laboratory for enlargement. elements requiring subsequent work, such as a sgraffito, mosaic
Laboratories provide professional quality prints and we can even or fresco that needs restoring. In all of these cases, we are
send the files over the Internet, saving ourselves a journey. particularly interested in the colours of the reproduction. Digital
Probably the biggest advantage for many users is the possibility of photography adapts perfectly to these tasks provided the
editing the files using specific programs for different needs. We computer used complies with some basic requirements. As well as
can retouch our photographs, correct defects such as aberrations a photograph-editing program, we need a computer that provides
of the lens, compensate for slight errors of exposure, etc. the right conditions for working in colour. This requires a well-
Added to these advantages are the constant increase in the calibrated quality monitor and knowledge of the colour profiles of
capacity of memory sticks and a major fall in prices, allowing us to both the camera and the printer in order to work with real colours
take a large number of photographs with little affect on the price. and, ultimately, transfer them to paper. If we have the above
We can therefore individually photograph as many details or parts equipment and know how to use it, the result can be fully
of a building as we like, since quantity has ceased to be a problem, satisfactory. Otherwise, it is difficult to guarantee the precision of
either technically or economically. the colours. We have to take into account one of the limitations
To prevent so many images becoming a problem, it is necessary to of digital photography, the impossibility of reproducing on paper
use an image databank management program. Such a large some colours that are visible on the screen. However, this
number of photographs could otherwise become useless, making limitation is not exclusive to digital photography; it also happened
the collection of images ineffective. Not just any image viewer will when using the traditional method.
do; the program must have a good graphic interface and, most of Where digital photography has become an irreplaceable tool is in
all, an efficient database application that will assign each image as mapping the planes of building faades, for example when
many data fields as necessary and manage them effectively. cataloguing historic centres or buildings where it is difficult to take
Database for managing an image bank. Nikon PC camera with perspective correction lens.
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The applications of digital photography
sufficient measurements to draw them precisely. Photographic and, unfortunately, their manufacturers make them obsolete in
rectification is the system used. By taking a photograph and the space of two or three years. The new ones have more pixels,
establishing at least four non-aligned points marked out by two a faster processing speed and increasingly sophisticated programs.
real measurements, we can rectify the front plane at scale. Then, Digital cameras are, in general, very susceptible to falls and rough
using this photographic elevation, we can produce the plans of treatment, highly sensitive to atmospheric agents, humidity,
the faade, bearing in mind that we can take measurements from extreme temperatures and, above all, dust, which can cause
the photograph. The example shown in the illustration was serious problems. Traditional technical services no longer repair
produced by the Architecture Heritage Workshop of the EPSEB this kind of camera, which has to be taken to the brands official
using the Homograf program. Likewise, with the help of graphic service, which no longer carries out minor repairs. They normally 4
restitution programs we can generate perspectives of buildings replace the camera if it is under guarantee and, if not, the quote
from pairs of plans. for repair (a set price, whatever the problem) usually prompts the
Before digital tools were available, with traditional cameras it was owner to change cameras.
advisable to take the photograph with the optical axis of the We miss the hardy cameras that stood up to almost anything,
camera as perpendicular as possible to the plane of the faade even working without batteries, such as the Nikon FM or similar.
and correct the perspective in the enlarger or work with cameras
with bellows (Linhof, Sinar, etc.) or perspective correction lenses
(Nikon PC, Canon TS-E lenses, etc).
To prevent this seeming an apology for digital photography, below
are some of its drawbacks.
Although digital photography equipment is presented as being
cheap or at least affordable material and hailed as having
democratized photography in that it provides access to many
people who would not otherwise dare to try it, the cameras are,
in general, more expensive than the ones they replace. A good
traditional reflex camera normally lasted many years. Its
replacement, the digital reflex camera, tends to be more expensive
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Understanding structural damages I. Knowledge
The behaviour and durability of the structural elements of those transmitted by the structural floors and roofs, and those
traditional housing are closely related to the materials used and generated by prevailing winds, directing them to the foundations,
the means of construction of the urban and rural surroundings in generally comprising rigid footing of a shallow depth and similar
which they are set. The departure point is, then, knowledge of in width or slightly wider than the wall. They are thick enough to
these materials and means of construction in order to start the provide a solid base, since they are used for constructions of two 5
process of diagnosing the alterations and damage of all kinds or three storeys at most, adopting geometrical arrangements in
presented by the buildings. It is also useful to have as much the form of closed volumes that brace each other to varying
information as possible about modifications and interventions of degrees, in accordance with the distance between them and the
all kinds to have affected the building over the years and even the rigidity of the wall-floor engagements. On the basis of these
different uses to which it has been put. principles, when one or more of these characteristics is insufficient
It is advisable to have a graphic or written representation of the or anomalous, lesions will appear in the form of cracks, fissures or
information compiled on plans, sections and elevations of the distortions whose formation, location and dynamic constitute the
buildings, with a view to relating the location of damage to the body of useful data for diagnosis.
position of the various structural elements and the main When referring to thick walls, we take for granted the fact that
construction, including partition walls. It is also recommendable to they are single-facing walls, solid throughout, but it is advisable to
take note of modifications over the years in distribution and remember when diagnosing these walls that they may not be
volumes in the form of extensions to the height or in the floor homogeneous in section, particularly in the case of masonry walls.
plan, as this will aid an overall, integrative understanding of the This is the case not only of Roman-style walls, with in-fill material
construction, which is of particular interest in the case of old or between two masonry facings, but also of many others built
historical buildings. apparently with a single facing, in which the plumb conformation
Bearing all this in mind, below is a diagnosis of the lesions most of faces with larger stones generates internal patches that are
frequently found in the various construction elements that more disintegrated and subject to distortion and, therefore, less
comprise the structural systems of these buildings, with particular resistant.
attention to those that directly support the dead or live loads It is also important to mention the fact that the types of fracture
represented by static, wind or earthquake loadthat is, the walls, in most thick old walls endorse a sufficient correlation with the
pillars and foundations, as regards the vertical elements, and the elastic model in many of the most common cases, though in
structural floors, vaults and domes as the most common covering others more detailed knowledge of the characteristics and the
elements. intervening actions is needed to conduct diagnosis.
In order to facilitate the description and analysis of the most usual
structural lesions, I distinguish between those present and visible
1. Structural damages in buildings with thick walls in the same plane as the faces of the walls and others that form
in central sections of the same walls or generate distortions
The vertical structure of the buildings in question is usually made transverse to its faces. Starting with this initial distinction, the list
up of walls built using local materials. With the single exception of continues with the different variations, listing the principal
walls built using plant matter or timber frames, the walls of these characteristics in each case.
buildings are thick, rarely slender, built of earth, brick or stone as
the basic material, using ancestral techniques involving moulding
(in the case of rammed-earth walls), earth- or lime mortar-based
agglomerating agents to bond the various pieces, though the
various units (in this case stones) may also simply be fitted
together to produce dry masonry. In mechanical terms, walls built
in this way are characterized by being self-supporting elements,
capable of absorbing the loads generated by their own weight,
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Structural damages in Traditional Mediterranean Architecture
The most specific characteristic is that the fact that the damage, in the form of cracks, fissures or crushing, shows in the superficial faces,
and usually runs right through the section of the element, thereby differing from most non-structural lesions.
The position of the fissures or cracks coincides with the direction of the isostatic lines of compression corresponding to a vertical element
of a flexible, homogeneous and isotropic material, receiving the vertical load of its own weight and that of the structural floors, uniformly
distributed. The breakages form mainly in the parts bearing the greatest load, coinciding with the lower part of the wall and, as
applicable, in the solid areas of concentrated load between openings. This indicates higher levels than admissible of compression in the
5 fractured area, with very differing effects to the safety of the building, depending on the capacity to redistribute tensions in the area of
the wall or the wall system as a whole.
In irregular coursed masonry, it comes as no surprise that one of the first symptoms of fracture should be the crushing and disintegration
of the mortar in the horizontal bonds when the elasticity of the mortar is much lower than that of masonry or bricks, which tends to
occur in older walls. This phase is followed by the progressive vertical breakage of the masonry induced by the tensions of horizontal
traction in the contact between the mortar and the masonry, ultimately forming a collection of continuous vertical cracks. In random
rubble masonry, this process, if it does occur, is not so obvious, though the cracks tend to zigzag along the mortar bonds, following the
same pattern.
The difference in vertical load between the two stretches of the same wall is indicated by the fracture of vertical sections coinciding with
or close to the change of load, marking a vertical crack or succession of sloping cracks with a common vertical axis and a slope in the
direction of the tensions.
1 2 3 4
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Structural damages in Traditional Mediterranean Architecture
The fissures slope away from the sides of the element generating this load, usually a beam or joist, or run vertically beneath it. As in the
previous case, the degree of gravity will depend on the possibility of redistributing the tensions of the element affected, which is high in
most cases though this is not the case of freestanding pillars, which generally require reinforcement.
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Structural damages in Traditional Mediterranean Architecture
The distortion of elements that, theoretically, taking as a reference the elastic model, are taken to be infinitely rigid, is the cause of the
formation of singular patterns of fracture, different to those produced in other situations. By way of example, the first diagram shows
the fissures induced by a distorted timber lintel, allowing the zonal decompression of the wall with the formation of fissures marking the
discharging arch and the effect of the concentrated load on the joist. The second shows the effects caused by the distortion of the
foundations beneath the concentrated load of the faade wall, generating in it fractures caused by shearing or flexion depending on the
size of the openings and the ductility of the materials in the wall..
A vertical fracture will frequently form in a corner formed by the bearing wall and the bracing wall. The loss of continuity in the wall
system represents a reduction in its rigidity, with effects that must be evaluated in accordance with the incidence of horizontal wind and
earthquake loads..
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1.1.e/ Damages caused by differences in rigidity between the component materials of mixed walls
In coplanar walls built of two types of masonry or materials with different degrees of rigidity, one of themthe most rigidforming
apparent pilasters and the other forming the wall proper, cracks may appear as a result of shearing generated in areas impeding the
distortion of the least rigid material or masonry. These breakages, generally in thick walls, do not have serious effects on their equilibrium,
and are typical of walls that combine brick masonry with rammed earth, or irregular- with irregular masonry.
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Structural damages in Traditional Mediterranean Architecture
Earth movements are one of the most frequent causes of fissuring and cracking of traditional walls. These movements may be produced
by multiple causes, some of which are intrinsic to the terrain (wetting of cohesive soils, unstable hillsides, etc.), and others related to the
characteristics of the buildings existing foundations or intervention in adjacent buildings. Generallythough not alwaysthe damage
is progressive, providing information about its evolution and the adoption of appropriate preventive measures.
The movements are shown in the form of the fissures illustrated in the figures below, according to the type of movement (descending
or slipping), part of the building affected (corner or centre) and certain of the buildings characteristics (blind wall or wall with openings).
As explained above, these outlines are based on the hypothesis that walls behave mechanically as elastic and rigid elements, with little
plastic distortion prior to the moment of fracture, as they are also homogeneous and isotropic. Obviously, the closer the walls
characteristics to this model, the more valid the references to the types of fracture suggested by the elastic model, though it is necessary
5 to bear in mind that the most probable points of fracture tend to coincide with the position of weak points in the absorption of the
traction tensions generated by the movement. This is logical if we consider the scant resistance to this type of load of the materials that
make up the walls in question here.
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Structural damages in Traditional Mediterranean Architecture
Traditional architecture constructions built using earth, stone or brick walls, particularly the first two, do not offer much resistance to
seismic movement, due to their scant resistance to traction and shearing and their limited ductility in response to the multidirectional
loads introduced by these movements. The visual symptom that most commonly identifies this lesion is the presence of cross-shaped
fissures in the stretches of wall between openings, indicating breakage caused by shearing of these stretches of wall as a result of being
shaken in two directions (right-left, horizontal-vertical), practically simultaneously, that characterizes seismic movement. Other visible
effects, such as fissures in sections with a change of inertia or due to thrusting caused by seismic activity are also frequent, as is the
formation of invisible damage in the inside of the walls (detachment, microfissuring, etc.) that reduce their bearing capacity. Evidently,
evaluation of the seriousness of the lesion will require a specific analysis of the damage to each building.
This type of lesions is characterized by being invisible in the outer face of the wall or manifesting itself in the form of distortions
transversal to the outer face.
Excess compression in a thick wall can generate a vertical internal fracture which, following the isostatic line of compression that passes
through the point at which the materials breaking tension is reached, tends to gradually divide the wall into two halves, thereby making
it thinner and reducing its bearing capacity. This type of breakage affects many walls that do not have homogeneous interiors, with weak
internal sections as a result of the positioning of stone masonry or ceramic units according to the fixed references of the vertical planes
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of the faces. This is the most dangerous form of fracture of those listed here, since its presence and progression inside old walls cannot
generally be seen, hence the possibility of collapse without necessarily undergoing a perceptible phase of distortion. Its presence and
discovery, both in walls and in freestanding pillars, calls for the short-term adoption of measures to reinforce the damaged elements.
These phenomena are generally the product of long processes of distortion caused by the prolonged effects of vertical or horizontal loads
on the walls materials, along with the effects of its rheology, leading to changes in its mechanical characteristics over time. Advanced
phases of distortion tend to call for props or other cautionary measures. Thrusting of the roof, torsion in the foundations or the effects
of damp and temperature are the most usual causes of collapse, whereas the rheological processes of slow distortion subject to loads
transmitted by the roof and the structural floors are the most common causes of bulging.
5
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Vaulted elements generate thrusts at their meeting point with the perimetric walls, which have to be counterbalanced by the thickness
and mass of the latter, sometimes with the assistance of buttresses. Insufficient counterbalancing of thrusts will produce cracks and
distortion that may affect not only the walls but also the vault, which is decompressed as a consequence.
2. Structural lesions in the structural floors, vaults and domes of buildings with thick walls
The most usual covering element in Mediterranean construction is the structural floor, comprising timber joists and beam fill of very
varying materials: reeds, timber sheathing, ceramic tiles, small timbrel vaults or a binding agent and agglomerate, etc. Vaults and domes,
conversely, are less usual and more singular in their application, built using the same materials as the walls and construction techniques
specific to each place.
In timber beams and joists that form structural elements supporting the floor, there are three types of lesions with different
characteristics: distortion, biotic attacks and cracks, also called shakes in the case of timber.
2.1.a/ Distortions
It is usual in old buildings to find structural floors with a high degree of flexion due to the flowage experienced by the constituent timber
elements. Flowage, which is the quality of a material to progressively distort under the loads it bears, whether or not these loads increase,
is a typical phenomenon of timber when it works under flexion, and leads to a reduction in the bearing capacity of the element of which
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it forms part. This element should be evaluated in each case according to the mechanical characteristics of the type of timber, the load
borne by the floor structure and the existing deflection.
Although cracks are usually the result not of the mechanical action to which the floor is subjected but of causes related to the drying
out of the timber or cycles of ambient humidity, it is always worth checking their origin and evaluating the repercussions on the inertia
of the elements affected. If they are caused by mechanical action, their presence may be a symptom of situations of breakage and
collapse.
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The presence of rot produced by various types of fungi or wood-eating insects such as termite or woodworm leads to a reduction in the
working section which, as in the previous case, must be specifically evaluated in each building. Detection of the location and extent of
damage is, then, an absolutely necessary part of the information required to diagnose these elements.
The mechanical and structural behaviour of vaults is habitually recognised as the superposition of the curved directrix of the element with
the corresponding line of pressure. The greater the distance between this line and the position of the directrix, the greater the risk of
fissuring or crushing, as these points then coincide with the areas subject to the maximum tensions of traction and compression.
The types of fracture found in vaults differ substantially from those found in domes, since the latter are authentic spatial structures whose
interpretation necessarily requires a complex three-dimensional approach, which explains some of the classic models of breakage
presented. It is common in both elements for the origin of damage to lie in decompression as a result of movements of the walls, pillars
or pilasters that receive their thrust, whether due to the collapse of walls or sinking caused by differential settlement of the foundations.
Other possible direct causes of lesions are excess load or the weakness of built elements. The diagrams illustrate the most usual forms
of fracture.
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5
3. Particularities of the behaviour of structures with timber framework
The mechanical and structural behaviour of the framework walls of traditional construction differs substantially from that of the thick
walls referred to in previous sections. In this case, the principal resistant elements are the linear pieces of timber that make up the
framework, whereas the walls of rammed earth, adobe or brick fulfil the subsidiary role of preventing buckling, in any case absorbing a
random percentage of the forces of compression. These are, then, porticoed structures braced by solid stretches of wall. The floors usually
comprise timber beams and joists supported by the elements in the wall framework or interior pillars.
These are structures with complex behaviours, marked in many cases by the differences in stiffness between the component materials,
the relation between the thickness of the wall and the separation between props, and the arrangement of the framework elements,
which may be very varied, with a differing number of diagonal elements. In any case, an important aspect and one that is often decisive
in the durability of this type of walls is the progressive deterioration of the timber in the absence of maintenance, producing a gradual
loss of bearing capacity.
Bibliography
Various authors: Tratado de rehabilitacin. Patologa y tcnicas de intervencin. Elementos estructurales, Departamento de Construccin y Tecnologa Arquitectnica,
Universidad Politcnica de Madrid, Editorial Munilla-Lera, 1998, Madrid.
Various authors: Manual de diagnosi i intervenci en sistemes estructurals de parets de crrega, Collegi dAparelladors i Arquitectes Tcnics de Barcelona, 1995, Barcelona.
MASTRODICASA, S. Dissesti statici delle strutture edilizie, Hoepli Ed., 1978 (6th edition), Milan.
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exhales outside1 and Seneca, in the sixth book of the Natural Mallet6, the seismograph by Mine, the scale by Mercalli to
Issues, titled On the movement of the Earth, correctly described measure the seismic intensity were significant phases that cleared
the effects, but he connected them to some water or air, whirling a way for the investigation during the XX century (since the
in underground caves and producing the seismic tremors. Also researches by Baratta and Wegner) that finally explained the
Plinio, in the Natural History talked about a wind into the earth to causes of the earthquakes and the countermeasures to take.
be exhaled through sewers and deep wells2. The explanations As regards the technical solutions, we just underline that, since
during the following centuries were not very different, but they the ancient times, especially after very dramatic earthquakes,
are difficult to report in detail. Anyway, they all were lacking of many technical and structural measures have been set. They were
any right intuition about the seismic phenomena. They sometimes all interesting and more or less effective, but they always had a
tried to explain all in terms of magic and/or witchcraft. rapid development and a rapid disappearance, as well.
Besides, significant developments to define the causes of the In Italy, in the IV century BC, in the Greek colonies of Metapontum
earthquakes did not happen, even when the processes producing and Paestum, the constructers founded the buildings in trenches 5
the collapse of the masonries were understood (we have that were dug inside the rock and filled with sand. In the northern
uncountable drafts, drawings and descriptions about that). Syria, in the second century BC, the earth masonries had a
Moreover, the early enthusiastic scientific discoveries, at the wooden framework. After the earthquake that destroyed Pompeii
beginning of the Enlightenment, created further confusion rather and partially Naples in 63 AD, an early anti seismic set of rules was
than solutions, as in case of electric phenomena: the imposed, known and transmitted until the Renaissance, which
enthusiasm for the electric phenomena leaded to think that any avoided constructing buildings higher than two floors. By the way,
inexplicable event was imputed to the fluid, or the electric vapour a technical and structural innovation did not correspond to the
according with the definition of that period, and the earthquakes normative development, except for the timber dwellings in
themselves were considered a consequence of the electricity3. Ercolano, whose structure was composed of a wooden framework
So, Valadier designed the anti seismic towers in Rimini in order to (opus graticium) with a filling of crushed stone, mud and cane
scatter the electricity of the earth in the atmosphere. frame.
However, in the 18th century, there was a qualitative leap, when However, after the dramatic earthquake that caused the
scientific experiences and observations4 leaded Bottari to destruction of a great part of Lisbon in 1755 and was perceived
understand the phenomenon, in its Three lessons on the throughout the Europe, the strong will was felt to apply suitable
earthquake published in Rome: the bowels of the earth are measures to reduce the destructive seismic effects (even if
soaked in many spots by sulphurous and bituminous breezes that misunderstanding the causes). For the reconstruction, some
are mixed with nitre or other substances, so that they catch fire, regulations were issued for the first time in the history. The height
spread in the caves where they are, break or try to break the of the buildings, the width of the streets and, most of all, some
opposite obstacles and cause the tremors of the earth5. In the structural rules for new buildings were imposed. Specifically, the
same century, the modern seismology was born: the studies by walls had to be composed of a wooden framework (later named
Effects of the dramatic earthquake, Friuli (Italy), 1976. Depiction of the earthquake in Rode, 1495. The higher circular towers of the town
wall are collapsed while the slower ones still with stand.
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as pombal cage from the marquis Pombal who designed the reinforced wall became very common, particularly after the
reconstruction) that was able to support floors and roof, in case of earthquake in Messina in 1908. There were many versions: some
earthquake. of them were licensed, from the simple reinforcement by steel tie
The pombal cage inside the walls was composed of a braced beams until modular systems, composed of hollow bricks with
frame with piles (prunos) and transoms (travessenhos). The different shapes and slot to be tied by zinced iron threads.
transoms were connected to the walls by a series of dadoes
(maos). The upper part of the dadoes were connected by beams Value of connections for seismic resistance
(frechais) each other and by architraves (vergas) and rafters
(pendurias). The elastic wooden structure ensured great resistance Evidently, in each Mediterranean region, the art of construction
to the building, also by means of the flexible connection dogs. has specialized in order to realize masonries as well as possible, by
The important technical solutions, previously highlighted, got to materials that were available in loco and economically sustainable.
5 more complex applications after the Calabrian-Messinese So, a good quality wall may have different material and structural
earthquake in 1783 with a particular kind of antiseismic building characteristics for different areas. By the way, the rules of
typology. The casa baraccata described by Vivenzio7 was construction are basically the same (dimension of elements, way
composed of load-bearing wooden framework with horizontal and quality of realization, texture of faces, quality and quantity of
and vertical beams on piles. A significant step is taken towards a mortars, connections and homogeneity).
good construction rule, supported by a better understanding of Particularly, the monolithic nature of cavity walls has to be
the telluric phenomena. In fact, the homogeneous and unitary achieved for the resistance to dynamic stresses. In fact, the single
behaviour of the building against the seismic actions begin being parts have to be connected each other to show a box
ensured by steel bars inside the walls, tie beams and buttresses to behaviour. This condition may avoid the vertical slides that usually
better connect the structures. The ringing of the buildings was lower the stabilization capability of the weight against the
even encouraged by the authorities. In Italy, in 1854, the Bourbon horizontal thrust.
government exempted the iron, employed for that purpose, from Beyond the connections into single building elements, good
taxation. In some Italian areas, safety room were used, as well as connections among different constructional elements has to be
rooms reinforced by soft iron blades that were placed between the globally ensured in the whole structure (wall-wall, wall-floor, wall-
wall and the plaster and shaped as St. Andrew cross. The roof), in order to reduce the deformations by the presence of
18th century engraving representing an earthquake caused by exhalations of Antiseismic towers designed by Valadier in Rimini.
underground vapours.
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Shrive N.G., Sayed-Ahmed E.Y., Tileman D. (1997). Creep analysis of clay masonry
assemblages. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, n. 24, pp. 367-379.
Siviero, E., Barbieri, A., Foraboschi, P. (1997). Lettura strutturale delle costruzioni.
Citt Studi Edizioni.
5 ( le viscere della terra in molti punti inzuppate di aliti sulfurei e bituminosi i quali
mescolati col nitro o in altra guisa prendono fuoco e si dilatano in forma che non
References potendo capire, in quelle cavit dove si ritrovano, inchiusi a principio spezzino o
tentino di spezzare gli opposti ostacoli il che da cagione al tremore del terreno ).
Baratta, M. (1901). I terremoti d'Italia, 1901. Arnaldo Forni Editore. 6 Mallet, Il grande terremoto napoletano del 1857.
Batoli G., Blasi C (1997). Masonry structures, historical buildings and monuments, e di Messina del 1783, Napoli 1783.
Chapter 11 of Computer analysis and design of earthquake resistant structures A 8 J. Rondelet, Trait thorique et pratique de lart de btir, Paris 1802. (i naturisti
handbook (Advances in earthquake engineering, vol. 3), edited by D.E. Beskos & S.A. hanno notato che in natura i corpi degli esseri animati risultano strutturati in
Anagnostopoulos, p. 563-606, Computational Mechanics Publications. modo tale che le ossa non restino in nessun punto staccate tra loro. Allo stesso
Binda L., Gambarotta L., Lagomarsino S.,Modena C. (1999), "A multilevel approach modo le ossature saranno da riunire alle ossature, ad esse tutte da rafforzare nel
to the damage assessment and the seismic improvement of masonry buildings in modo pi opportuno con nervi e legamenti; sicch la successione delle ossature,
Italy", in Seismic Damage to Masonry Buildings (A. Bernardini Ed.), Proceeding of the collegate tra loro, risulti tale da resistere da sola, quandanche ogni altro elemento
International Workshop on "Measures of seismic damage to masonry buildings", venisse a mancare, perfettamente conchiusa nella solidit della sua
Monselice, Padova, Italy, June 25-26, 1998, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp.179-194. membranatura).
9 F. Milizia, Principi di architettura civile, Finale Ligure 1781, parte III, cap. I, pag.
Carocci C. (2001), Guidelines for the safety and preservation of historical centres in
seismic area, III International Seminar on Structural Analysis of Historical 102. (gli antichi per meglio mantenere i muri li attraversavano di tratto in tratto
Constructions, University of Minho, Guimares (Portugal), 7th - 9th November 2001, con lunghi travi di legno, che servivan da catene, le quali prendevano tutta la
pp. 145-165. grossezza del muro, che rimaneva perci fortificato in se stesso e meglio collegato
agli altri muri. Si adoperava a questo effetto legno di ulivo, che non viene come
De Tommasi G., Monaco P., Vitone C., (2003) A first approach to the load path gli altri danneggiato dalla calce, e sembra preferibile alla catene di ferro, di cui si
method on masonry structure behaviour in Brebbia, C.A. (Eds.), Structural Studies, fa ora tanto abuso).
Repairs and Maintenance of Heritage Architecture VIII - Wessex Institute of
Technology WIT Press, Southampton (UK) ISBN: 1.85312.968.2.
Giuffr A. (1993), Sicurezza e conservazione dei centri storici: Il caso Ortigia, Editrice
Laterza, Bari.
Giuffr A., Carocci C. (1997), Codice di pratica: per la conservazione dei Sassi di
Matera, Matera, La Bautta.
Giuffr A., Carocci C. (1999), Codice di pratica per la sicurezza e la conservazione del
centro storico di Palermo - Laterza, Bari.
Karaesmen, E.,Unay, A.I., Erkay, C., Boyaci, N. (1992). Seismic behaviour of old
masonry structures. Proceedings of the tenth World Conference on earthquake
engineering. A.A. Balkema, vol. VIII: 4531-4536.
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Seismic hazard is defined as the probable level of ground hazard. Specifically, white to green correspond to low hazard (0-
shaking associated with the recurrence of earthquakes. The 8% g, where g equals the acceleration of gravity), yellow and
assessment of seismic hazard is the first step in the evaluation orange to moderate hazard (8-24% g); reds to high hazard (>
of seismic risk, obtained by combining the seismic hazard with 24% g).
local soil conditions and with vulnerability factors (type, value The unified ESC-SESAME seismic hazard model is the result of the
and age of buildings and infrastructures, population density, combined efforts of multidisciplinary research groups on 5
land use). Frequent, large earthquakes in remote areas result in seismotectonics, earthquake catalogues, and hazard assessment
high seismic hazard but pose no risk; on the contrary, moderate during more than ten years within the framework of cooperation
earthquakes in densely populated areas entail small hazard but projects, programmes, and initiatives at international level.
high risk. The map is one of the possible results that can be generated
Minimization of the loss of life, property damage, and social and through the homogeneous procedure for seismic hazard
economic disruption due to earthquakes depends on reliable assessment for the European Mediterranean region as developed
estimates of seismic hazard. National, state and local within two main project frameworks: International Correlation
governments, decision makers, engineers, planners, emergency Programme (UNESCO IGCP-382 SESAME Project) and the
response organizations, builders, universities, and the general European Seismological Commission (ESC).
public require seismic hazard estimates for land use planning, This unified ESC-SESAME seismic hazard model allows as well to
improved building design and construction (including adoption of map different ground motions (peak ground acceleration, PGA,
building codes), emergency response preparedness plans, and spectral acceleration, SA) corresponding to portions of the
economic forecasts, housing and employment decisions, and bandwidth of energy radiated from an earthquake and for
many more types of risk mitigation. different return periods and soil conditions.
The basic elements of modern probabilistic seismic hazard PGA as depicted in the map and 0.2 SA correspond to short
assessment can be grouped into four main categories: Earthquake period energy that will have the greatest effects on short period
Catalogue, Earthquake Source Model, Strong Seismic Ground structures (up to about seven storey buildings). Longer period SA
Motion, Seismic Hazard Assessment. maps (1.0 s, 2.0 s, etc.) would depict the level of shaking that will
Seismic hazard depicts the levels of chosen ground motions that have the greatest effect on longer period structures (10+ story
likely will, or will not, be exceeded in specified exposure times. buildings, bridges, etc.).
Hazard maps commonly specify a 10% chance of exceedance The unified ESC-SESAME model allows as well to generate maps
(90% chance of non-exceedance) of some ground motion for different return periods e.g. 72-year (50%/50 years) which is a
parameter for an exposure time of 50 years, corresponding to a non conservative estimate that is often used for the usable lifetime
return period of 475 years. of a building or the 4275-year return period (2%/50 years) which
The published European-Mediterranean Seismic Hazard Map is the recently established standard for building codes and which
depicts Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) with a 10% chance of includes very rare large earthquakes. The 475 return period
exceedance in 50 years for a firm soil condition. PGA, a short- (10%/50 years) values as depicted in the map reflect a standard
period ground motion parameter that is proportional to force, is degree of conservatism which includes large rare earthquakes and
the most commonly mapped ground motion parameter because it was employed almost universally for building codes in the last
current building codes that include seismic provisions specify the several decades.
horizontal force a building should be able to withstand during The ESC-SESAME seismic hazard model for Europe and the
an earthquake. Short-period ground motions affect structures Mediterranean constitutes a regional seismic hazard framework
with corresponding short-period resonance vibrations (e.g. one- for the region in terms of peak ground and spectral acceleration
to-three story buildings, the largest class of structures in the from which seismologists, geologists, earthquake engineers, and
world). architects can profit as a general guideline. Nevertheless, it should
The map colours chosen to delineate the hazard roughly be pointed out that the ground motion estimates in the European-
correspond to the actual level of the hazard; the cooler colours Mediterranean seismic hazard map provide a reasonable and
represent lower hazard while the warmer colours represent higher consistent overview of the seismic hazard at regional scale but
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Introduction
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The seismic behaviour of traditional constructions with masonry walls
and floor structure can lead to premature collapse as a The seismic performance of traditional constructions
consequence of the destabilization of a wall perpendicular to the
plane of action of the horizontal forces. The fall of this wall will The above reasoning is based on a rational understanding of the
lead to the collapse of the floor structures and, as a result, the relation between the structures components and their joint
destabilization of the walls parallel to the forces, thereby leading response. However, these arguments ignore the reality of the real
to complete collapse. performance and the effective resistant possibilities demonstrated
A well braced union between perpendicular walls is vital in order by traditional constructions. The existence of a huge legacy in this
to guarantee the stability of the walls subject to planar shearing structural type, even in markedly seismic countries such as Italy or
stress during the earth tremor. However, this is a fragile union and Greece, logically suggests that even with the weak points
may break easily due to thermal effects, settlement, or during the identified in the above section, these buildings may present a
earth tremor. In some cases (as in many buildings in Barcelonas satisfactory response in the event of earth tremors. One aspect to
Eixample), the perpendicular walls are built without effective bear in mind is the adaptation that has taken place, in historical 5
bracing, simply being built against each other, which is not fully terms, between seismic demand and the capacity of local
effective in the face of an earthquake. structural types to cope with it. Various parameters such as, in
These considerations suggest that this type of building is a particular, the thickness of the walls, the height of buildings, the
particularly delicate system that is vulnerable to seismic action. structural organization of the complex or the various construction
Here, it is important to note that the seismic regulations of many details, have evolved to generate a response that is adapted to the
countries (in particular, the Spanish NCR02) introduce very seismicity of each geographical location.
restrictive conditions as regards the use of this structural typology A detailed systematic study of the response of traditional masonry
in places that are vulnerable to seismic movement (for example, structures in Italy, especially after the earthquake affecting Umbria
limiting the number of floors to four for basic seismic acceleration and Marche in 1997, has provided a rather more precise view of
of 0.08 g and to just two for seismic acceleration equal to or the real behaviour of these structures. This experience has shown
higher than 0.12 g), in addition to calling for more demanding that there is indeed a degree of adaptation between construction
construction details that are not characteristic in traditional technology and local seismic demand, with the resulting capacity
construction. of traditional constructions to face up to earth tremors of average
2. Possible breaking mechanisms in buildings that share a party wall (DAyala and
Speranza, 2002).
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The seismic behaviour of traditional constructions with masonry walls
building outwards, orthogonal to their plane, and, above a certain widely applied to analyse masonry (or reinforced concrete)
value, cause them to reach breaking point (Giuffr 1995). structures is based on the hypothesis that floor structures
These constructions are, furthermore, characterized by their constitute very rigid planes perfectly connected to their vertical
capacity to adapt to modification. This capacity is the result of the counterparts (bearing walls or concrete screen walls). In masonry
modular nature of the component materials: all of them can be constructions, this hypothesis is only realistic when the floor
dismantled piece by piece, even the walls. In the maintenance of structure comprises a concrete slab or, if it is built of timber or
these buildings, the repair or replacement of deteriorated stones steel joists, it is topped by a sufficiently thick, reinforced layer of
or blocks is normal practice. concrete that is connected to the vertical elements. In general, this
This fundamental model may be subject to slight variations is not applicable to traditional or historical masonry buildings,
depending on the materials locally available, local cultural aspects whose floor structures are not sufficiently rigid and deformable in
or other factors. In urban construction, this model undergoes the plane, as well as simply resting on the walls.
slight transformations to adapt to the complexity of the urban A common approach in the past was to modify the structure of 5
fabric or the morphological characteristics of the land. Even so, the building (introducing ties and top layers of reinforced
the construction systems tend to reproduce recurrent outlines and concrete) in order to adapt the construction to the hypotheses of
behaviours. the calculation method. This represents a major transformation of
The failure mode most frequently observed in the analysis of the building and the inclusion of elements that are far more rigid
buildings affected by earth tremor in Italy is the collapse of the than the walls, which can have counterproductive effects in the
walls. This is the form that most markedly characterizes the event of earth tremors. Once again, the observation of the effects
vulnerability of this type of construction (figure 3a). This failure of earth tremors to have occurred in Italy in recent times shows that
mode has been traditionally prevented by improving the this type of intervention may even increase the buildings
connection of the faade to the rest of the structure by means of vulnerability to earth movements, due to the danger of the floor
ties. In this case, the stability of the faade in response to earth structures pushing out the walls and rendering them more unstable.
tremors involves the walls perpendicular to it, which resist seismic The visualization of failure modes actually observed suggests a
action by working efficiently in their plane. When these walls can different approach more in keeping with the nature of the
no longer resist the force, they develop diagonal fissures through construction and resistance of these buildings. The building can be
which the system formed by the faade and the upper triangle of analysed by the mathematical formulation of the possible
these walls separates from the rest of the structure (figure 3b). mechanisms of damage using the limit analysis technique and
Unlike the first failure mode, which always leads to collapse, this applying theorems of plasticity. Given the experience available (at
second form does not necessarily mean complete failure, though least in Italy), these methods can be gauged using a qualitative
it is normally accompanied by obvious damage. analysis based on the observation of the behaviour of a large
According to the material characteristics and layout of each building, number of buildings of similar characteristics (Binda et al., 1999,
and the characteristics of seismic action (direction of incidence), Binda et al. 2003). This method has been recently incorporated
other forms of breakage are possible. By way of example, figure 1 into the Italian OCPM seismic regulations (2005).
presents various mechanisms observed in buildings affected by The study of blocks formed by buildings or urban fabrics calls for
earthquakes in Italy (Binda et al., 1999, Binda et al., 2003). a more general approach, due to the greater complexity of the
In historical centres, masonry buildings tend to form complex problem. The observation of alterations or irregularities (such as
structural systems made up of various structurally connected empty spaces or changes of height) is essential in this case. In this
buildings. In these conditions, the analysis of an isolated building context, action takes the form of studying damage scenarios for
cannot be sufficiently representative, since it is necessary to earthquakes of a given magnitude and considering the
consider the system formed by the building in question and the characteristics of the typical buildings and possible variations or
adjacent constructions. This system allows us to envisage failure alterations in the fabric. The analysis can be based on a qualitative
modes such as those illustrated in figure 2 (Carocci, 2001). approach (figure 4) or a detailed calculation based, for example,
on modern techniques of computational calculation (figure 5).
Analysis techniques
Improving seismic behaviour
It is necessary to bear in mind that certain techniques
conventionally used to calculate bearing wall structures may not In practice, the complete adaptation of traditional structures to
be suitable in the case of historical or traditional buildings. In the standards of structural safety in the event of earth tremor
particular, the method of rigid planes, which is well known and required by regulations for new constructions of concrete and
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The seismic behaviour of traditional constructions with masonry walls
steel may lead to a transformation and a very substantial form of repairing deterioration and recovering original resistance,
disfiguration of the original structure. In the case of traditional or without having to implant reinforcements that have nothing to do
historical constructions, this transformation may be incompatible with traditional construction technology.
with the conservation of the buildings historical and cultural In some cases, an improvement in seismic resistance may be
values, and may produce a major loss in terms of cultural legacy. necessary due to the degree of deterioration of a building as a
This particularly occurs when the original structure is reinforced by result of lack of maintenance or deficiencies in the construction
means of elements of concrete, steel or other materials not used process or materials. The need for reinforcement may also be due
by traditional or historical construction techniques. On many to the fact that local construction tradition simply overlooks the
occasions, these reinforcements have been invasive and need for seismic resistance (as can be seen in various places in the
irreversible, causing irreparable damage and loss to the original Iberian Peninsula).
construction. Even in these cases, it is preferable to have recourse to solutions
5 Furthermore, and as already suggested, the study of the seismic that are compatible with traditional or historical construction and
behaviour of previously reinforced buildings in Italy after the that tend to preserve a degree of material and organizational
earthquakes in Umbria and Marche showed that reinforcements homogeneity. It is preferable for interventions to control or
imposed on the original structure have a counterproductive effect mitigate possible weak points in a building rather than effecting a
due to the mixed nature of the resulting complex. In particular, it far-reaching alteration in its construction and resistance.
has been observed that the replacement of traditional floor Intervention can be designed in accordance with traditional or
structures by concrete floor slabs and wall ties in masonry walls historical construction techniques in order to help limit the
can produce an inefficient form of reinforcement that may even deformations experienced during an earthquake or avoid
hasten the buildings collapse during an earthquake. excessive separation between the parts.
For all of these reasons, in recent decades there has been a major Anchoring faades or joining walls to floor structures or other
change of paradigm in ways of understanding the seismic walls using ties is a very efficient traditional solution for joining
improvement of traditional buildings. We currently understand elements without producing substantial changes in their rigidity
that structural restoration is based on knowledge of local (figure 6). In general, interventions should aim to improve the
construction techniques and recognition of their possible quality of the masonry walls and their connections (between the
deficiencies. Knowledge of local construction procedures is walls and to the floor structures), reduce thrusts, stabilize
fundamental and must guide the choice of interventions. In view vulnerable elements and reduce structural irregularities. The
of the fact that traditional buildings in many seismic regions opportunity of increasing the rigidity of floor structures to enable
present a degree of adaptation to local seismic demand, it is them to work as rigid diaphragms should be considered
generally preferable to base reinforcement on an analysis of the judiciously, since it calls in all cases for a clear understanding of the
construction features that characterize these constructions and possible effects on the building as a whole. Furthermore, the work
avoid conflicting solutions. Seismic improvement can take the must be carried out with great care.
Conclusions
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Tool 5
Understanding structural damages I. La connaissance
The seismic behaviour of traditional constructions with masonry walls
References
Binda L., Anzani A., Baila A., Baronio G. (2003), A Multi-level Approach for Damage
Prevention in Seismic Areas. Application to Historic Centres of the Western Liguria,
Atti della 9NAMC (9th North American Masonry Conference), South California.
Bonett, R., Penna, A., Lagomarsino, S., Barbat, A., Pujades, L., Moreno, R. (2003),
Evaluacin de la vulnerabilidad ssmica de estructuras de mampostera no reforzada.
Aplicacin a un edificio de la zona de lEixample de Barcelona. Revista Internacional
de Ingeniera de Estructuras. Escuela Politcnica del Ejrcito, Ecuador, Vol. 8, no. 2,
91-120.
Carocci, C. F. (2001), Guidelines for the safety and preservation of historical centres
in seismic areas, Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Historical
Structures, University of Minho, Guimaraes, 145-166.
DAyala, D., Speranza, E. (2002), An integrated procedure for the assessment of the
seismic vulnerability of historic buildings, 12th European Conference on Earthquake
Engineering. Article no. 561, London.
ORD. PCP, no. 3431: Norme tecniche per il progetto, la valutazione e ladeguamento
sismico degli edifici. Consiglio dei Ministri, Rome.
Penna, A., Cattari, S., Galasco A., Lagomarsino, S. (2004), Seismic assessment of
masonry structures by non-linear macro-element analysis, Structural Analysis of
Historical Constructions IV, Balkema, Leiden.
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Tool 6
Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Introduction
What are the types of damp to which a building and its elements
are subjected? An initial classification divides the types according
to the source of the water: from the ground, rain or use. This
division can be further nuanced if the form of penetration is
introduced: with or without pressure, intermittent or constant,
etc. As we will see, this nuance is interesting because the criteria
of intervention will be clearly guided by the answers to these Ground strata (1. Phreatic; 2. Capillary; a. Absorption; b. Damp ground; c.
questions. Underground water; d. Impermeable ground)
The most frequent types of ground damp are: The mathematical means of expressing the amount of water in soil
is its volumetric water content, representing the amount of water
Water from an aquifer per unit of dry bulk soil:
Water from the capillary fringe
Rainwater absorbed by the ground w = Mw / Ms (%)
Runoff water that may filter through the paving, giving rise to
false damp. Ce contenu est dfini en mesurant la perte deau que subit le sol
False water or perched tables This is defined by measuring the water loss undergone by soil that
is dried for 24 hours in a kiln at 105-110C (BS 1377). These
In order to provide a complete definition of the possible values usually oscillate at around 5% for gravel and sand, and
pathological states caused by these forms of damp it is first 50% for fine-grained cohesive soils (clays).
necessary to define the states of stressthat is, the factors Another way of estimating the degree of moisture is the degree of
considered to be water loads on the site. The most frequent saturation Sr: the percentage of voids in the soil full of water, as
are: opposed to the total porous volume. The degree of saturation is
not a term for comparing soils, but it does enable us to relate the
The amount of water contained by the soil moisture content with the form of penetration, because the
The pressure exerted by the water. degree of saturation increases with the greater pressure with
which water is introduced into the ground.
We will use both expressions to describe the states of stress.
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I. Knowledge Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce
3. The pressure of water in the ground a surface aquifer. Functional or symbolical needs sometimes
imposed construction in these places, and damp was accepted as
The pressure of water in the ground is expressed by the term a permanent factor. A frequent response was to construct systems
pore pressure n, which is defined as an excess of pressure in to channel and drain these flows in order to reduce damage to a
the pore, greater than atmospheric pressure. minimum. Many years of tradition often managed to tame the
water using inventions that were masterly in their simplicity and
wisdom: galleries, wells, gutters, cisterns, dams, etc., which are
4. Stress caused by groundwater level just some of the exponents of centuries of a culture of water. Our
forebears were well aware that flowing water does little damage.
Soil below the groundwater level is saturated (saturated zone): its These systems only ceased to work when blockages, diversions or
degree of saturation Sr is 100%. Water in this stratum is under breakage put paid to the original solutions. When this happens,
pressure, and, in the event of coming into contact with an the proximity of groundwater level to the underground walls of
underground construction element, with give rise to intense stress foundations or basements can take various forms:
in which the appearance of lesions may be produced by water
6
dripping or gushing onto the wall facing. I. Pure phreatic stress
The strata in contact with the groundwater level become damp II. Pure capillarity stress
due to capillary action (wet strata). The degree of saturation here III. Stress caused by ground that is just damp
is close to 100% at the limit with the groundwater level, and
decreases with distance. The gradient depends on many factors I. Pure phreatic stress
(porosity, surface tension, etc.). Some land has a low capillary This is the result of burying the wall or foundations as far down as
level, with a shallow wet area (earth with a coarse grain and voids groundwater level. Since the flow is permanent and water
larger than 0.5 mm), whereas others, with finer pores, contain
water to a depth of several metres.
The depth of this area of partial saturation (capillary fringe)
constitutes the capillary level and can only be measured
approximately by means of empirical formulas according to
permeability K.
Above the capillary level there is a further layer of damp earth
containing not liquid water but water vapour that is diffused into
the atmosphere (evaporation zone). The damp gradient continues,
establishing decreasing degrees of saturation as it nears the
surface. There may also be discontinuous damp in the form of
traces of water at points of contact.
As regards the pressure of water in this type of stress, pressure is
said to exist when the earth is saturatedthat is, below
groundwater level.
Above groundwater level, the capillary fringe becomes damp by
suction (negative pressure) due to the surface attraction between
the soil and the water (interfacial tension).
The groundwater level as stress involves a presence of water under
pressure acting on a large area of the foundations or on the
underground parts of a building. As stress, it is not localized in
extension or occasional in duration. It does not appear only when
it rains, though a longer period of precipitation has the effect of
an increase in hydrologic flow.
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Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce
pressure is high, this is the most serious problem. The buried wall retained by capillarity, without pressure. Penetration takes place
and/or footing, as applicable, contain the following delimited due to mechanisms of capillarity from the ground to the wall. The
areas (distinguished by their water content): decrease in free surface energy in the system generated when
Areas of localized penetration of water under pressure: joints, water leaves the ground and spreads through the pores of the
fissures, empty spaces, etc. are the weak points as regards the foundation materials is the mechanism that triggers the very usual
passage of the water under pressure. Penetration therefore starts phenomenon of a damp basement or ground floor walls, even
here. when there is no adjacent trapped water or saturated ground.
Areas of saturated material: around the points of penetration, and
in areas closest to the water, material is saturated. This type of stress produces a damp gradient in foundations or
Areas of wet material: around the above. basement walls, footing, etc., characterized by lower water
Areas of damp material: surrounding the wet areas. Rather than content than in the case of water under pressure. The materials in
the characteristic stain, areas that are just damp sometimes only contact with the ground do not become saturated, so the
manifest a slight darkening, not always immediately visible. resulting distribution is less extensive and intense. Even if the wall
The gradient of water content produced by the groundwater level were sufficiently thick, the damp stain would not appear on the
6
is permanent, not coinciding with drainage, nearby rain, pipe visible face. This means that water moves due to capillarity and
damage, etc. The only variations are seasonal, producing turns into vapour inside the wall, and then continues its way due
oscillations in the height of the water level. to vapour diffusion.
II. Pure capillarity stress This form of stress is called pure capillarity because the water
In this case, the foundations or the wall are built not in the that penetrates has no positive pressure: the mechanism is one of
saturated zone, subject to pressure, but in the stratum suction. In order to stop penetration, it is merely necessary to
immediately above, which, as described, only contains water prevent contact between the ground and the facing, creating a
Stress caused by the capillary fringe in ashlar foundations (1. Wet area; 2. Damp The height reached by rising damp depends on various factors: (Pve. Exterior
area) evaporation (+ convection); Pvi. Interior evaporation (increase in relative humidity); 1.
Surface capillary zone; 2. Direction of flow; 3. Waterproofed area?; 4. The water
rises above the buildings base)
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I. Knowledge Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce
Wet area
Damp area
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Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce
For example, in the case of a masonry wall with mortar, suction will caves, crypts, etc., are cool, damp places even if they do not
occur more easily through the mortar than through the masonry, or present damp patches.
even through the surface of contact between the stones and the The damp contents are lower than in the other cases, presenting
mortar, if they are poorly bonded. The lines or surfaces along which just one area:
water ascends most easily are those without mortar. It is therefore
frequent to find different heights of damp in the vertical joints created Area of damp material
between different non-interlocking fabrics, for example, between This area may not present the appearance of damp, just the
masonry walls and ashlar abutments if it is not a masonry arch deterioration of materials or claddings.
The water that evaporates from a wet stratum towards the IV. Rainwater absorbed by the ground
atmosphere When the ground is permeable to rainwater, the upper strata
Percolated rainwater, which, when precipitation ceases, starts absorbs it and it seeps downwards (percolated water), according
to evaporate to the degree of permeability. In its course, water wets the
The remaining water in the ground, produced by leaks, ground, defining a gradient as it moves. Part of the water is
irrigations, etc. retained in the ground by capillarity, and part percolates towards
lower impermeable strata.
Water originally retained in the ground by capillarity can move In strata that are highly permeable, water is soaked up quickly. In
through it if there is a difference in vapour pressure between the clayey ground, filtration is slow and water covers large distances
ground and the air: water spreads in the form of vapour (the horizontally, due to the difficulty of penetrating into the ground.
ground evaporates). A wall or footing buried in the damp stratum For this reason, contact with the buried wall or foundations is
become at least evaporators of this damp. It is well known that greater in the case of impermeable ground.
Stress caused by ground that is just damp (1. Damp ground; 2. Evaporation; 3. Damp Rainwater absorbed by the ground (1. Rain; 2. Damp area; 3. Wet area; 4. Damp
materials) area)
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I. Knowledge Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce
The water content of ground in its different layers is, then, A dangerous type of ground in this sense is one that has areas
variable, provided exchange with the atmosphere (rain and from which the fines have been washed out, making them very
evaporation) is not prevented by paving. permeable strata that act as natural drains in more impermeable
This form of stress may be likened to pure capillarity, as it produces ground. The phenomenon is known as internal erosion or piping,
the same areas in the wall: and is dangerous because these lines of main flow can conduct
large flows and pressures, washing out areas of ground and
Wet area subsequently generating settlement in buildings constructed on
Damp area them.
Pockets of water form in depressions in rather impermeable
The difference is that here, it is a phenomenon that coincides with ground. These pockets fill with rainwater and, depending on the
precipitation, generally fast to appear and gradually disappearing flow received, can attain high levels of hydrostatic load that are
with the evaporation of the ground. Further, stains are difficult to evacuate. If one of these underground pockets breaks,
concentrated more intensely, coinciding with the ground level of it can generate penetrations of major flows and pressures.
the paving or the zone where the water is retained. It is also relatively frequent in areas of historical construction to
6
V. Perched water tables find underground rainwater cisterns and remains of obsolete,
Sometimes the composition of strata in the ground does not allow semi-obstructed gutters. All of these elements are potentially
directly precipitated water to reach groundwater level. Water capable of acting as water pockets in the ground, in the event of
penetrates an initial permeable stratum, reaches an impermeable being reached by some kind of subterranean stream.
layer beneath and runs over its surface, constituting lines of flow In more recent construction, the weak point for pocketing tends
or troughs that are above the groundwater level. These are called to be trenches built around foundations and filled in once work is
perched water tables, rapidly-forming flows that follow lines of complete. As the in-filling is not usually as compact as the natural
least resistance in the ground (cracks in rocky ground, fracture ground, and since the waters natural movement is interrupted by
lines, sandy areas of clayey ground, cavities or drains, infill, etc.), the presence of basement walls, screens, etc., the trench is
without constituting a saturated stratum. Following these lines, potentially a pocket for runoff around the building. If to this we
large volumes of water can travel a long way in a short time, add the aggravating circumstance that this perimetric gutter is
producing localized stresses of water with variable flows and sometimes used, in small and freestanding buildings, to drain
pressures according to the type of precipitation causing them. water collected by the roof and, on occasion, to water flowerbeds,
A stratum with perched water tables has variable water contents: the result can be very negative.
larger at the runoff line, less in more remote areas. It can produce However perched water tables form, the areas they potentially
pockets with strong pressure, constituting a dangerous type of produce in the buried wall are:
stress, sometimes confused with the groundwater level.
Rainwater absorbed by the ground. The deterioration of mural painting has started A perched water table.
at the top, on the line coinciding with the ground on the other side of the wall
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Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce
Area of localized penetration with pressure saturation in the grounds pores is greater, and upper layers
A saturated zone, near the point where the water exerts the generally increase in dampness, becoming fairly stable.
greatest load If there are leaks or localized penetrations of water, the
A wet area difficulty of evaporation produces retention of the water
A damp area absorbed. Any defect in drainage, mains or sewerage leak
becomes a problem of damp unless the ground drains easily.
This could be confused with groundwater stress. The difference Paved ground can be considered a possible extreme case of a
lies in the fact that this case involves phenomena of time, perched water table, with surface flow. If surface drainage is
coinciding with rain, damage to cisterns during building work, not correctly addressed, paving could have a negative effect,
lack of adequate drainage and waterproofing in basements where transporting all runoff water to the buildings foot or forming
phreatic water was not apparent at the time of construction, etc. puddles, which penetrate faster than moving water.
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I. Knowledge Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce
we speak of damp caused by hygroscopic condensation. They are aggressive because when they crystallize they exert
Normally, a building that presents this type of lesion has pressure on the pores that may cause materials to deteriorate,
undergone real damp of some kind (capillarity, rain, flooding, though they are in general less hygroscopic than nitrates and
etc.), which provided the vehicle conveying the salts to the wall. chlorides.
But this real damp may have disappeared, and the wall retains
only the deposited salts, which are reactivated not by the presence Disappearance of the stain when the render is chipped away or
of water in the ground, but by the increase in damp in the the contaminated materials eliminated is a characteristic symptom
atmosphere. The stain reappears in its original form, but is that damp is caused by hygroscopic condensation. (Figures show
deceptive. how the damp stain disappears from the area of the mortar
This is the cause of much of the damp in old or historical buildings. bonding being removed, because in this case the hygroscopic salts
It is a type of patch that will not away, resisting all traditional are near the surface, and the mortar beneath looks dry and sound.
removal attempts. Since the cause is the contamination of the In this wall, the salts also affect the brick, which should be
materials, until the hygroscopic salts are eliminated it will not replaced by new materials, not always an appropriate course of
disappear. action, as decided on this site.)
6
The salts may have different sources:
8. Damp caused by other sources of vapour
Nitrates: from organic matter, such as cemeteries, stables,
organic waste dumps, etc.; buildings that have been used to A mass of theoretically dry, underground air (cave, crypt, etc.) will
store foodstuffs or stable animals, etc. attract the water vapour in the ground surrounding it. If the
Chlorides: traditionally associated with seaside places, they may pressure of the vapour is high, the pocket of air may reach high
also be found in buildings that have been used to conserve values of vapour saturation (high relative humidity). If,
foodstuffs using salt. In some climates where snow or ice in the furthermore, there is some point of penetration of liquid water,
streets is eliminated using salt (sodium chloride) the outside the cave or crypt will be 100% saturated if the conditions are
walls tend to be contaminated. Finally, some chlorides are maintained for a sufficient length of time.
organic in origin. In the Mediterranean tradition, caves and crypts are ventilated,
Carbonates: associated with the dissolution of construction and our ancestors proved to be as knowledgeable about the
materials or minerals in the ground. They do not tend to be dissipation of vapour by convection as about the drainage and
hygroscopic like the above. conduction of liquid water.
Sulphates: from the ground or other construction materials. If these spaces, which were traditionally ventilated, are subdivided
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Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce
10. Diagnosis
due to changes in use or given windows that are too airtight, Now we are familiar with the different types of damp that occur
condensation pathologies appear. Condensation is manifested by in traditional architecture, we can go on to establish a
the growth of biological colonies (bacteria and fungi) on facings methodology for inspection, diagnosis and intervention.
and on the coldest or least ventilated points of the wall, like the
corner. For this to occur, the relative humidity of the air beside this Inspection
facing must be 80%. Relevant symptoms are those that serve to classify the type of
lesion observed.
The most important symptoms are damp patches, with attention
9. Damp caused by rainwater seepage to and analysis of the following factors:
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I. Knowledge Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce
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Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Identifying types of damp: the causes and the lesions they produce
1 Adsorption is the mechanism by which gases adhere to the walls of pores or the
surface of the materials. In this case, the gas adsorbed is water vapour.
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Ashlar stone. Calcareous sandstone of Nicosia and Degradation of stone Degradation of stone
Pachna
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Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Degradation of Building Materials
(stone, earth, timber)
a. Rising damp as well as dampness from the rain or other causes. a. Degradation of stone due to the presence of water and
Dampness usually appears in the lower part of the wall and to dampness
a lesser degree to higher parts (even in the highest parts of the
wall). The presence of water and dampness may affect to the Action of water on the clay constituents
clay constituents of a stone and also lead to salt crystallization. Most clays expand when absorbing water and change into fine
b. Chemical causes and influence of biological factors and powder when they dry. The clay deteriorates because of its
atmospheric pollution may cause alteration of the constituent expansion with the absorption of water. With the increase of
elements of the stone. the volume of the constituent elements of clay composition
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I. Knowledge Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used
Degradation of Building Materials
(stone, earth, timber)
mechanical forces are developed with the result that the stone of the stone. The phenomenon of degradation erosion due to
containing such elements is substantially deorganized. salt crystallization becomes much more drastic in the coastal
Salt crystallization regions of the island i.e. Larnaca.
Salt crystallization constitutes one of the most important causes
of erosion and degradation of stones and acts on all types of b. Degradation of the stone due to biological factors and
stone irrespective of their chemical composition. Main sources atmospheric pollution.
of the salts are the ground surface, the subsurface, the sea, the
atmospheric pollution of the rain water (since it increases the Biological factors
ground pollution) and the use of wrong building materials in The erosion due to biological factors include the chemical
contact with the stone (cement plasters and mortars). The main changes which are created by microorganisms (algae, fungi etc)
soluble salts are the chlorides, sulphides and sulphates3. as well as those due to insects, birds and the growth of roots
The salts enter the pores of the stone (or smaller cracks) during or plants which penetrate the joints or cracks, exerting
the absorption or capillary rising of the water which contains mechanical stresses. Dampness also leads to the development
salts. The water is absorbed directly from the rainfall or rises of microorganisms which create deterioration.
6
from the ground by capillary action. The capillary action is due Atmospheric pollution (sulpher and carbon oxides)
mainly to the longitudinal pores, perpendicular and through, The degradation of stone due to atmospheric pollution is not
with small diameter. When the water is saturated (because of as intense in Cyprus as are the factors mentioned above,
the fall in temperature or evaporation) the soluble salts because of the rather low atmospheric pollution of the island.
crystallize either within the stone pores or on its surface where The pollutants which create the deterioration of the stone
efflorescence is created. Sometimes the salt crystallization may elements are usually carbon dioxide and sulphur oxides. As
take place both on the surface and in the pores of the stone. already noted the sulphuric acid reacts quickly with the calcium
When the salts crystallize, their volume is increased4, the pores carbonate of the calcareous stones and dissolves it when the
are partly filled and great stress is created on the wall (of the stone elements are exposed to rain water. The atmospheric
pores) and the pores themselves with destructive carbon dioxide which has dissolved in rain water gradually
consequences. This leads to the degradation of the building dissolves the calcite creating soluble constituents and when the
stones. Crystallization can create mechanical tensions - solution dries, calcite or aragonite is recreated. The
thinning of the stone surface and separation of small parts atmospheric dioxide acts only on calcareous stones which are
from it, breaking up of the building material. exposed to rain water and the result is a very small reduction of
The above concentration of salts on the stone surfaces due to the their dimensions.
continuous movement of water towards the external surfaces of
the materials has as a result, apart from the deterioration of the c. Degradation of stone due to mechanical stresses
stone elements, the deterioration of the plasters and mortars Problems of stone due to the mechanical stresses caused by
(development of surface tensions, minor cracks, separation of expansion and contraction of the material are not intense in
plasters from the stone and gradual destruction). Cyprus due to the rather limited fluctuation in temperature.
The degree of the above phenomenon depends on the Sinking of the foundations, earthquakes and the wrong
percentage of water content in the pores and the permeability practices in building (without interconnecting of the two faces
Damages on stone due to air pollution Structural problems of stone walls Damages of stone walls due to vegetation
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Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Degradation of Building Materials
(stone, earth, timber)
of a wall) may cause problems not only in the construction but constitute the main causes of deterioration of the constituent
also to the stone itself (cracking etc.) material and the organic additives. Disintegration of the
material of mudbick is the process when the soil forming the
mudbrick loses cohesion due to the existence of water and
III. Degradation of mudbrick moisture. The dampness and water fill the pores of the
mudbrick and the soil particles lose cohesion /connection
?he main damage of mudbricks is the degradation, disintegration between them and the mudbrick material is pulverized5.
and the deterioration of the material itself. This is very obvious at Additionally due to the presence of water the straw used in the
the base of a wall and to a lesser degree at the top or other parts mudbicks rots, swells, dries and is pulverized.
of the wall. Some other problems of the mudbrick walls are the The process leading to this damage is the penetration of water
mechanical ones such as cracking, the inclination (vertical or into the material. The dampness that enters the wall causes
horizontal), bulges and slumps, horizontal movements and evaporation or creation of salt crystals. The creation of these
bending of the walls. These can affect also the material itself. crystals causes loss of the cohesion forces, disintegrates the
The above mentioned damages depend on the quality of the material and increases the size of the pores, leading the mudbrick
6
mudbricks as well as the structure of the wall. The quality of the to pulverization. The dampness also causes serious problems to
mudbricks depends on the quality of soil used for their the plaster and also the mortar of a mudbrick wall.
production, the organic additive and generally the procedure in The dampness may enter the pores of the surface between the
their preparation (time left for the fermentation of soil, the mixing plaster and the wall. It penetrates directly into the connecting
of the ingredients together, the drying period etc) and also the surface or comes to the surface through the mass of a wall.
geo-technical characteristics of the final product. The quality of Dampness located in the area between plaster and mudbrick
the mudbricks depends also on the experience and training of the causes evaporation /condensation depending on the temperature
workmanship used. Damages on a mudbrick wall may be caused and humidity conditions of the surroundings. Dampness also
due to the structural system of the wall (insufficient connection brings soluble salts near the surface. When the humidity dries, salt
between the two parts of a wall, incorrect laying of the mudbricks residuals are formed. The creation of salts increases the size of
in alternating rows) and also due to the climate conditions of the pores (swelling) creating additional pressure in the pores that
area (presence of water and dampness). causes loss of the cohesion / connection forces and internal
cracking develops. The plaster is detached and collapses. After the
The main causes of degradation of mudbricks are collapse of the plaster the mudbricks themselves remain exposed
a. Water and dampness (leading to the disorganization of to humidity and water with the result that deterioration and
clay elements and the creation of salts). decomposition is speeded up.
b. Biological factors In addition, when a mudbrick wall looses its external plaster and
c. Mechanical stresses is left exposed, water may cause extra problems. Running water
forms small vertical channels on the wall increasing the surface
a. Water and dampness area exposed to damaging conditions.
Water and dampness (rising damp from the ground, rain water, The damages caused by water and moisture can be observed
bad workmanship and other problems in the structure more frequently at the base of a wall, when the stone base is very
Detachment and cracks of plaster Deterioration of mudbricks at the lower part of the walls Deterioration of mudbricks at the lower part of the walls
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I. Knowledge Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used
Degradation of Building Materials
(stone, earth, timber)
low. The procedure of the deterioration of the mudbrick continues movements develop under earthquake, or ground vibrations,
as long as dampness continues to exits. strong wing, due to soil or water pressures and because of
In the area where the stone base of a mudbrick wall is significantly excessive deformations of the floor or roof structure. Detachment
high, the water may penetrate the inside of a wall through cracks, cracks develop because of poor connection at corners. Cracking
caused by structural faults or external loading. In some cases may also occur from bending. Some of the causes are horizontal
cracks develop at the points where timber members and movements due to applied forces or displacements or
mudbricks meet, due to shrinkage forces or due to the rotting of deformations of the floors. Other structural problems of mudbrick
the timber members. In these cases the damaging process walls are bulges, slump or inclination of walls.
operates only a short period of time (rainy season) contrary to the
continuous damaging process of the lower part of the wall
especially in stone base walls. IV. Degradation of timber
Deterioration due to water can also observed at the top of the
wall as in this area the structures end and various jointing The main damages of timber structural members are the rotting,
materials meet (stone, mudbrick, timber, plaster). Cracks may cracking and loss of strength due to temperature and humidity
6
begin to develop in this area due to the different coefficient of variations, biological causes and also due to structural problems.
expansion of the various materials as well as due to wrong Additionally, insects, fungi and other biological processes may
practices and bad workmanship, as well as due to variation in create problems and degradation of timber members. The timber
temperature and humidity. The top of a wall is usually protected members rot usually in areas affected by water and especially in
by a projection of the roof. When this protection fails the water the parts embedded in the walls.
penetrates the structure through the cracks and the materials The biological causes of wood deterioration are dangerous as some
degrade following the same procedure described above. fungi and insects (which develop and thrive from wood) under
favorable conditions of humidity (over 20%) and temperature (20-
b. Biological Factors 300C) cause rotting of the wood. Longitudinal cracks that may be
present in wooden members in addition to the reduction of the
Sometimes birds dig inside the wall to create their nests, exposing strength of the members provide nests for insects.
the inside of the wall to erosion conditions. When the plaster Problems in wooden structures can also be created by the physical
collapses the holes of the small wooden pins (used for better shrinking of the wood during its drying period and the no-uniform
cohesion between plaster and mudbrick) provide areas for insects loss of humidity. The use of timber members which have not been
and birds to build their nests and also for vegetation to develop, properly dried under controlled conditions, or were cut from trees
causing internal cracking. during improper periods with the result that the natural juices
remain in the material, may have detrimental results.
c. Mechanical problems It is finally noted that most timber members do not have a
permanent shape even if they have been cut years ago. With the
Cracks appear when stress overcomes maximum strength. The change of moisture and temperature conditions, they expand or
causes of the cracks are the horizontal movement of the wall, the contract and sometimes bend. Under permanent loading
bending of the wall, and support displacements. Horizontal conditions they may also be deformed.
Degradation of timber Degradation of timber Deterioration of mudbricks at the upper part of the walls
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Outil 6
Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Degradation of Building Materials
(stone, earth, timber)
Bibliography
IOANNIS, I. (2005), Erosion and Protection of Building Stone, Ornamental Stone from
Greece, Hellenic Marble Hellenic Marble Manufactures.
1 The term degradation includes all the processes contributing to the alteration of
a stone element. These processes may be chemical, physician, mechanical or
biological in nature.
2 It is noted that the solid constituents of a porous material have numerous small
vacant spaces, the pores or capillary tubes, which may either be open or closed,
forming an internal network.
3 The sulpher oxides coming from the atmospheric pollution, the ground water and
the cement plasters, erode the calcareous stones creating gypsum which
contributes in a secondary way to the erosion of the stone.
4 The increase of the volume created due to the change of the salts from the
anhydrous to the hydrous form increases leading to erosion because of the fatigue
which is created by the alternating stress on the walls of the pores. The stress
within the stone may reach its breaking point.
5 The process of disorganization of the clay constituents of a material has been
described on the above chapter on stone.
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I. Knowledge Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used
Introduction
All materials have a stable state for the environment in which they
were formed. A significant change in the environmental
conditions, however, may force the material to transform into a
material with a new stable state (RAPP and HILL, 1998; MALAGA-
STARZEC et al., 2000).
Stone weathering- defined as the process of alteration of rocks as
6
a result of the adjustment of its internal constituents by the action
of physical, chemical and biological factors, to the prevailing
conditions of the atmosphere and in the environment (PELLIZZER
and SABATINI, 1976; AMOROSO and FASSINA, 1983; KARPUZ
and PASAMETHOUGLU, 1992)- is a natural phenomenon that has
occurred since the stone was formed and that will continue as
long as the stone exists (CHAROLA, 1988 and TURKINGTON, Umm Qeis (Jordan)
1996).
Monuments and sculptures made of stone have withstood the
attack of natural weathering agents for centuries. Yet, during the and Tronner, 1992; Nord and Ericsson, 1993). Different origins
last few decades, many of these monuments and sculptures, have been suggested for the patinas and crusts coating the
especially near the urban and industrial areas, have been observed surface of monuments, these include: treatment for aesthetic
to undergo accelerated decay (AMOROSO and FASSINA, 1983; and/or protective purposes, biologically induced deposits,
ASLAM, 1996; McALISTER, 1996). interaction with the atmospheric agents, such as SO2, leading to
sulphation and the formation of gypsum, and dry or wet
deposition of atmospheric particles ( Garcia-Vall?s et al., 1998).
Weathering Agents Formation of such a layer plays an important role in the variability
of the chemical composition of building stone. This phenomenon
The alteration of rocks in the lithosphere is produced by various is normally apparent in near-surface regions where fluids
continental (extrinsic) agents i.e. physical (also called mechanical ingress/egress, which can redistribute the compounds with high
disintegration), chemical or biological, as well as by their intrinsic solubility, and is at its most intense (Hayles and Bluck, 1995).
properties, like their mineralogy, texture and structure (DSSAT, The determination of the composition and origin of the deposits
1982; AMOROSO and FASSINA, 1983; BRADLLEY and found on the monuments will help to understand the mechanism
MIDDLETON, 1988; GAURI, 1992; LING et al., 1993a VINCENTE et of the formation of these deposits. This will enable us to adopt
al., 1993). Thus, stone decay in a monument is rarely a result of preventive conservation measures that may mitigate and retard
just one single factor (process); it is usually a combination of their formation and also guide us to the best interventive
different agents (SCHUMANN, 1998). conservation measures to remove these deposits without, or at
Different groups of deterioration forms, from which the formation least with minimal, negative impact on the stone itself (Riederer,
of deposits on stone surface is the most important, can be 1973).
detected on the monumental stones. Optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron
It is thought that the deterioration of building stone under the microscopy, infrared spectrophotometry, ionic chromatography,
effect of atmospheric conditions usually starts by graying of the and plasma and atomic absorption spectrometry tests all can be
stone, often followed by formation of crusts and further used in order to characterize mineralogically and chemically the
destruction by scaling, etc. (Hoke, 1978, and Al-Naddaf, 2002). fresh and weathered rock, as well as the stone pathologies in the
On many types of stone, a thin layer, 0.02-0.2 mm thick, hard, monuments.
black, generally without luster, may develop at the surface (Nord
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Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Various types of scientific techniques used to identify degradation mechanisms
of stone
X- Ray Diffractomettry (XRD) inexpensive, making the technique potentially available to almost
any laboratory as a routine method of analysis. The cost of
The chemical and mineralogical characterization of ancient purchasing and maintaining a polarizing microscope is much less
building materials is a basic objective of any research involving than for other types of equipment used to study stone objects
these materials. Such characterization can contribute important such as a scanning electron microscope, electron beam
information about composition and alteration products, from microprobe, x-ray diffractometer, or elemental analysis
which conclusions can be drawn, allowing the estimation for the instrumentation (Reedy, 1994).
degree of the materials decay. Consequently, its causes can be
evaluated (PUERTAS et al., 1992). Scanning Electron Microscopy
In order to determine the mineralogical composition of the stone
samples as well as that of the weathering crust, the powder X- ray Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is widely used in the field of
diffraction method can effectively be applied. With this method; a material investigations. In this technique, a highly focused electron
mineral content higher than 1% can be detected (DO, 2000). For beam with a nanometer size is scanned over the target area.
some samples with a high clay content, the oriented X- ray Observation of the secondary electrons, generated by this beam,
6
diffraction method is used. offers morphological resolution in the nanometer range (ADLER,
Comparing the differences in the mineralogical composition of a 1982; VAN GRIEKEN, 1989; McALISTER, 1996).
fresh stone with that of the crust covering it can be used as The kind of insight which the scanning electron microscope
another way to determine the origin of this crust. provides is important in assessing the quality of the intergranular
cementation and the tendency of stone to hold onto imbibed
Petrography water and to adsorb material from that water. The greater these
latter factors are, the more susceptible the stone will be to
Thin-section analysis is a very efficient way to obtain crucial deterioration due to freeze-thaw, wet-dry cycling and salt
information about many inorganic materials. Geologists use thin- crystallization, and the more urgent for the stone to be protected
section petrography to describe and classify rocks, soils, and sand. (LEWIN et al., 1978).
Archaeologists and conservation scientists use it to study many The deterioration of the building stone as a result of the
inorganic materials used in the production of cultural objects. dissolution of the cementing material is one of the most important
Purposes of such analyses in cultural object studies include making
correct material identifications, grouping similar objects,
identifying the geological origin of the object or some of its
components, and studying manufacturing technology. For some
art materials, structural and mineralogical changes on weathered
surfaces in comparison to unaltered interior sections of a sample,
may provide information concerning the authenticity of a piece.
Thin sections have also been used to study the deterioration of
inorganic art and architectural materials, and to check the effects
of conservation treatments on those materials. (Reedy, 1994).
The most common question about weathering of natural stone
concerns the influence of pollutants; to answer this question it is
necessary to know as much as possible about the natural stone
itself. The laboratory investigations carried out by Holzwarth,
1996, and by Livingston, 1988, showed that physical properties
cannot give all of the information about the material without
knowledge of the special petrographic properties. In addition to
that, the petrographical and diagenetic properties can explain
many of the deviations in the physical properties of sub samples
taken from the same stone block, taking into consideration that
some of these properties can greatly affect the weatherability of
building stones.
One advantage of thin-section petrography is that the polarizing
microscope, needed to conduct such an investigation, is relatively Samad (Jordan)
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I. Knowledge Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used
Various types of scientific techniques used to identify degradation mechanisms
of stone
decay mechanisms affecting these stones. Such a process can be paintings, glasses, and many other porous materials used in
detected by using of the scanning electron microscope, especially buildings and monuments. Thus, it is actually recognized to be
if coupled with X- Ray Fluorescence. one of the most frequent and effective weathering agents
In humid environments, biodeterioration can be a major factor (ARNOLD, 1976a, b; ARNOLD and ZEHNDER, 1989). Several types
causing the damage of stone, concrete, mortar, etc.; this type of of salt minerals can be detected on buildings. The most common
damage can be caused by such microorganisms as bacteria, fungi, salts occurring in building stones include sulphates, nitrates,
lichens and algae, and plants such as mosses. Whilst bacteria tend chlorides and carbonates of sodium, calcium, potassium and
to biodeteriorate by etching surfaces due to acid excretion, fungi magnesium.
have also been found to degrade stone, concrete and mortar by Ion chromatography is a form of liquid chromatography that uses
penetration of the surface itself. SEM is considered to be the most ion-exchange resins to separate atomic or molecular ions based on
important analytical technique by which such factors of their interaction with the resin. Its greatest utility is for analysis of
deterioration can be detected (Tapper, et. al. 1999). anions for which there are no other rapid analytical methods.
It can be said that Ion Chromatography is one of the most
important techniques which can be applied to determine the
6
X- ray fluorescence and Atomic Absorption Spectrometry concentration of Cl-, NO-3 and SO4-2 in stone samples.
biological agents, processes which can lead to alteration of the 149. Springer-Verlag.
chemical properties of surfaces exposed to the environmental Hoke E. (1978): Investigation of weathering crust on Salzburg stone monuments.
effects (ADLER et al., 1982; McALISTER, 1996). Studies in conservation. 23: 118-126.
Consequently, determination of variations of the chemical Hughes M. J., Cowell M. R. and Craddock P. T. (1976): Atomic Absorption Techniques
composition of weathered surfaces in relation to their in Archaeology. Archaeometry. 18: 19-37. GB.
unweathered fresh zones is an important analytical method by
Riederer J. (1973): Die Erhaltung vo Kunstwerken aus Stein in Deutschland.
which the deterioration agents may be identified, while Maltitechnik-Restaurato.1: 73.
conservation strategies can be established accordingly.
Reedy, Ch.: Thin-Section Petrography in Studies of Cultural Materials. JAIC 1994,
For the investigation of elemental composition of inorganic
Volume 33, Number 2, Article 4 (pp. 115 to 129)
materials, either in fresh or weathered state, the instrumental
Tapper, R.; Smith, J.; Beech, I.: Modern Microscopy techniques for the Study of
methods of X- ray fluorescence analysis and Atomic Absorption
Mortar Biodeterioration, Poster presented at International conference on
Spectrometry are often applied with great success (MARINGER,
microbiology and conservation (ICMC 99) Of microbes and art: The role of microbial
1982). They can be used to determine the concentrations of the
communities in the degradation and protection of cultural heritage. Tribuna di
major oxides: Na2O, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, P2O3, SO3, CaO, K2O,
Galileo, Museo della Specola, 16-19 June 1999, Florence, Italy, pp. 180-184.
TiO2, MnO and Fe2O3, as well as some trace elements: Zn, Rb, Cr,
Sr, Zr, Ba and Pb.
Comparison between the chemical composition of the weathering
crust with those of the internal fresh stone will enable us to
identify the origin of encrustation on the stone facades. Such
comparison can be statistically processed by using the enrichment
factor (Ef) concept (reference).
Ion Chromatography
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Agents in timber degradation
Rain section (the thinner it is, the faster it burns), position (vertical
Rainwater produces increases in moisture in the outer layers of elements burn more easily) and moisture content (green wood
wood. This increase in moisture takes place very fast with no takes far longer to burn than dry wood).
corresponding variation in the inner layers. These differences in
moisture content between the different parts give rise to tensions
that are reflected in distortion and even the appearance of shakes. Biotic agents of degradation
Furthermore, as explained above, they facilitate the elimination of
the lignin and produce superficial alterations. Numerous living beings, called woodborers, feed on wood. These
Finally, as we will see below, most biotic attacks need a high are fungi and insects that degrade and even destroy wood by
moisture content to develop, and this may be provided by eating some of its components. In an attempt to simplify this
rainwater. section, they are grouped not just by origin but also by similarity
of the attacks or degradation they represent for wood.
Fire We will use the following scheme for greater clarity:
If one thing is obvious, it is that wood burns. Many other
6
construction materials do not, though this does not mean that
Mould
they do not lose some or all of their properties on contact with
fire. Chromogenic fungi Blue stain
Wood comprises primarily cellulose and lignin, whose basic
component is carbon. Fungi Brown rot
Although wood burns, a series of particularities should be
mentioned. Firstly, when it burns, it reduces in section and may be Rot fungi White rot
destroyed. This, however, is a slow process due above all to three
factors: moisture content, the carbonization of the surface and Soft rot
Heat conductivity: Wood has low heat conductivity, as a result Fungi are lower plants, with a very primitive cell organization
of which burning wood maintains relatively low interior (simple), made up of microscopic filaments called hyphae. They do
temperatures without losing its mechanical characteristics. not have stalks, roots or leaves, and do not produce chlorophyll,
At a given temperature, steel softens, behaving like a plastic which obliges them to feed on dead organic matter or on other
material and causing its structures to collapse. Concrete living beings as parasites, feeding on existing organic compounds.
undergoes a series of alterations that reduce its strength and are In order to develop on wood they need a high water content, at
closely related to the type of aggregate and cement used, which least 20%, and temperatures of between 20 and 25C for
can be aggravated by the sudden cooling caused by the water optimum growth.
used to extinguish a fire. Among those that live on wood are fungi that merely change the
Not all woods burn the same. Conifers tend to burn faster than woods colour (moulds, chromogenic fungi) and those that bring
broadleaved trees, mainly due to their resin content. Lightweight about a major change in physical and mechanical properties (rot
woods generally burn faster than heavy ones. Other factors are fungi).
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Understanding the processes of degradation of the materials used I. Knowledge
Agents in timber degradation
In both of these last two cases, the wood may remain unaltered
Mould to the eye until it reaches a very high level of degradation and
Mould feeds on the content of the surface cells of wood, as it is weakness, which makes these fungi very dangerous.
not capable of attacking either the cellulose or the lignin, and Soft rot (Ascomycetes)
therefore do not affect the woods mechanical properties. Produced by lower fungi, ascomycetes, whose hyphae develop
It can be detected when it forms spores, generally dark in colour, inside the cell wall, it feeds principally on the cellulose in the cell
on the surface of the wood or when it forms a kind of down. walls when moisture levels are high, leaving the wood with a soft
Normally it only forms on the surface and can be removed by consistency. It tends to be found in timber elements in contact
rubbing. with the ground.
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Agents in timber degradation
Persistent attack by anobiidae Anobiidae larva (Photograph: Teresa Mach Farina, biologist)
6
may be three years or more, and this is therefore the time that Cerambycidae
may pass before discovering that the wood has been affected. The best known is Hylotrupes bajulus, commonly known as old-
Until after this period, the larvae do not emerge to the exterior to house borer. It attacks the sapwood of conifers. In optimum
complete their life cycle, when they transform into complete conditions, its life cycle may be longer than 10 years, which,
insects. The exit holes measure between 1.5 and 3 mm in together with the fact that it is much larger than all of the above,
diameter. The sawdust found in the tunnels they bore in wood is means that the damage produced when its presence is discovered
coarse and granulated. may be considerable. The larvae may grow to 22 mm in length
Also included in this group is Xestovium rufovillosum De Geer, and 6 mm in diameter, and create oval holes of as much as 7 mm
similar to the Anobium but with larger larvae, up to 11 mm. The in diameter when they emerge to the exterior. Their capacity to
circular exit holes may be as large as 4 mm. They attack the destroy wood is considerable, much greater than the previous two
sapwood of broad-leafed trees with high moisture content that cases, requiring similar treatment to eliminate them as termite
have previously been attacked by rot fungi. They produce sawdust attacks and some cases of rot.
in the form of disks, which is sandy to the touch.
Reticulitermes lucifugus, worker and soldier (Photograph: Teresa Mach Farina, Reticulitermes lucifugus, secondary reproducer (Photograph: Teresa Mach Farina,
biologist) biologist)
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Agents in timber degradation
Anobiidae adult (Photograph: Teresa Mach Farina, biologist) Cerambycidae larva (Photograph: Teresa Mach Farina, biologist)
6
Social insects. Isoptera (termites) They feed on the sapwood and heartwood of conifers and
The insects that produce most damage in wood, belonging to the broadleaved trees, provided they have a high moisture level. They
order of the Isoptera, are termites. bore tunnels in the direction of the fibres, always leaving
Termites live in highly organized and specialized colonies. There is untouched an outer layer to protect them from the light and the
a queen, whose function is to reproduce, workers, soldiers and loss of moisture from their environment. The tunnels fill with a
neotenic reproductives (if for some reasons this group loses residue of a characteristic earthy consistency.
contact with the nest, they may create a new one and become They are very difficult to locate because they leave no sign of their
reproducers). presence. If they are unable to continue their way inside walls or
Of the species that exist in our context, the most important is beams and have to emerge to the exterior, they build tunnels
Reticulitermes lucifugus Rossi. using organic waste and earth that allow them to continue on
Their main nest is situated underground, where they find the their way in the appropriate moisture conditions, protected from
temperature and moisture level they need, normally at some the light. These cordons are one of the few external signs giving
distance from the buildings attacked. clues as to their presence. They are highly destructive and both
Kalotermes flavicolis, worker (Photograph: Teresa Mach Farina, biologist) Kalotermes flavicolis, rsecondary reproducer (Photograph: Teresa Mach Farina,
biologist)
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Agents in timber degradation
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II. Reflection
and the Project
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The criteria of intervention II. Reflection and the Project
Camilla Mileto
Doctor of Architecture
Professor in the Department of History and Theory of
Architecture, School of Architecture of Valencia (Technical
University of Valencia),
Spain
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II. Reflection and the Project The criteria of intervention
Criteria of intervention in traditional architecture.
and practical reflections of the masters of the discipline... This traditional architecture as there are climatic, material and socio-
reflection on the need for criteria of intervention as an essential functional environments.
factor in the restoration process, over and above all kinds of The advent of industrialization completely changed the conditions
preliminary studies and the most rigorous and advanced of production of popular architecture, increasingly linked not to
methodologies, is applicable to both monumental and vernacular the raw material of the place, but to commercial construction
architecture. materials. In many corners of the globe, traditional architecture
Furthermore, in the rehabilitation of traditional architecture, has ceased to exist as an active phenomenon. In the rest of the
criteria of intervention become even more important since, on world, it survives in association with isolation and scarcity of
many occasions, the absence of the means to carry out preliminary means, but its abandonment is foreseeable in the short and mid-
studies or the geographical and cultural distance of the most term, and this is why we are now studying its conservation.
acute methodologies approved by the theorists of the discipline In general, given the difficulty today of reproducing the
prevent their literal application to the most habitual specific cases. spontaneity and naturalness of the builders of traditional
In this respect, clarity in criteria of intervention is more essential architecture, it should be conserved, since it is not in our power to
than an infrastructure of knowledge and a manual of phases of generate new examples. Traditional construction has in many
action. places peaked and can now only decrease.
Within the range of possible criteria for the restoration of this
7 disappearing architecture, once it has ceased on a large scale to
Criteria in traditional architecture be reproduced as a species, there are some simple parameters to
be taken into account to allow a generous extension of its useful
Traditional vernacular architecture is created in close association life, at the same time safeguarding its integrity.
with the landscape, the product of a sound combination of the
material available in this context according to the construction Materials
systems and artisan techniques created by its residents over the The materials of traditional architecture must be conserved as far
generations, responding to strict functionality. Similar as possible. They merit protection on two counts, since they reflect
environmental conditions generate traditional architecture two factors of traditional architecture: its composition or the mass
solutions with similar logics, but there are still as many families of that comprises it, and its character, expressed by its external
By simply cleaning a historical faade it is possible to conserve all the charm of its
materiality, texture and patina that would disappear completely if the render were
replaced. Old waggoners inn in Torrebaja (Valencia, Spain).
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The criteria of intervention II. Reflection and the Project
Criteria of intervention in traditional architecture.
surface. Stone that is slightly worn or dotted with lichens, veiny- is a clear example. In general, it is the worst mixture that can be
surfaced wood, plaster and renders, woven cane, rammed-earth used to render the inside or outside of a wall, for two reasons: its
walls, etc., constitute the outer and inner envelope of the house, lack of breathability and its excessive rigidity in traditional walls,
and their transformation carries with it much of the character of whatever their material components, which can ultimately ruin
traditional architecture. them.
Traditional architecture is most likely to survive a process of In this respect, it is also possible to apply the general rule that the
rehabilitation if care and delicacy are applied when replacing renders applied to traditional walls (rammed earth, adobe, stone,
materials and concealing its surfaces. Obviously, rehabilitating a brick, timber structure...) must be less rigid than the material they
dwelling to contemporary standards has to strike a compromise are covering, as has traditionally been the case in vernacular
between the needs of habitability and conservation of the architecture. This guarantees the future integrity of the fabric, as
materials. the render will fall off before the wall beneath it collapses.
The materials were handmade by their constructors and, in the The materials used to rehabilitate traditional architecture must
absence of knowledge of vernacular techniques, they must be also be compatible with the health of its residents. The
conserved for their naturalness and spontaneity and as a record of sustainable, ecological nature of traditional architecture by
the construction tradition of the past. The existence of roofs made definition must not be compromised by the inclusion of new
of plant matter (straw, reeds, bark...) requires periodic materials that enter into conflict with the natural philosophy and
replacement due to the perishable nature of these materials, as wholesomeness of the existing materials. 7
has happened since remote times. In these cases, the inclusion of
extra waterproofing protection beneath the plant layer Structure
contributes to its maintenance and extends the period between Just as the materials are the flesh, the structure constitutes the
replacements. bones of the architecture. The framework of traditional
Another option in this case which, though not as recommendable architecture is the product of optimizing local resources, and it
is still acceptable, is to replace a roof made of plant matter with usually responds to the centuries-old characteristics derived from
another, more lasting type of traditional roof, generally made of its constituent material, the earth on which it stands and any
tiles. This type of transformation has always occurred in traditional meteors and earth movements there may have been.
architecture and has proliferated in recent times. Hybrid According to John Warren, there are three possible options when
vernacular architecture is always preferable to its complete rehabilitating the structure of traditional architecture: repair,
disappearance. reinforcement or replacement. The structural elements may be
The surfaces of traditional construction may be affected in a timber beams, joists or purlins, pillars, a fabric of masonry, adobe
variety of ways, including the addition of wall insulation, the or rammed earth. We will examine these three options, taking as
creation of chasing to house installations that is then plastered an example a timber beam.
over, changes in a buildings distribution and so on. These changes
may be necessary, but their indiscriminate, generalized acceptance
ultimately transforms the overall appearance of traditional
architecture. It is necessary to find a compromise between the
conservation of surfaces that give a construction its character and
the inclusion of new installations by seeking solutions that are as
respectful as possible of the materiality of traditional architecture.
The new materials to be introduced into rehabilitation must be
compatible with the existing construction, not only physically but
also in chemical and, most of all, conceptual terms. In this way, for
example, if waterproofing or an extra layer of insulation is added
beneath the protective plant, ceramic, clay or stone layer of a roof,
they must be breathable to prevent condensation inside and, as
applicable, to allow the evacuation of water vapour through
vents.
In the case of having to plaster the external or internal surfaces of
the house due to a pressing need that justifies the loss of quality
The character of the architecture is reflected by its external surface. It is therefore a
or vibration of these traditional surfaces, the mortar used should good idea to gauge the effects of intervention on it. Detail of a faade in La Pobla
not only be breathable, it also has to be flexible. Cement mortar de Benifass (Castelln, Spain).
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Repair consists in cutting out the rotten part of a wooden beam buildings original strength, whereas reinforcement increases it, for
and replacing it by a piece of new timber. The importance of the reasons of physical change, new legislation or a change in
concept of repairing the structure lies in the conservation not just function. In this case, the reinforcement should not be accorded
of its materiality but also of the original structural system, which protagonism over the original structure.
remains in use. In this case, the introduced material must blend Unlike repair and reinforcement, the replacement of a beam or
harmoniously with the pre-existing elements and be possible to another construction element, even if it is a copy of what was
tell apart, if necessary. there, does not conserve the materiality of the original. The lower
Reinforcing a weak beam consists in inserting elements of the proportion of elements replaced, the more delicate the
support, traditionally iron. This option is used when it is necessary treatment given to traditional architecture. In this case, efforts
to increase the loads architecture can bear. Repair maintains the should be made to conserve at least the structural principle of the
building, which is as important as its materiality.
In this respect, the requirements of present-day regulations with
regard to structures and earthquake resistance can be approached
in two diametrically opposite ways. If we ignore the existing
structure and entrust compliance with regulations to a reinforced
concrete structural floor, whether or not it acts compositely, we
7 are seriously distorting the traditional structural principle.
Traditional structures tend to be isostatic, so the introduction of a
hyperstatic material like reinforced concrete renders the whole
rigid, presenting a latent threat to the survival of the house due to
Although not recommendable, it is still preferable to replace a roof of plant By repairing beams using new made-to-measure parts, much of the buildings
material by another type of roof on the market rather than demolish the building. original materiality can be conserved. Church of La Pobla de Benifass (Castelln,
Ricart-Navarro rural construction in Pinedo (Valencia, Spain). Spain).
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its added weight, lack of flexibility and lack of seismic sheathing or to the plaster of the structural floors, which become
performance. food for insects, fungi or rot, as well as undermining their intrinsic
If we simply improve the strength of the existing structure with resistance.
appropriate metal or wooden reinforcements that act compositely
with it, we are maintaining the structural principle that Function
characterizes the original building, at the same time contributing The fundamental criterion that has always governed the discipline
to its ability to meet the required objectives. These dry-assembly of restoration is this: both traditional and monumental
reinforcements are also perfectly compatible with the existing architecture has to have a function in order to guarantee its
structure, unlike liquid reinforcements such as concrete, which continuing existence. It is therefore necessary to adapt the
produce irreparable damage to the timber of the beams, joists and building to contemporary living standards.
First, we have to present a reasoned exploration of the
compatibility of the old and the new functions and ensure that the
buildings surface area is not being used beyond its natural
capacity. In both cases, it is difficult to successfully undertake a
restoration project, even if we take all the precautions and apply
the sensibility described here.
If it is a housing project, the dwelling must meet the same 7
conditions of habitability as those required of a new dwelling. This
means soundproofing and insulation to regulatory levels,
ventilation and lighting with glazed windows if these do not
already exist, a completely waterproofed roof, and the existence
of a kitchen, bathroom and heating as applicable.
For all of these requirements, an agreement of commitment may
be necessary to allow a degree of flexibility of interpretation of
regulations, on the basis of the houses pre-existing conditions.
Making a window larger to achieve better ventilation and/or
lighting may ruin the exterior faade, and it is therefore necessary
The Wine Museum in La Puebla de San Miguel (Valencia, Spain), installed in an old Dry consolidation of a timber and plaster structural floor prevents the irreparable
press in the town, has proved to be perfectly compatible with the previous damage caused by the compression layer on it. Building in Valencias seafront district
function. (Spain).
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to weigh up all the existing possibilities of distribution and the surroundings represents the will to preserve the natural
compliance with regulations before distorting the exterior faade landscape that produced the traditional architecture. Conservation
of a traditional building. of the environment is surely compatible with a reasoned use of the
The functional adaptation of a traditional dwelling to present-day natural means and resources that considers not only net economic
standards calls for particular attention to telecommunications, as profits but also economics in a wider sense, taking into account
the diffusion of electronic communications and the proliferation other factors such as culture, history, sustainability, ecology and
of the concept of teleworking require the incorporation of these identity.
new media into the restored building. Restoration of traditional architecture cannot be taken
It only makes sense to turn a traditional building into a museum independently of its surroundings and the landscape that
piece if the function for which it was created has ceased to exist. produced it. The painstaking preservation of an architectural
This option is possible and plausible if there is no other more active object apart from its historical and cultural context, due to
alternative. However, this treatment must not extend to the rest of excessive transformation of the latter, is always commendable yet
the traditional settlement. An entire village cannot be turned into insufficient from the viewpoint of the integrated conservation of
a museum; it would merely become a kind of artificial theme park traditional architecture.
or stage set, even if the constructions were real rather than the
plasterboard they tend to be in both cases. It is possible for some Implementation
7 traditional buildings to become museum pieces while the rest of The criteria of action in the field of restoration of traditional
the residential fabric maintains its usual function. architecture not only have to be present before work starts on the
preliminary study or when drafting the project, they also form an
Relation with the context integral part of the physical restoration work. The implementation
The restoration project must respect and conserve this relation, of all the studies and the ideas brought together in the project
which is biunivocal in the case of traditional architecture. The may justify all the hard work carried out in this process, but it
external image of traditional architecture is closely related to the could also very easily ruin it. For this reason, it is important not to
landscape that surrounds it, because its scale, materials, colours lower ones guard during on-site work.
and texture are taken directly from it. Traditional architecture There are three main fronts of attention for the architect during
requires the conservation of its surroundings to justify its the implementation of the project: the building, the workers and
constitution and presence, and the surroundings call for the the processes. The traditional building must remain at the
conservation of the only kind of architecture guaranteed to be forefront of attention throughout the restoration process, which
fully compatible with itthe traditional architecture to which it
gave birth.
The criterion that seeks to conserve a given image does not
respond to bucolic sentiment or nostalgia for the atmosphere of
traditional architecture, which seek to capture the world in a
primitive state at a given moment or time. The image of traditional
architecture and, by extension, of traditional settlements,
possesses a series of values relative to its dimension and human
scale, its integration into nature and its unconscious application
before the fact of the principles of ecological architecture, which
must be recognised and appreciated.
For this reason, the restoration of traditional architecture has to
respect the criterion of conservation of its usual image, which is
the product of centuries of optimum use of the construction
materials and techniques of the place. If it is necessary to
incorporate an annexe or new construction in a context of these
characteristics, strongly marked by traditional architecture, the
project should seek to integrate volumes, colour and texture in
such a way that the new building goes unnoticed in the
settlement as a whole.
There is little point restoring individual buildings if at the same time the
Likewise, rather than being a reactionary, utopian or romantic surroundings are irretrievably modified. A rare view of Ademuz (Spain), showing
attitude to the natural landscape, the criterion of conservation of the integration of its architecture into the mountainside.
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may produce data not sufficiently clarified by the preliminary their composition, application and use to traditional architecture.
study, issues not envisaged in the project, or corrections and Commercial and industrial solutions have to be digested in a
nuances to be considered on site. process in which the architects criterion has to assimilate,
Even the best project cannot foresee every incident that will improve, hybridize and transform them to ensure that their entry
emerge during restoration work, but the more work done on a into the fragile context and matter of traditional architecture is
project, the greater the guarantee of good results and the fewer silent, discreet and respectful of its delicate intangible character.
the problems. The main criterion when restoring traditional
architecture must then, be to carefully monitor the work after
comprehensive reflection on the project in order to respond to The project
unforeseen events on site.
The workers, as actors in the implementation of the restoration If it is not possible to carry out some or all of these studies due to
project, must share with the architect in the aims of the lack of available means, visual observation of the traditional
intervention, otherwise they may simply not become involved in building and mental application should be used to prevent the
producing the best possible outcome. It is important to invest the project taking the wrong course. For example, leaving to one side
necessary time in explaining details and reasons, and the overall the complementary studies that require specialized professionals,
aim pursued by restoration work. It may on occasion be necessary if scale plans of fissuring, mapping or pathologies are not
to explain the appropriateness of construction processes and undertaken, they can be observed, noted down or marked on 7
techniques that are not habitual for the workers but are necessary photographs and, above all, taken into account in the project. The
for the restoration of the building. It is therefore essential when unavailability of any particular type of means to carry out these
choosing workers to ensure that if they are not familiar with the studies in orderly, official, scrupulous fashion does not exempt the
processes to be used, they are at least open to new ideas and can architect from the necessary mental and methodological processes
adapt easily to the orders given by the architect. before undertaking the restoration project.
The construction processes are very important to the finished It is not common but it does occur that having carried out a
appearance of the restored work. Traditional architecture is comprehensive preliminary study of the building or drawn hasty
characterized by being the spontaneous, natural work of artisans, conclusions as to its structural behaviour, construction problems
rich in textures and human nuance. The indiscriminate, direct and various pathologies, the architect may feel qualified to perfect
application of industrial solutions can ruin this spontaneity. It is the buildings history, adding finishing touches or correcting
therefore important to rework all of these solutions and adapt supposed defects. To avoid this eventuality, the path to knowledge
represented by the preliminary study must be trodden with
humility, respect and caution, the same virtues that will later guide
the application of the project.
A project to restore a traditional building has to walk a fine line
between conserving as much of the fabric as possible and
adapting the building to todays standards of habitability. The
supposition of conserving the material building to uphold the
dignity of its structural and constructional function must also, as
far as possible, extend to the external and internal surfaces that
transmit all the character of the traditional building to the
observer and the inhabitant.
Types of projects
There are basically three types of rehabilitation project that
address a traditional building from the viewpoint of use: (1) those
that maintain the buildings original function; (2) those that
transform it for another active function, and (3) those that turn
the traditional construction into a museum piece. Even taking as
our departure point an appropriate balance between the surface
areas of the traditional building and a new programme that does
The criteria addressed in the project must be carried over to the site work, which is
the acid test of these initial ideas. Traditional house in Sesga (Valencia, Spain).
not speculate on an inappropriate use of it, each of these options
can avoid or generate a variety of conflicts.
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Projects that maintain the buildings original function have most redistribution or compensation of the existing steps. It may
chance of avoiding conflict. If rehabilitation involves a traditional be impossible to respect a traditional stairway in public
dwelling being used as a contemporary home or an old premises which calls for a new regulatory staircase, but the
waggoners inn as a rural hostelry, then essentially it should old stairs can at least be conserved alongside the new ones.
incorporate as discreetly as possible the characteristic installations Contrary to appearances, wood used for the horizontal
of present-day standards of living (electricity, plumbing, bathroom structures of traditional constructions is a splendid material
fittings, kitchen, heating, etc.) and, as far as possible, improve the in the event of fire, provided it is thick enough in section to
buildings waterproofing, soundproofing and insulation. allow the safe evacuation of the buildings occupants in a
Projects to completely transform the buildings original function given time, which constitutes the basis of all fire regulations.
have to beware of distorting the structure, distribution and In the event of it not having this section, it would be
philosophy of the traditional building. For example, the sufficient to supplement it to bring it up to regulatory fire
transformation of an oil press or an old distillery into apartments resistance levels.
may threaten the large interior spaces and the fenestration of The lack of lighting or ventilation of some spaces can be
these buildings due to the necessity of dividing them up. In this resolved by means of windows built into the slope of the
case, the effects of fitting installations, waterproofing and roof, large double doors with glazing, mechanical extractors,
insulation are simply incomparable with the damage caused by etc. The opening of an emergency doorway to the outside in
7 forcing the original conception of buildings designed for other the case of a public building can be resolved by modifying
purposes. the fittings or changing the position of the jamb. And so
Finally, projects that turn a traditional construction into a onthere are many possible alternatives that allow the
museum piece have the advantage of easily adapting their conservation of much of the material and spirit of a house.
layout and functional needs to pre-existing elements, without
having to force or distort them. For example, once the original Spatial distribution
function is past, the rehabilitation of a mill or press for The new project layout must above all address the existence of the
expository or ethnological purposes respects the buildings buildings previous distribution and seek to adapt as far as possible
structure and at least evokes the original. The problems in this to the logic of the original functioning to avoid distorting its
case may arise from regulations for the use of public spaces that structure.
do not bring a flexible attitude to the existing building and seek In some cases, preferably in the preliminary study phase, the
to rigorously apply all of their articles. buildings incompatibility with the planned function has to be
recognised, either due to lack of space or fenestration, or to the
Compliance with regulations inappropriate subdivision required by the use of its internal spaces.
One of the most difficult problems when adapting a Maintenance where possible of the existing layout is, in any case,
traditional building for contemporary use is compliance with a contribution to savings in the intervention, avoiding the
regulations governing habitability, accessibility, fire safety, superfluous demolition of walls, stairways and other elements,
and so on. In some countries, these regulations are very and their new construction in different positions. It also maintains
understanding, respectful and flexible in their approach to the character of the buildings inner spaces.
existing buildings, giving a degree of precedence to
historical issues above regulatory stipulations. Others impose Choice of materials
rigorous observance, whether the building in question is old The choice of new materials to be used in the restoration of the
or a new construction. traditional building must take a very careful approach to the
There is an answer to all the requirements of regulations, but colours and textures of the existing materials. Every restoration
the architect has to apply all of his or her efforts and project involves the incorporation of a percentage of new
imagination to finding the option that least affects the materials. If the aim of restoration is above all to recovery the
original structure of the building. If this is not sufficient, they building, this percentage should be discreet in its presence and as
must use their best powers of reasoning to convince the low as is compatible with real requirements.
authorities of the need to conserve certain of the buildings This compatibility can be achieved by means of a careful choice of
characteristics, or agree on a compromise of conservation materials (timber, aggregate, the impasto of ceramics, etc.) and
with slight transformations by way of compensation. the texture of their surfaces, as smooth finishes and mechanically
For example, a balcony railing that is too low can be produced materials in a traditional building do not sit easily beside
extended with a supplementary element. The accessibility of pre-existing elements. This calls for a process of reflection and
a residential stairway can be improved by rational choice that does not involve any extra cost.
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Intrinsic pathologies:
Pathologies due to inappropriate interventions, often linked Technical aspects linked to safety. Firstly, all the accidents that
to the use without suitable precautions of modern technical occur in domestic situations in the home, of which the general
materials or procedures in an existing construction, e.g. the public is far less aware than road accidents, because they are more
application of cement renderings to faades with untreated damp discreet: accidents caused by electricity networks and
caused by capillary action. Then there is asbestos, a natural dangerous gas, accidents caused by falls (children are frequent
product that has been shown to be a real health hazard. We could victims as a result of failure to envisage this risk and install guard-
also mention more classical interventions that disrupt structures: rails), etc., which produce in the order of 400 deaths a year in
the most usual is the suppression of elements of roof structure (tie France.
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Technical issues in housing rehabilitation
As regards safety, fire is a large risk that is all too frequently seen
by the population as unavoidable. However, when carried out,
information and awareness campaigns about good practice do
limit risks, as does the installation of simple equipment
(autonomous smoke detectors), not to mention sprinklers, smoke
extraction hatches, etc.
This long inventory does not set out to be exhaustive. It might lead
the reader to think that existing housing is so pathogenic that
nothing can be done. Conversely, he might prefer misplaced
optimism and decide to take no action. The question, however, is
the obvious fact that as regards the technical field, the authorities
will to improve housing, even private dwellings, cannot be limited
to promoting repair work.
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2. Testing the faade of the building to find out its physical make-up. 3. Metal sheet reinforcement of the arch supporting a stair vault.
rammed earth, which are very sensitive to contact with the A good procedure for carrying out a project is to initially follow a
elements (4). course that includes a study of the problem-solution relation from
the viewpoint of each principle independently. Once completed, it
We are, then, analysing buildings that, in the 19th century, to take will be necessary to evaluate possible compromises between
one example, might have been in a perfect state of conservation partial solutions in order to find those that can provide a
but which, by the end of the 20th century, had entered into a state reasonable response to the problems, even if each one individually
of degradation due not to poor original design but to powerful is not perfect. The repetition of the process will, finally, produce
changes in the conditions of use and maintenance. the definitive proposal.
Understanding this is a task on its own, and these articles provide
some guidelines to undertaking that task. However, it is obvious Space and structure
that until this understanding has been achieved, it would be The rehabilitation project has to be based on the fact that the
immoral to embark on a project of architectural intervention. space already exists. The starting point of any project for new
constructionhow to organize a given space according to the
programmeis provided. In this case, the task is another: it is
The path to be followed necessary first to understand the space, its reason for being and
the possibility of introducing changes into it by means of minor
Let us suppose that the architect or engineer has reached this modifications to existing elements.
understanding; this is a convenient moment to recall the principles It is very important to remember that the space exists thanks to
with which buildings have to comply. Any element is the a series of elements usually referred to as the structure, a word
consequence of the need for: that did not exist in construction terminology until the 20th
century. Any important change to the space will involve
A space delimited by a built material form that is stable from structural changes.
the first moment The key characteristic that differentiates these elements from
Improvement of the environment and safety of the occupants their present-day counterparts is the fact that both the elements
Satisfaction, on the part of the forms and materials, of the desire that provide stability and those that enclose space coincide, so
for beauty that all peoples, however simple, owe to their human that the structure is the outer facing or the latter is the structure.
condition When dealing with traditional buildings, to speak of structure
A construction that is as long lasting as possible with the aid of means almost entirely to speak of outer facings.
suitable maintenance This way of designing buildings is generally unknown to
A production method that is as efficient as possible construction professionals who have trained in the 21st century,
when the specialization of construction elements means that
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4. A rammed-earth wall that has lost its protective render due to lack of maintenance. 5. Test to analyse the ground beneath the foundation of the solid brick wall.
some provide stability and others provide protection from the land on which a building has stood for 200 or 300 years is not
exterior; it is therefore advisable to highlight this difference from sufficiently stable. The error may be not just the result of
the start. applying this disproportionate safety coefficient; it may also have
Furthermore, before making any decisions, it is essential to been carried out outside the building, on a different site to that
follow the process of knowledge and understanding outlined of the foundations (5).
above. The issues change if the regulations govern seismic actions. In
One of the fundamental aspects that the project needs to regions where long periods pass between serious earthquakes,
address is the need arising in association with many national their effects are not engraved on the collective memory, so
regulations to adapt the new building to technical codes, which builders do not include anti-seismic measures. New regulations
are always written for new constructions. This is one of the based on precise, hitherto unknown historical and geological
enormous difficulties that has to be addressed by the overall information, may provide clues as to the probability of a further
project, since, by definition, technical codes seek to improve the tremor to which the building is clearly vulnerable. This is, of
conditions of new buildings in comparison with the old, with the course, not a case of a pathology, but it is still advisable to make
almost certain result that old buildings do not comply with the the most of rehabilitation to introduce the necessary
new levels established. reinforcement.
The course taken has to analyse all the factors that affect the
stability of these structural elements, choosing the intervention Environment and outer facings
that manages at least to reduce the gap between the safety As regards the environment, the project requires a meticulous
factors established by the new code. evaluation of the performance of the envelope of the building in
The situation is different if the regulations refer only to dead or question in relation to the basic variables that determine the
even earthquake loads. In the first case, everything depends on environment: firstly, those derived from the natural climate of the
the safety level imposed by present-day regulations for new placethat is, rainwater or moisture from the site, heat and cold,
constructions, which can range between 2.5 and 3. If the result and natural lighting; and, secondly, those deriving from our own
of calculating the safety of an existing building is two, it might activity, noise and pollution.
lead us to conclude that it is not safe. However, there is no point The process has to consider three levels of study: the
subjecting it to a difficult, aggressive process of reinforcement, geographical, that of the buildings immediate context, and the
since a state of balance that has existed for decadessupposing building itself.
that no lesion has occurredis proof that is at least as scientific The most important transformation generated in the 20th century
as the application of regulations. came as a consequence of the increase in technology available in
One particular case is the consequence of carrying out all fields of convenience and comfort (6). While the envelope of
geotechnical studies. Such studies frequently report that the the building is an essential element in creating an interior
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6. Aluminium frames with thermal break and double-glazing to improve comfort 7. Structural floor of glue-laminated wood calculated to provide fire stability of 90
levels and save energy. minutes to guarantee safety while conserving the traditional image.
atmosphere that is favourable to life, our present-day civilization, satisfaction of the desire for beauty that all peoples, no matter
of which traditional architecture has to become a part, calls for far how simple, feel as part of their human condition.
superior environmental conditions, for which the only solution is All the variables at play here are perceptible mainly by the sense
to introduce installations of all types: water and electricity in of sight and must therefore be referred to the visual characteristics
almost all cases and heating in many. of the two constants in construction: form and material.
The study of energy saving (also a requisite on the part of the Form is defined by its outline and by the volumes that can be
public administration in the form of regulations that have only perceived in the third dimension perpendicular to the observer,
recently come into existence) is an important issue, as the subject to the conditioning of the lighting.
installations that control heating and cooling are the ones that Material is defined by the visual characteristics of its surface,
take up most space. Recent trends point to the incorporation of composed mainly of two variables: colour and texture. Further, as
cooling systems in hot places for the summer months. Likewise, a result of the complexity of any construction material, we have to
the need to save energy is generating new elements outside the add the pattern drawn by the lines that separate the different
building as well as in its interior. The obligation for buildings to colours and textures of the specific materials, and the inevitable
incorporate solar collection systems for domestic hot water is a marks of application or other actions.
recent one. It is a major challenge to see how this factorone The decisions taken on the basis of these considerations have to
which we cannot relinquishinfluences traditional architecture. be reconciled with all the previous decisions, taking care above all
Nor can we forget the occupants safety, a previously non-existent not to contradict the consolidated feelings of the users (8).
and now key aspect of which is everything to do with fire
protection (7) and the necessary adaptation of buildings. We also Maximum duration
have to control other lesser aspects such as user safety. The passing of time takes its toll on buildings. No matter what
preventive measures are taken, construction elements undergo
Aesthetic-symbolic values variations in the basic characteristics of their forms and materials,
Yet in isolation, none of the above is enough: all of these elements and, sooner or later, cease to match their initial performance.
together have to create a visual message of which we feel proud However, the effects can be foreseen and, to a large extent, reduced.
and that serves to say who we are. As well as resolving all the Each building is the product of its history, and this historical evolution
practical problems, they have to be in keeping with our visual and involves factors that give rise to alterations in its initial state that may
symbolic culture. In short, an integral part of the building is the become lesions or damage. As well as being vital to correct these
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alterations, a study of the building serves to draw conclusions and materials, are compatible with the existing ones, which requires
apply them to the design of new elements, ensuring that these thorough verification. This will include consideration of the long-
factors of degradation are neutralized in the future. term repercussions in order to prevent undesirable secondary
Damages may affect structural systems, with the serious effects. In general, the choice between innovative and traditional
consequences this may involve, but they can also affect elements techniques has to be well justified, and it seems reasonable to give
whose role is to create a pleasant interior space for all the senses preference to those that are least invasive and most compatible
the finishes. with existing elements, always with reference to the requisites of
The project must explore the reasons for these damages and take an safety and durability (10).
integrative approach to solving them. In theory, this automatically rules out the techniques that became
Experience shows that the elements that suffer most from history habitual in the second half of the 20th century, which not only do
that is, the passing of timeare those that are exposed to the not comply with the above aims but have been shown to be
elements, in contact with exterior space, rain, extreme temperatures, pernicious only a short time after application.
groundwater, etc. In the absence of suitable maintenance, they will Any interventions that may be planned on the basis of these
inevitably deteriorate. criteria will of course require comprehensive knowledge of the
Nor must we forget that these exterior elements play a twofold role building in question, which will involve applying the criteria of
of protecting the structural elements, such as walls or roof and vault diagnosis outlined here and a thorough knowledge of todays
structures, and acting as a visual support for the proposed aesthetic, least aggressive techniques but also, most particularly, the
symbolic and identitary values of the building. traditional techniques that originally produced the building. This
It is, then, vital for the project to analyse the factors of degradation type of knowledge may be the hardest to acquire, as in many
with a view to controlling and correcting them, proposing solutions cases the techniques have been forgotten, as they are no longer
that may be more resistant, but most importantly preventing their used. This may be an insurmountable difficulty: the absence of
loss and ensuring that their associated aesthetic, symbolic and workers such as masons and plasterers with the expertise of their
identity-giving values are conserved (9). fathers and grandfathers.
All of these issues have to be raised at the project phase. If, for
Production techniques example, there is no chance of finding a mason who knows how
In order to achieve the aim of durability, it is vital to ensure that to build a brickwork vault, it will be necessary to find an
the characteristics of the materials used, particularly new alternative solution. In short, the project has to be in keeping with
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the technical possibilities of the place. This is true of new This is not a bad thing, unless the ideas that emerge prior to a full
constructions, and all the more so in the case of the rehabilitation understanding become so firmly rooted that they are maintained
of traditional architecture. despite contradicting the conclusions of the process of
comprehension. This is an easy trap to fall into. Prior ideas in
Some final considerations architecture are valid provided they are compared and contrasted
during the process of understanding the building; they will, in
Having completed this process, which gives us an understanding turn, be factors that serve to incentivize further research.
of both the object and the ultimate objective of intervention (to To conclude, the project must meet the objectives of adaptation to
produce an artefact situated in the 21st century which serves the space, adaptation to the environment and conservation of the
present-day inhabitants), the next step is the architecture project. integrity of the building, using the economic and technical
Obviously, the thought processes are not this clear-cut; the overall resources available, to produce a result that is satisfactory for the
process of understanding the project progressively gives rise to occupants and for the collective as a whole, satisfying the desire
ways of addressing it. for beauty and affirmation of their identity (11).
10. Reinforcement of a traditional vault built with two layers of thin brick ensures
the compatibility of materials.
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aims to quality control through the imposition of bonds and elementary houses in the ancient centre of Bodrum until the wide
limitations for the practical procedures, so that a good result, also hypogeum of the Sassi in Matera; extremely variable internal
in relation with the technical and formal issues, has not been heights can be surveyed from the small earth structures within
always achieved. the Algerian area until the tall ceilings in Rashied in Egypt, since
A general insufficiency of the dispositions has been demonstrated the low rural compact Portuguese constructions until the elevate
by different studies2, as the environmental qualities have been landings of several Italian and Provencal historical centres; very
determinate by generic advices and limitative impositions of low vault impost quotes feature the traditional spaces in Matmata
numerical parameters, sometimes even conflicting, without any and Medenine in Tunis and the terraced and tower houses in
attention to the peculiarity of the intervention or the territory, any many historical centres of the South Italy, as well as wooden floors
explanation of the reasons for the imposed limit and any (widely spread out in the Mediterranean area) that avoid a correct
alternative solutions to meet the required needs3. spatial articulation. Moreover, the vertical connections are
Clearly, the peculiarity of the Mediterranean traditional sometimes difficult to realise because the landing heights are too
architecture makes difficult, sometimes inappropriate, the high for comfortable staircases which would result too long. Also
translation of the building quality into objective parameters and the ventilation and lighting conditions are frequently inadequate
standards: the apodictic expectation to meet automatically the and do not correspond to the requirements, for the absence of
requirements through the observance of the dispositions is suitable windows, as in many countries of the East and South
7 absolutely inadequate. These models avoid the rehabilitation Mediterranean sea, where the reduction of the openings outside
intervention, in terms of both simple maintenance and was traditionally imposed by the protection from the weather
refurbishment, or make its result unconnected with the structural, conditions and the safety. Even when the windows are sufficiently
typological, functional and technological features of the artefacts. large, they dont often allow a good lighting because of the
Even if in relation to the different territorial contexts and, as a closeness with the facing buildings (lets think to the historical
consequence, to the specific spatial, material, technical and centres in Apulia Region). Another issue is connected with the
technological features, the morphology of the building fabric, the accessibility for people with disabilities, within the single building
typologies and the particular dimensions of the primary and the whole urban context. A survey referred to the historical
architectural units, both in plan and in facade, and the centres of some Italian communes with a prevalent traditional
constructive characteristics are an obstacle for the strict serial building of the Middle Age4 has shown that, with reference
observance of the contemporary quantitative and numerical to the dispositions in force, the 30% of rooms has not the
standards, imposed by the prescribing models. Indeed, irregular geometrical and dimensional characteristics to be considered as
spaces with over/under dimensioned surfaces are present from habitable, the 40% of spaces is not well ventilated and lighted,
the simple rural one-two rooms North Africa dwellings and the the 100% of houses has not an adequate staircase. Similar results
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could be probably achieved for other Mediterranean areas, traditional architectural spaces, where methodologies and
because of the homogeneity of the morphological features. procedures have been often referred to the peculiarity of the
territorial building context, by innovative practice instruments,
Innovative approaches for the recover of quality such as the Laboratories of Quarter5, the Refurbishment
To overcome the prescribing approach is a necessary aim to Handbooks and the Practice Codes6. For instance, the
achieve the quality, since a quality level, not meeting the modern Laboratories of Quarter were significant experiences aimed to find
requirements, for a part of the city with an important extension new ways for making easier all the choices concerning the
and an emblematic value is not acceptable, also considering all the physical, economic and social requalification of important parts of
social, economic and cultural implications. As a consequence, the city. All the experiences shared the institution of a centre
methods and procedures have to be defined for the refurbishment where all the decisions, concerning both the management and the
of the traditional historical building (particularly with residential technical-technological aspects, were taken by the participation of
destination) to respect the environmental and functional qualities citizens, administrations and firms. The Refurbishment Handbook
required by the contemporary life and the dispositions in force. are able to manage the urban and building quality with both
The objective may be the definition of performance values that the prescription and guide actions, in three way: a binding one, by
architecture has to show in order to meet specific requirements pointing out the materials and construction elements that cannot
and the assessment of technological and functional solutions be lost during the transformation works, even if they are hidden
aimed to their satisfaction. ante operam; a prescriptive one, by indicating the materials and 7
The performance guide model to guarantee the quality within the techniques that have to be used during the project, if there are not
building refurbishment process seems to be fitted, as it allows to contraindications; an indicative one, by illustrating through some
set quality standards that are comparable with those ones exemplifications the criteria and methods, that have to be
concerning new constructions and to preserve the historical, considered by the designers for the project.
architectural and morphological features of the existing building A recent research on this topic7 points out a particular
heritage. As a result, it prevents from applying prescribing bonds methodological approach, namely a prescription-performance
that are used to be disregarded, interpreted case by case or practice tool that allows, by means of more flexibility and less
derogated. impositions, to profit by the potentialities of the exiting traditional
Concerning this, over the last years, in Italy, several studies and building and so to recover the environmental and geometric-
researches have been developed to revise the management tools typological values for an integrated and comprehensive
for the transformations of territory and cities in terms of conservation of buildings. This model is composed of performance
performances. Important experiences in this field are just related specifications8, namely guide and check elements for the
to the conservation and requalification of historical centres and/or performance achievement. They are correlated with suitable
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solutions9, that are particular spatial and technological solutions historical, architectural and technical system of values.
not based on values describing some demand parameters, but Therefore, the technical quality of intervention, referred to both
meeting the requirements-goals consistent with the building. the functional aspects (from the environmental comfort to the
Afterwards, the performance approaches for the refurbishment of technological equipment) and the architectural-formal, material,
the traditional historical architecture offer sufficient discretion, in static-structural leads to a proper quality of all the involved
relation with the peculiar features of the buildings subjected to choices and the solutions the proposition of materials and
the reuse, and freedom about the valuable applications for the technologies featuring the existing building is obviously suitable
achievement of the expected quality result. They are based upon and to a relation quality the building may keep the formal,
a process at progressive stages, since the definition of a system technical and structural frame and so a substantial homogeneity.
of uses a set of the technical and technological choices coming This is valuable beyond any philosophical-cultural evaluation
from the demand scheme and the performance aims - and a about the efficacy of the chosen approach for the conservation of
system of values a set of the bonds to the transformation the historical-architectural system of values.
imposed by the architecture to preserve its own identity - until the The above mentioned issues, coming from the contemporary
definition of adequate criteria and methods, through a debate on the refurbishment of the historical architecture, explain
congruence control to ensure a contemporary building quality of the wide use of traditional techniques, in contrast with the
use and a conservation of the historical nature of the traditional employment of modern materials and technologies that have
7 building heritage. been widely and uncritically adopted, over the recent and remote
Afterwards, the operative ways to meet the pointed out past, without an adequate preliminary control in depth upon the
requirements, sometimes explained with suitable solutions, can be induced effects.
referred to both traditional methods and modern use of On the other hand, this evidence hasnt to obstruct the innovation
historical materials, techniques and structural elements as well as within the building refurbishment. A new balance between space,
to innovative technological approaches, through the integration preserved materials and new functional and technological
between construction tradition and innovation. The table 1 shows elements has to be achieved that is a preservation tool, rather than
a possible scheme of a performance approach for the a futile need of modernity, in order to link the tradition (when it
refurbishment of the historical traditional architecture. cannot meet specific requirements) and the contemporary world.
The main goal is not the transformation of the building, but the
The technological innovation for the quality connection between the performance requirements and the
In accordance with the experiences over the last decades, the conservation of its authenticity and original structural language,
employment of traditional methods and materials within the through the employment of evolved products and systems that are
refurbishment of the traditional architecture can be considered as able to face appropriately the lack of performance of buildings
appropriate on the whole, with a valuable congruence between that are realised with traditional techniques, but cannot be
the system of uses due to the requirement reference and the recovered with them. This approach may not concern a useless
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and counterproductive rule, but a choice capability for those systems, with high technological content and morphological-
situations where the employment of modern materials and technological compatibility, that are able to perform good
technologies may be more suitable in order to respect the durability, mechanical resistance, aptitude to maintenance and to
comprehensive building characteristics: sometimes and for specific integrate with traditional materials, elements and techniques. It
problems, the historical architecture seems to accept better the also concerns the adaptation and improvement of the
insertion of light technologies, for instance the more advanced performance and quality characteristics related to the traditional
ones (aimed to integrate rather than to replace), rather than existing products, widely experimented within the building sector.
heavy interventions, traditionally applied to the building For instance, the Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP) have been
practice over the last decades and connected to methods and employed to have the existing building comply with the new
techniques of substitution and reconstruction. safety standards and the unexpected stresses, as those ones
However, the innovation is not only be related to materials and produced by an earthquake, even if a great care is necessary,
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without any sort of wiring13. 5 The Laboratories of Quarter of Otranto, Bari, Rome and Cosenza lasted from 1981
until 1995. The pilot experiences of the Laboratories of Historical centres were
equally interesting that were instituted by Sardinia Region in order to activate
management and preservation tools for all the several small traditional historical
settlements widespread over the territory.
References 6 Among the Refurbishment Handbook, the first is the Restoration Reference
Book in 1977 within the Laboratory of the Associazione Intercomunale
AA.VV., 2002, Costruire sostenibile lEuropa, ed. Alinea, Firenze Pescarese.; then, the Refurbishment Handbook of Rome in 1989, the
Refurbishment Handbook of Citt di Castello in 1992, the Refurbishment
AA.VV., 2001, Costruire sostenibile il Mediterraneo, ed. Alinea, Firenze
Handbook of Neapolitan construction traditional techniques in 1994, the
AA.VV., 1994, Abitazione, riuso e qualit della progettazione: studio di un caso. Refurbishment Handbook of Palermo in 1994; finally, the handbooks referred
Elementi per lanalisi esigenziale-prestazionale nel riuso conservativo edilizio, Ed. to Matera, Ortigia, Umbria and other ones. We highlight the Catalogue of
Edipuglia, Bari. Typologies and Architectural Elements of Umbria Region that with the Model
BLUM A., 2002, HQE2R Susteinable Renovation of Buildings for Susteinable of Building Regulation for Refurbishment constitutes the basic reference for the
Neighbourhood, SB02 Conference, 23-25 September 2002 urban and building requalification of historical areas in Umbria Region.
7 G. De Tommasi, Performance qualities for the refurbishment of the historical serial
CATERINA G., 1997, Gestire la qualit del recupero edilizio urbano, Ed. Maggioli,
Rimini. building. A methodological approach for a practice code (in Italian Qualit
prestazionali per il recupero delledilizia storica seriale. Un approccio
CROCI G., 1998, The conservation and structural restoration of architectural heritage, metodologico per un codice di pratica), Adda Editore, Bari, 2001
Computational Mechanics publications, copyr. Southampton
8 The performance specifications are the operative contents of the model and
DE MATTEIS L., 2003, Recupero edilizio e qualit del progetto, Primalpe, Cuneo. contain the basic concepts to meet the considered requirements. Their structure
DE TOMMASI G., 2001, Qualit prestazionali per il recupero delledilizia storica seriale. is composed of a description-performance proposition and a procedure scheme:
Un approccio metodologico per un codice di pratica, Adda editore, Bari the former expresses the performance quality goal, the lower limit values of
numerical parameters that involve the requirement meeting, the criteria to verify
FOSTER L., 1997, Acces to the Historic Environment, Donhead, Shaftesbury.
the performance quality when to respect the pointed out standards is impossible;
GERMAN M. L., 1995, La qualita del recupero edilizio, ed. Alinea, Firenze. the latter, arranged in a block diagram, allows, since the control of one or more
demand parameters, to check the possible achievement of the performance
HARRIS, S. Y., 2001, Building pathology: deterioration, diagnostics and intervention,
quality, by means of both the satisfaction of the pointed out prescription and
IMPERADORI M., 2001, Costruire sul costruito : tecnologie leggere nel recupero edilizio, alternative ways chosen by the designer.
Carocci Roma
9 A suitable solution is a solution not necessary copied by the proposed model, but
MECKLER, M., 1996, Improving indoor air quality through design, operation and that meets the basic features and give equivalent performance values, even if with
maintenance, Fairmont London Prentice-Hall Int., Lilburn, GA, some differences from the model.
MONTAGNA, R. (a cura di), 1999, Normative edilizie e forme del costruito, ed. CLUA, 10 Beyond commercial solutions (Solatube Systems), an interesting research, namely
Ancona. ARTHELIO (Intelligent and energy-optimized lighting system based on the
RABUN S. J., 2000, Structural Analysis of Historic Buildings: Restoration, Preservation, combination of daylight and the artificial light of sulphur lampos (JOR3-CT97-
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Notes on the rehabilitation and reuse of traditional and historical architectural
heritage
awaiting a possible new fate. Rather than a reductive paraphrase Magnano Lampugnani, could be defined as the model
interpretation as [...] a simple change of use5, reuse can be seen of maintenance and continuity, as opposed to a more ephemeral,
as the bridge that re-establishes continuity between the past and short-lived model such as the case of replacement9.
present of the existing building.
Conceptually, modification constitutes the essence of reuse, as Now, the rehabilitation project constitutes an act of foresight,
indeed it involves a transformation, a veritable metamorphosis of reading and interpreting the main characteristics of the existing to
the existing. The presence and absence of continuity do not simply plan its potential for reuse in the near future.
go together, they actual form an indivisible relation6. In the life The motivations behind rehabilitating buildings are, firstly, of an
of a building, its reuse coincides with a crisis of loss of the values economic nature, which might be summarized thus: [...] since it
that hitherto underpinned its meaning and existence. Reuse was not possible to construct new buildings, work was carried out
involves assigning the existing construction a new system of values on the existing structures10, though in keeping with Riegls
and meanings, different to what went before, which is why this is definition of the unintentional monument [...] we must not
not always possible7. Reuse must, then, be seen as a dynamic forget that history, for at least 50 years, has valued them as
instrument by means of which the pluralities of past and, most sources of material testimony, especially if they are many and
probably, future successive uses become stratified, intersect and widespread. Therefore, suppressing a building or a part of it
establish a rapport8, not simply as a change in function. amounts to erasing a page in the life of society that has been
7 The building boom that hit Italy in the late 1950s, along with the passed down by the material itself11. And this is even more valid
need for post-war reconstruction, population growth, the in the case of popular architecture; despite as a rule having no
industrial development of cities and the resulting phenomena of design documents, it recounts its history, from the twofold
migration to them, decreed the depreciation of existing built viewpoint of continuity and mutation, by means of the built work
heritage. The idea that had until then governed the ongoing logics itself. Indeed, [...] it is necessary to see spaces and their
of maintenance, repair and reuse of pre-modern architecture, was subsequent transformations as a precious, irreplaceable book
supplanted by the economic reasoning behind new constructions, which, by means of materials and the configuration given to them
mainly associated with industrialized technology and the mass by the people who lived there, tells of the change in use and social
production of construction materials and elements. At the time, it balance more effectively even than a drawing, and justifies the
was probably more convenient to build new constructions than to choice of continuing to inhabit these spaces and the decision to
conserve and reuse old buildings, due to the rapid disappearance conserve them12.
of the professionals who conserved the technological and building The historical period in which we live is going through a moment
expertise of traditional practice. of reflection on the choices made and possible new paths, and is
The passage from the second to the third millennium has seen characterized by an increasing exhaustion of resources. This
many changes in the conditions that most directly influence the
relation between space and society; this is a period in which
population growth is undergoing a reverse trend, with zero birth
rates. The buildings constructed in the last 40 years have aged
suddenly, unexpectedly and probably to a larger extent than
traditional constructions. Today, large and medium-sized city
centres are coming up against a sadly chronic lack of development
land and, as a result, the displacement of inhabitants towards the
centregiving rise to a new distribution from old towns to city
outskirtsseems irremediably blocked or, perhaps, about to be
reversed. In short, the phase of unbridled expansion that cities
experienced in the second half of the 20th century seems to be set
to undergo a radical inflection: the city, in a wealthy, ageing
society, seeks within itself newor old?places in which to live,
and quality in the installations far outweighs quantity.
All this, along with communities manifest need to discover and
re-appropriate their cultural roots, generates interest in the built
historical fabric.
From this viewpoint, the recovery-reuse binomial once again Gonnosn, rehabilitation and reuse of a traditional house as a House Museum
becomes the operative instrument of a cultural model which, to (project: Maurizio Manias and Franceschino Serra)
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requires us to place the issue of saving, in the broadest sense, at little more of our cities every day, the foremost parameter in the
the centre of debate and research, bearing in mind that [...] evaluation of a project has to be its ability to respect and use
producing to consume and then throw away means waste. And existing resources15.
waste is precisely what we cannot afford in a world affected by Modification as a result of reuse of existing buildings, and
mountains of waste products and worried about its limited particularly of the project in consolidated areas, though not
resources13. necessarily reuse in the strict sense, once again sets forth the
These are just some of the substantial reasons pushing us towards dualism between old and new, especially due to the technological
a definitive awareness that our existing built heritage is of great progress that is now radically changing the languages of
cultural value. It is, however, without the slightest doubt, an architecture.
economic resource, an important added value, which at present In these cases, the critical act of the project necessarily has
we are allowing to fall into disrepair and have to revalorize as soon dialectical contents: the new has to affirm its own project identity
as possible. without prejudice to the pre-existing. The project mandate is to
Conversely, the terms of the urgency of the reuse of a building can establish a nexus between old and new. The relation should not
be inverted, as Corboz provocatively posits, in which case [...] it be one of antagonism, because [...] the project is constructed
is necessary to declare the need to destroy rather than the need to with different parts, some that are by necessity new and others
conserve [...]14. that existed beforehand. Bringing the two together will not
The rehabilitation project, potentially part of the rich vein of the involve a unitary composition; it will be an attempt to achieve a 7
built project, has to address a plural system of links, since it level of quality analogous to what existed before16. That which
addresses a built organism that is there to be reused. On the one is already present will guide the course of modification when
hand, for the project, the building is a physical, material place in these levels are defined, to then extract the vital lymph. In other
terms of its architecture and construction and a virtual place by words, the designer has the difficult task of understanding the
virtue of its historical, evocative dimension. At the same time, the complexity of the old building and then defining the modifications
new use presents demands that are linked to the restructuring of accordingly.
the building. In his interesting essay Del contraste a la analoga, Ignasi de Sol-
A good rehabilitation project, then, has to be able to choose Morales further clarifies the connection between old and new in
suitable new functions for old buildings that are compatible with the recovery project, indicating that [...] a new architecture is
their original essence. The equation that simply balances the reuse physically close and relates visually and spatially to the existing,
of the old building with the new function is meaningless, as it but it also establishes a real interpretation of the historical
expresses something that is impossible. In the face of the material. This material, of which the architecture is comprised,
continual destruction of resources and memories that is erasing a becomes the object of a veritable interpretation that, explicitly or
implicitly, accompanies the new intervention in its overall
significance17.
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rehabilitation or of more general comparison between existing intervention is not contemporary24. This process preserves the
and new that is univocally accepted. It is, nonetheless, necessary recognizability of the intervention desired by the restorers, though
to assume that the contemporary project culture has for some with different budgets and purposes, and is, ultimately, one of the
time now addressed the existing in the joint form of conservation basic requirements for the success of the dialectic project
and modification, allowing the principles of the restoration referred to25.
discipline to coexist with the need for autonomy required by the
architecture project20. Without relinquishing the charm of The middle way between conservation and modification
ambiguity in the contrast between the old and the new, it is represents the leading thread of the rehabilitation project, which
possible to substitute for the habitual trio of restoration, reuse, has the mandate of establishing the degree of prevalence of either
conservation, a more up-to-date, judicious approach: restoration, approach. This serves to free up rehabilitation from historical
reuse, transformation21.
Homogenous methodological instruments are lacking, but it is still
possible to compare certain operative criteria.
One such is the principle of minimum intervention22, which
represents the principal link regulating the rehabilitation project
and reuse, with an approach inspired by cultural stances on the
7 conservation of the historical document. According to this
principle, pre-existing elements should only be modified if it is
necessary to the new function. From a technical and material
viewpoint, this means addressing problems of degradation by
means of the priority choice of conservation rather than gratuitous
substitution.
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6 Marco Biraghi, Op. cit., p. 15. 13 Vittorio Magnano Lampugnani, Op. cit.
7 The relation between new architecture and existing architecture is a 14 Andr Corboz, Op. cit., p. 72.
phenomenon that changes according to the cultural values attributed to the 15 Alberto Grimoldi, Op. cit., p. 118.
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Principally in Cairo, but also in Syria and the Yemen, the Mission
franaise pour la Sauvegarde du Patrimoine architectural has often
been called upon to undertake major rehabilitation or restoration
work, in view of the very poor state of conservation of some
buildings: subsiding floors, collapsed walls and ceilings that were
propped up or had already fallen in made it impossible to use
premises. Added to this were varying degrees of modifications
that had occurred over the centuries.
Faced with this state of heritage, various questions arise: what
should be done? What should be kept? Which elements can be
suppressed? What kind of work should be undertaken? 7
The initial intervention to be undertaken when rehabilitating a
monument is archaeological: restoring the monument to its
original condition, or as near as possible, in architectural,
structural and decorative aspects. The second is to determine the
kind of work required to rehabilitate the monument in question.
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Rehabilitating and building using traditional materials. The Egyptian experience
resistant. However, the quarries had been unworked for a long 4. Mortars and coatings
time, probably because the seams had been exhausted. The examination of mortars showed that they were all lime-based.
In Egypt in the 1980s, the only stone used in restoration was a The same was true of the renderings which, in some cases,
poor quality white stone quarried in Hlouan, near Cairo. In both comprised a mixture of lime and gypsum, with up to 80%
aesthetic and technical terms, this stone was inadmissible. gypsum.
We insisted to those responsible that an identical or very similar However, the main problem with mortars and renderings was how
stone should be found to the one that was principally used in to combat the use of cement. The drawbacks of using a mortar of
construction in Cairo in the Ottoman period. It was in vain, this type when building a stone wall are well known.
however; the possibility of opening a new quarry was beyond our Unfortunately, this practice was still very widespread in the 1980s
means. in Egypt and other nearby countries, and it was difficult at the
But the idea lingered, and our insistence on using the stone called time to convince the artisan workers of the danger of using this
gebel ahmar in restoration work later bore fruit. Ten years later, kind of mortar. The result was that, due to the lack of demand,
when the Mission franaise undertook another case of restoration lime was practically non-existent on the Egyptian market.
in Cairo, the demand for gebel ahmar had grown to the extent
that new quarries had opened and were commercializing it.
The solution used in our first restoration job was, then, to buy
7 stone salvaged from non-listed 19th-century buildings that were
being demolished. This solution was, of course, cheaper
Dressed to the dimensions we required, this stone was the same
colour as ours and, most importantly, had the same mechanical
characteristics, allowing us to include it in old walls without
creating differential tension or shear stress in the event of
overload.
2. Brick
The problems with brick were slightly different, in that old bricks,
comprising a mixture of clay and poorly fired ash, were full of
mineral salts as a result of rising damp. This material was difficult
to salvage, as the texture of the brick had become friable, and it
was necessary to look for an alternative material.
We then looked at the possibility of using locally produced fired
bricks of similar dimensions and technical characteristics to the Use of new materials (metal girders) to reinforce old structures
ones we needed. Tests were carried out, with the conclusion that
this type of brick could, as in the case of the stone, be used to
repair old walls without creating differential tensions or shearing.
It was subsequently used throughout the site.
3. Wood
The problem of timber was also addressed with great care: a
general study showed that most of the buildings joinery had been
made using Douglas pine, called azzizi in Egypt. In the 1980s, this
type of timber, long imported from Turkey, came from northern
Europe. The quality, however, though similar, was not satisfactory.
As in the case of stone, we turned to beams salvaged from 19th-
century buildings that were being demolished. Once reworked,
these beams provided an excellent timber that was very healthy
and had over a century of seasoning. The joinery was restored
without problems, the old and the new timbers working together
in perfect harmony.
Detail of restoration of the meshrebeeyeh in Sennari house
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Our search in the capital produced quick lime that we had to fetch After carefully studying this case, the chosen solution was to
in bulk directly from the kiln. This was the solution we chose. introduce a metal structure into the thickness of the structural
Although lime-slaking is a long and difficult task, the resulting floor to relieve the old timber beams. This was possible thanks to
quality is excellent, producing remarkable results in both rebuilt the thick infilling between the joists and the flooring.
stone-wall structures and faade renderings. In another case, perhaps the solution of concrete reinforcement
When we worked on a second restoration project in Cairo, in would have been preferable
1995, lime had come into its own. Although several varieties were
not available, one type was commercialized in sacks, in powder
form. III. Important
5. New materials: steel, stainless steel, concrete, tar There is no such thing as a model solution in restoration; each case
The state of buildings, and particularly the new function of these must be considered and studied individually.
monuments, may call for the use of complementary materials Furthermore, new materials are only used to reinforce an element
with certain conditions! or structure. They work under cover and must not be noticeable
Let us take the example of a subsiding floor in a large mansion. It when work is completed. In this case, it is vital to dissociate the
comprises timber joists supporting a heavy limestone flooring. old and the new structure, to enable them to work separately
Now, the underside of this structural floor is decorated and must (problems of deflection, dilatation, etc.), the most important issue 7
be conserved. At the same time, the structures timber beams are being to ensure that the solution adopted is invisible.
too weak to take heavy loads, making it very difficult to reuse the
premises.
This calls for reinforcement of the structural floor without
touching its under surface. In this case, the use of complementary
materials is one solution, since despite having a smaller volume,
they have greater strength.
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Contrary to the restoration of monuments, buildings of traditional There are no recipes or standard solutions. Each and every building
architecture need to have a continuous and sustainable use. Only has a different heritage value, problems and opportunities. Thus,
when in use they can be maintained and kept alive. But not all every individual building must be judged for itself. The same
uses are appropriate for all historic buildings. On the one hand the applies for a buildings setting. Heritage values differ from country
modern needs demands the addition of new technological, to country, but even from one street to the other in the same
sanitary or other installations and amenities, the re-arrangement neighborhood. Similarly, as judgment is a subjective process, the
of the interior or addition of space. On the other hand, modern evaluation criteria for the heritage value differ from an individual
materials and techniques make the restoration process easier and to an individual. The professional, sensitive to issues of
less expensive. But these alterations, necessary for the architecture or human history and geography, sees infinite
continuation of use or for a new use, once the original has seized information and value where the ordinary man might only see
to exist or cannot correspond to the modern demands, often stone and mortar. Similarly, public institutions (e.g. Heritage
undermine the heritage value of the building. This threat brings us bodies) attribute great heritage value where the owner only
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The dilemma criteria: The point of view of heritage value
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Systems and equipment installations challenges
In an attempt to approach this issue we propose the following as b. Chrysaliniotissa Kindergarten project, walled city of
general strategic criteria: Nicosia
The new WC and kitchen were located in the new extension to
1. Minimal intervention on the building fabric the listed building, in order to preserve the character and
2. Minimal intervention in the surroundings of the historic relationship of spaces in the historic building.
building
3. Reversibility of the installations c. Shadow Theatre Museum, walled city of Nicosia
4. No disruption of the structural capacity of the historic building Ducts and pipes are screened by perforated metal sheets and
5. Retain the character of interior and exterior spaces placed in an easily accessible location, without disrupting the wall
6. Easily identifiable elements but aesthetically non-intrusive of the traditional building.
7. Easily accessible installations to assure inspection and avoid
damages in the case of leakages (especially for plumbing and
sewage installations)
8. Respect for pre-existing systems which may have historic or
archaeological value
9. Compatible introduction of new uses in certain spaces of a
building 7
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b. Stitching cracks
The method consists in placing stronger, more rigid elements between the edges of the crack to act as sutures, such as metal bars, pieces
of brick masonry, etc. The aim is to restore lost continuity to the wall, so that tensions can be transmitted and once again distributed
homogeneously throughout the cracked area. To be effective, the crack must be passivethat is, the original cause of cracking must no
longer act on the area being repaired.
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c) Injections
This is another system of repairing passive fissures and cracks applicable to walls of brick or irregular coursed masonry that consists of
injecting a liquid to entirely fill the space between the edges of the opening. When it hardens and adheres to the material, this liquid
restores the continuity to the damaged element. The characteristics of the liquid, usually epoxide-based, and the pressure at which it is
introduced vary according to the materials in the wall and the size of the space to be filled. Superficial sealing prior to injecting the fissure
or crack must be able to stand the pressure of the liquid before it hardens.
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d) Repointing
This procedure involves restoring the initial strength of stone or brick masonry and consists in refilling mortar joints that have been
damaged by erosion or the effects of plant roots by introducing products of variable density or viscosity by means of gravity or infusion,
according to the technique employed.
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f. Ties
The purpose of ties in wall structures is usually to prevent their collapse or progressive deformation transversal to their plane by
implementing linear elements under traction called ties, generally made of steel cable and fixed to two parallel walls by special anchoring
elements to prevent separation and, consequently, the corresponding loss of resistant capacity. It is advisable to implement at least one
anchoring element that can be periodically tensed to compensate for possible extension of the tie material.
g. Abutments
The function of abutments is equivalent to that of ties, though they are practically obligatory if the building does not have sufficiently
rigid elements to absorb the specific tensions generated at the points at which ties are anchored. In these cases, the thrust of vaults,
arches or any other element that introduces stress at an angle to the walls, can be absorbed by abutments, thanks to their capacity to
transmit this action to the ground via their section. The design and dimensioning of a new abutment requires attention to the degree of
settlement needed for correct functioning.
.
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h. Strapping
The implementation of straps or hoops in buildings with closed wall structures or brick masonry or stone or brick pillars, encircling them
to make them more slender and increase their resistance, is a historically used resource that is found in many well-known old buildings,
such as the Coliseum in Rome or Italys medieval campaniles. Iron and steel are the materials traditionally used for these elements. Today,
strips of carbon fibre can provide the same function in some cases, though it is necessary to consider the effects of the adherent material
on the reinforced element.
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Interventions in structural floors comprising timber beams and joists must be based on prior diagnosis of the causes of the dysfunctions,
be they the attack of biotic agents, natural shrinkage or deficiencies in the dimensioning of the floor structure in relation to the
mechanical stresses it receives. The choice of the intervention requires knowledge of future conditions of use and the need for
conservation not just of the elements treated but also of those that may be affected by the planned intervention, such as false ceilings
or floors with outstanding artisan or pictorial values.
Below is a list of the most usual forms and methods of intervention in these elements.
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c. Struts
Struts are a simple, efficient solution for reducing tensions as a result of flexion introduced by overload and deformations derived from
timber shrinkage. They comprise timber or steel beams arranged crosswise to the one requiring reinforcement, dividing its span in two
or three. A solid support for the strut formed in this way is usually the determinant aspect in the choice of this solution, since it requires
bracing walls that are sufficiently resistant or, otherwise, specially built pillars with their corresponding foundations to correctly transmit
loads from the strut to the ground.
8
d. Addition of reinforced concrete slabs
The addition of reinforced concrete slabs connected to the timber joists in a structural floor is one of the most used solutions in building
rehabilitation today. Reinforcement takes the form of converting existing joists into mixed beams of timber and concrete, and the
possibility of coplanar distribution of tensions produced by flexion throughout the plane of the floor structure, increasing the overall
rigidness of the building when the new slab is joined to the thick walls around the perimeter, a measure that also improves seismic
resistance. At the same time, the addition of concrete improves the soundproofing of the floor structure. The most critical aspect is the
solution used to connect the new slab to the existing wall, since it is conditioned by the walls rigidness, cohesion and perforability, which
can be very variable and unpredictable.
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The decision as to what type of intervention to undertake when a building is subject to problems deriving from site movement requires
knowledge of the type and characteristics of the foundations, monitoring of the activity and information about the geotechnical
characteristics to a sufficient depth on site. Only after compiling this data and effecting this analysis can a judicious decision be made.
In fact, one of the most important decisions to be taken in this initial phase is whether or not to undertake an intervention that modifies
the conditions of the original foundations or improves the terrain.
If the buildings foundations are of the most common superficial type, the usual system of underpinning is to implement rather wider
footing beneath the existing foundation. This must be calculated in each case, according to the characteristics of the terrain, the 8
foundations to be underpinned, the depth and breadth of the new footing, and the width of the excavations beneath the existing
foundations.
These days it is increasingly frequent to use a vertically sloping arrangement of micropiles, which compromise a larger volume of ground
to absorb the stress in the foundations, using them as a pile cap.
Less common are the systems based on increasing the width of the foundation base, due to the difficulty of absorbing the shearing stress
at the point of contact between the new and the old foundations. Likewise there is little recourse to the use of conventional piles, due
to the cumbersome apparatus they require, or the improvement of terrains by injecting chemical products, which are only suitable for
certain types of terrain that are sufficiently permeable.
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MASTRODICASA, S. Dissesti statici delle strutture edilizie, Hoepli Ed., 1978 (6th edition),
Milan
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using rotary or percussion drilling rigs. Because of their smaller hollow grouting drill (Titan), percussion rod etc. Micro-piles are
size, a wide variety of drilling techniques can be employed more widely accepted within engineers and designers who are replacing
economically, which makes their use so attractive: flight auger, tri- traditional piles with micro-piles - to the benefit of the owners.
cone, percussion rod, down-the-hole-hammer, casing with auger,
Due to the raised level of under ground water, this water moves
continuously and carryout the soil particles, which made many
voids in the soil, this gives us inhomogeneous behavior of soil.
To have a consolidated soil with a good bearing capacity and a
homogeneous section we needed to fix up the sewerage system,
also fixing the under ground water level to stop water currents.
Then soil injection process takes place, first drilling in the soil to
the specified levels then inserting a valved pipe that the
cementation material will be injected through it with a pressure
will not exceed more than two bars.
The soil is injected with a beginning injection grout consists of
1:4:0.50 cement: water: bentonite. 8
After 24 hours of the primary injection we begin the final injection
with a higher cement ratio with additives which is comp last 431
to give a plasticized grout to be injected to the soil to give the
required soil core tests & the required soil bearing capacity.
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Yael F. Naaman
Architect
Conservation Department of the Israel Antiquities Authority,
Israel
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The described disintegration schema is also valid in three story stones is 5-10 millimeters. In general we can say that this type wall
buildings in which there are two wooden ceilings borne atop a is of average quality.
vaulted story. Type 4. Irregular construction utilizing quarried stone. The size
The most significant and common factor in the disintegration and shape of the stone varies and the courses are not of uniform
processes in the city is the inclination of the walls, in other words length. The width of the joints is not uniform and the vertical
their becoming out-of-plumb. It can be said that all of the joints frequently extend through more than one course. The
instances of building disintegration in Akko stem from a lack of quality of the wall is poor. Walls such as these mainly occur as
proper maintenance or as a result of physical damage. These repairs or retaining walls.
factors cause a chain reaction of prolonged damage and decay
and constant deterioration in the physical condition of the Most of the walls structural problems involve: a lack of stones in
building. the walls outer surface, structural faults in the outer surface,
cracks, faults in the plane of the wall that are mainly characterized
Double-faced Walls by horizontal shifts, voids in the core of the wall or bonding
Most of the walls on the ground floor in Akko are built of two material that is missing from the core of the wall. These problems
rows of stones with a debesh fill in between. The construction was are caused due to the use of inferior quality materials, the tops of
carried out in horizontal rows: first one course of stone of the the walls that have not been sealed, percolating water, the
outer faces of the wall was laid and the space between them was crumbling of bonding materials, mechanical damage, as well as
filled with debesh and afterwards the second row of stones was wear and erosion of the core of the walls leading to the formation
laid in the same manner and so one, one course of stone atop of voids inside them. Frequently wear occurs when the bonding
8 another. The walls outer faces were built of dressed kurkar materials gradually crumble and are washed away through cracks
masonry stones but the repairs that were made were done with and joints that were emptied by this process. In addition to these
stones that were not dressed. The core of the wall consists of small one must add the absence of ongoing maintenance which
stones and bonding material. In the construction of the city accelerates the natural weathering processes.
extensive use was made of two kinds of bonding material, one
based on lime and the on soil. Lack of Stones
Most of the walls are 80-120 centimeters wide. Their primary A number factors lead to an absence of stones from the outer
function is to bear the load from the vaulted story and to direct surface of a wall:
loads from the tall walls (one stone wide) of the upper stories. The
initial impression one gets from looking at the walls is that they 1. Direct mechanical damage to one or more stones leading to the
are homogenous. Nevertheless, when we observe the crumbling localized loss of stone. Such damage usually results in other
bonding material in areas where the wholeness of the wall was stones falling from the wall. One or several stones suffering
damaged or in instances of decay, a different picture is revealed: from intense wear will cause one or more stones to fall from
the walls building material and the construction mass are the course above it. This process will stop when the damaged
undergoing a process of disintegration. area is re-stabilized.
2. Poor construction quality of the wall. In this instance the inside
We can classify the walls in Akko into four types: surface that comes in contact between the different courses is
rather small, the depth of the stones is small and they are not
Type 1. Regular construction utilizing stones that have five sufficiently anchored to the wall. Because of this a minimal
dressed surfaces. The height of the stone and the course is c. 45 amount of pressure will lead to the detachment of the stones
centimeters; the stone is 50-100 centimeters long and the width and their falling.
of the joint between the stones ranges from 5-10 millimeters. In 3. Collapse of a section of the outer face of the wall as a result of
general we can say that the quality of this type wall is quite good. deformation caused by distention.
Type 2. Regular construction utilizing stones that have five 4. Removal of a wall or partition perpendicular to the wall will
dressed surfaces. The height of the stone and the course is 18-37 result in damage to the wholeness of the wall, to loss of stones
centimeters; the stone is 18-45 centimeters long and the width of and accelerated decay.
the joint between the stones is 5-10 millimeters. The quality of the
wall is usually good. The objective in treating missing stones is to restore the original
Type 3. Regular construction using roughly hewn stones. The loading bearing capacity of the wall, to integrate the outer surface
height of the stone and the course is 23-40 centimeters; the stone as an inseparable part of the wall and renew the original
is 18-60 centimeters long and the width of the joint between the constructive system.
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Restoring localized stability by completing the stonework Restoring extensive stability through the use of supports
Possible solutions in this case are: (1) restoring limited and relative Building Remains
stability to the region; (2) a more extensive restoration of stability The property that differentiates building remains from wall
through the use of supports. Stabilizing by completing the remains is the possibility to restore their spatial-structural
stonework is a preferred solution from all aspects of the buildings function. A number or combination of factors brings the
conservation. The installation of supports is suitable as an building to a state where it will be defined a remain, for
intermediate phase in the stabilization process or in cases in which example the collapse of a vaulted ceiling due to sundry
the deformation in the wall calls for it. reasons such as excess load; wall stability that is low relative
to the lateral pressure of the vaults; failed implementation;
Structural Deformation collapse of one of the load bearing walls; collapse of a
This condition is characterized by a section of the wall protruding wooden ceiling due to various reasons such as natural wear;
from the original line of the building. This phenomenon is a result moisture problems that lead to enrooting in the wood beams;
of a number of destructive mechanisms: excess load; wall deformation or an act by man such as the
Cracks and/or voids in the core of the wall creating an excess load opening of new access routes or the removal of a space for
on its outer surface, which leads to distention followed by the the sake of a new structure. In all of these cases accelerated
collapse of the same section of wall. wear of the ceiling and walls is apparent prior to the collapse.
Detachment of the outer surface of the wall from the core due to The objective in this situation is to stabilize the different
the absence of sufficient adhesion properties. structural elements and, to the extent possible, restore its
A process that accelerates the distention is the crumbling of the spatial function. In buildings that are only slightly damaged, it
bonding materials and its falling into the space between the core is preferable to restore the spatial function by means of
of the wall and the outer stone surface. In this situation the constructing a ceiling using traditional technology while at the
bonding material acts as an accelerator in the deformation same time replacing the missing stones. In reality, building
process. remains in an advanced state of destruction are currently not
The objective in this situation, like the previous one, is to restore undergoing conservation in Old Akko and they are either
the wall to its original loading bearing capacity, to reattach the being demolished intentionally or neglected.
outer surface of the wall and renew the original static system.
Possible solutions: fill the voids in the core of the wall (grouting) Wall Remains
and pointing up the joints, install anchors or dismantle the This element includes walls of various heights and widths,
affected wall section in order to rebuild it. suffering from different degrees of damage, without any
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Support on the ground floor from one side (detail separation layer) Support from an adjacent structure
possibility of restoring spatial function. A number of factors or a Tall Walls or Walls that Constitute an Immediate Danger
combination of them leads to this situation: Remains of these walls are tall (thin walls that are more than 1.5
A wall that was originally part of a building that was destroyed m higher than their surroundings) and constitute an imminent
and today nothing remains of the original spatial context. The danger and require temporary or permanent spatial support,
quality of the construction is a significant factor in the condition during the course of conservation and renovation work and/or
of the walls; when this is extremely poor we notice the accelerated after it. Conservation measures in these instances will include
decline in the constructional properties of the structural element preparation and stabilization of the wall in accordance with its
or of the entire building. A wall that was originally built as a single characteristics, filling cracks and voids in the stone, repair one or
element and part of it was destroyed by a natural process, such as more worn stones, pointing up joints and the installation of
stone or core erosion as a result of weather damage leading to the supports.
collapse of a section of the wall; the defective sealing of the top In tall walls the preparation measures will include the removal of
of the wall or the absence of sealing in this case intensifies the rate loose materials from the top of the wall, removal of loose and
of erosion and its toll. In addition to these we should add the weakened materials in the areas where plaster is missing on the
human factor which manifests itself through the creation of new inside of the wall and the removal of loose bonding material from
approaches or new construction. the joints on the outside part of the wall. Conservation measures
will include stabilizing and sealing the top of the wall, replacing
The objective in these instances is to stabilize the wall, remove any missing bonding material in the joints and replacing missing
immediate danger and ensure that the wall can carry the plaster while at the same time creating a straightened surface.
anticipated load.
In double-faced walls, the preparation will include the removal
Low Walls of loose stones, loose core materials and crumbling bonding
In this category we include walls that stand no higher than 1.5 m materials from the joints. The stabilizing measure for these walls
above their surroundings and which do not represent an will consist of replacing missing stones and back filling them with
immediate danger. For example, a 1 meter high wall located on bonding material, completing missing stone courses to the extent
the roof of a building may be considered dangerous because its required, pointing up joints and sealing the top of the wall.
height above the ground exceeds 1.5 m. However, wall remains In both instances conservation measures are required for
less than 2.5 m are considered stabile if the walls height does not weathered stones, filling voids and cracks in stone, and pointing
exceed five times its width when it is structurally complete. the joints as part of the measures for stabilizing the wall.
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Conclusion
Supporting Tall Walls The structural problems in Old Akko were surveyed many times
Supporting tall walls is considered a short-term measure until a as part of the ongoing measures conducted by the Antiquities
permanent solution is provided for stabilizing the wall. In any case Authority in city. Analyzing and understanding them has led us
the preferred objective is a spatial solution, in other words to conclude that in many instances the root of the problem lies
in inferior construction and the use of poor quality materials. The
completing the building. As a rule, the design of the supports will
most significant factor in the state of the physical preservation is
include a specification of a wooden layer that separates the new
the long-term absence of proper maintenance and the lack of
materials from the stone.
awareness. This fact has accelerated the action of the destructive
Possible solutions: mechanisms and the natural decay that is occurring in the city.
There are different ways to conserve the building elements in the
Vault Stumps city. Choosing a treatment is a stage in a methodical and
Sections of vaults and arches in different states of preservation are structured process that includes identifying the problem,
integrated in the citys building remains. The remains of the vault are understanding the historic and active factors at the site,
limited in size and the most common phenomenon is the survival of formulating a theoretical concept for treatment based on a
the vaults springing connected to the upright walls in the stable broad perspective of the aspects bound up in the conservation
part of the building. In most instances the vault remains constitute of a historic city, and planning and implementing conservation
an immediate danger owing to their height and location above a measures using the resources available to the property owner
and the conservator working on his behalf. On more than one
passage. The immediate danger is one of stones falling into the
occasion a conservator has found himself with his hands tied
space below them. The destructive mechanisms that lead to this
owing to budgetary constraints. The actions taken in the citys
condition are the collapse of the vault due to different reasons
residential buildings over the past decade were mostly
and/or intervention by man in order to open passages or remove a determined because of demolition orders issued for the removal
room for the sake of a new building. of a danger and not because of the residents pro-conservation
The objective in this case is to stabilize the remains and remove any attitude or an overall broad conservation concept adopted by the
imminent danger of stones and other parts of the vault from falling. city. We are hopeful that things will change in wake of the city
Sometimes it is sufficient to stabilize the core, but when the angle having been declared a world heritage site and the approval of a
between the top of the vaults upper stone and the vertical is less new local master plan.
than 30, the upper stone needs to be anchored to a stabilized core,
or conversely it should be removed out of safety considerations.
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After the treatment to stabilize the core and anchoring the top stone
8
References
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Walls strengthen and treatment: the Egyptian experiences
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Walls strengthen and treatment: the Egyptian experiences
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Seismic improvement and conservation of structural features
be underlined, so that new researches are necessary in this field in cornices and other secondary elements by metal/composite
order to verify the long term behaviour of these materials and material tie beams and anchorages
technologies, beyond the interesting results achieved at moment. stiffening of timber floors by the overlap of new floor on the
So, the developed issues highlight that the improvement of the existing one and application of iron crosses and transversal
seismic behaviour for the historical traditional architecture has to connections.
represent the optimum synthesis, rather than the compromise
between the safety and the conservation. The approach has to Among the innovative technologies, there are:
focus upon the individuation of the weak elements in relation to
the Rule of Art, the definition of the collapse mechanisms and the improvement of the connections between vertical elements
conservation project, strictly aimed at correcting the structural and floors by anchorages with metal clamps or steel bars
lacks. However, providing the building with suitable seismic between the single beams and the walls
resistance characteristics, most of all by ensuring box behaviour, is elimination/reduction of the drift of arches by metal or fibre
the global expected result. With reference to the structural reinforced carbon chains
techniques in the Mediterranean area, some specific restoration top connection by reinforced concrete or reinforced masonry
works can be exemplified that are able to ensure a good stringcourses or by fibre reinforced carbon belts in order to
comprehensive static quality. They basically care the features of reduce the possible drift of the roof, to distribute the induced
the walls and the connections of the load bearing walls with the horizontal stresses and to joint the walls
other ones, as well as with the floors. They use both traditional improvement of the connections between the walls by metal
solutions and, if necessary, innovative materials and techniques to chains and local reinforced perforations
enhance the structural and static characteristics of the building reduction of the structural loads, especially at the top floors, by 8
and to meet new safety requirements imposed by the modern the replacement of heavy and rigid elements (for instance, the
culture. reinforced concrete roofs realised instead of the original timber
Synthetically, among the traditional solutions there are: roofs).
restoration of the continuity of the wall texture, by localised Differently, all the solutions that modify the static behaviour of the
repairs and/or unsew-sew techniques building or the values and the arrangement of the loads have to
improvement of the resistance of the masonry panels to be avoided. Particularly, the increase of the permanent loads (by
horizontal stresses by the regeneration of the cavities with floors and roofs too heavy and rigid for the below walls), the
compatible and effective binder mixtures carrying out of stiffening separators or cavities for lifts or
elimination/reduction of the local masonry weaknesses. The staircases, the laying of new floors by means of local demolition
complete closing of chimney flues and niches for this purpose or opening of breaches, weakening the masonries, have to be
is allowed just if it is strictly necessary and does not change the considered very dangerous.
formal and structural characteristics of the building Indeed, such works have been widely realised in recent times,
improvement of the seismic resistance of vertical bosses, often without any control or by operators who were unaware of
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II. Reflection and the Project Rehabilitation techniques: reinforcing structures
Seismic improvement and conservation of structural features
Rfrences
BATOLI G., BLASI C. (1997), Masonry structures, historical buildings and monuments,
chapter 11 of Computer analysis and design of earthquake resistant structures A
handbook (Advances in earthquake engineering, vol. 3), edited by D. E. Beskos & S.
A. Anagnostopoulos, p. 563-606, Computational Mechanics Publications.
Improvement of timber floor bearing capacity (by use of reinforcing boarding)
CAROCCI C. (2001), Guidelines for the safety and preservation of historical centres in
seismic area, III International Seminar on Structural Analysis of Historical
Constructions, University of Minho, Guimares (Portugal), 7th - 9th Novembre 2001,
p. 145-165.
8 DE TOMMASI G., MONACO P., VITONE C., (2003), A first approach to the load path
method on masonry structure behaviour, in Brebbia, C. A. (Eds.), Structural Studies,
Repairs and Maintenance of Heritage Architecture VIII, Wessex Institute of
Technology WIT Press, Southampton (UK), ISBN : 1.85312.968.2.
GIUFFR A., CAROCCI C. (1997), Codice di pratica: per la conservazione dei Sassi di
Matera, Matera, La Bautta.
GIUFFR A., CAROCCI C. (1999), Codice di pratica per la sicurezza e la conservazione del
centro storico di Palermo - Laterza, Bari (Italie).
KARAESMEN, E., UNAY, A. I., ERKAY, C., BOYACI, N. (1992), Seismic behaviour of old
masonry structures, Proceedings of the tenth World Conference on earthquake
engineering, A. A. Balkema, vol. VIII : 4531-4536.
SHRIVE N. G., SAYED-AHMED E. Y., TILEMAN D. (1997), Creep analysis of clay masonry
assemblages. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, n 24, p. 367-379.
mprovement of timber floor bearing capacity (by use of reinforcing concrete slab
connected to the wall)
Amlioration des connexions entre les lments verticaux et les planchers par des
Improvement of the connections between vertical elements and floors by
anchorages with metal tie beams
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Rehabilitation techniques: reinforcing structures II. Reflection and the Project
325
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II. Reflection and the Project Rehabilitation techniques: reinforcing structures
Reinforcing traditional Algerian structures to resist earth movements
326
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Rehabilitation techniques: reinforcing structures II. Reflection and the Project
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Tool 8.
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Restoring traditional timber constructions: the Turkish experience
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Tool 8.
Rehabilitation techniques: reinforcing structures II. Reflection and the Project
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Rehabilitation techniques: consolidating materials II. Reflection and the Project
To represent the building; the faade presents the visible face What rendering? What colour? What lime- or whitewash?
of the building and determines the ambition of its owners
To protect the walls from water damage by means of rendering 2. Protection of facings:
and paint.
What defects? What materials? What pathologies?
The inventory of the state of repair must, then, respond to these
two aspects. Before programming renovation work, it is advisable to diagnose
the state of the faades. In the event of total rehabilitation of the
1. The presentation of the facings building, a technical diagnosis of the overall construction is
established beforehand. In the case of simple faade renovation,
What building? What modifications? the apparent defects must be examined and the masonry drilled in
order to detect possible points of weakness.
Using descriptive data, it is necessary to determine the type of Cracks that run through the entire thickness of the wall and
building to be renovated. bulging effects, often due to thrusting, overloading, flexion of
The building has probably been the object of prior modifications beams or differential settlement, call for major intervention before
which have to be determined and evaluated in the light of the work starts on the faade. According to the case, the structure
planned renovation project. This involves determining the must be consolidated by repair to the foundations or the
characteristics of the building and the features that comprise its implementation of wall ties, piers or tie rods.
identity and history (if the building has no significant features, The fissures must be analysed according to their dynamic and
observe those surrounding it). speed of evolution: a tell-tale (strip of plaster, millimetre gauge)
It is then a question of completing the building according to the should be placed over cracks detected. If the crack is inactive, an
characteristics of the facings of the faade (or faades) which are injection of mortar grout will be sufficient to fill it. If movement of
to be renovated: the masonry continues, the structure must be consolidated.
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II. Reflection and the Project Rehabilitation techniques: consolidating materials
Renderings: consolidation, restoration or replacement.
Traces of damp and detached rendering require work to remedy mandatory. It is, nonetheless, advisable to carry out a specific
the various possible causes: sealing of leaks in pipes, removal of diagnosis:
renderings that are too impenetrable (using artificial cement),
drainage or seepage of rainwater, etc. Check the general adherence of rendering to the masonry
support by knocking on it with your hand or a small tool. If a
Before programming faade renovation, tests must be carried out large surface sounds hollow, it requires removal and
at different points of the faade. If the wall sounds hollow, renovation. If it sounds hollow in a localized area, a specific
indicating blistering and detachment of the rendering, cleaning of injection should ensure adherence.
the surface may prove necessary. If the defects are due to damp,
it will be sufficient to clean the affected parts and apply Check the cohesion of the mortar for powderiness by rubbing
smoothing mortar. If the phenomenon is due to poor adherence the surface hard. If grains of sand roll under your fingers, the
of the rendering to the support, as a result of insufficient rendering should be removed and repaired. If only a localized
evaporation of the water contained in the walls, the rendering area is affected, partial repair is possible.
must be totally cleaned away and replaced by a natural lime
mortar, which has the advantage of allowing the walls to breathe Check for the presence of rising damp, both outside and in the
while waterproofing them. interior. If there is rising damp, and if the rendering comprises
The rendering of the wall in question may be in a good general a hydraulic binder (artificial lime, lime and cement mortar) the
state of conservation, in which case complete renovation is not rendering must be removed to the height of the damp and
9
Preliminary diagnosis
Before undertaking work, it is necessary to gauge the state of health of
the building, with attention to the following points:
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Renderings: consolidation, restoration or replacement.
replaced by a natural hydraulic lime (NHL), a slight Replacement: the finishes do not provide their intended function
overthickness, or given a differential treatment to turn this of protection, the renderings are coming away, there are
repaired stretch into a wall base. numerous signs of damp, etc. In this case, the renderings
definitively need to be replaced and the causes of damp
Check the type of mortar and finishing treatment. If the addressed. Depending on the location of the defect, replacement
binding agent used is very hydraulic (artificial lime, lime and may be partial, limited for example to the ground floor, the most
cement mortar) a ready mixed lime wash or mineral paint damaged faade or the whole building if the rendering has ceased
(AFNOR FDT 30-808 standard) will be preferable. In this case, to serve its purpose. The decision to undertake total replacement
the colours chosen must resemble the tones of lime wash. must be a consequence of the diagnosis, not a prior decision.
Lime mortar (aerial lime, CL, or natural hydraulic lime, NHL) must
be used for old masonry.
The choice of faade renovation The binding agent habitually used in both mortar and whitewash
was lime. This material is particularly suitable for old constructions
Before drafting a project for the complete renovation of the due to its mechanical and physical properties:
faade, particularly the rendering, it is advisable to consider the
purpose to which the building is to be put and the intended image Its soft texture allows the rendering to move with the building
it is to project. without creating cracks, as harder binding agents do, instead
The total renovation of the rendering, lime washing and wood developing a large mesh of micro-fissures that are
finishes may give the building a new appearanceperhaps too imperceptible to the eye and do not affect impermeability.
new for the choices that led to the purchase of the building. A
modest building only expresses its age and history through the Its porous structure makes lime mortar impermeable to water
degraded condition of these renderings and paint. The but permeable to water vapour. This property allows the
imperfections of the facingsthe patina of timeare evacuation of capillary rise, warmed by the sun, as the rising 9
sometimes the only feature giving the building the charm of an water is transformed into vapour and evacuated via a
old construction. breathable wall.
The aim of faade renovation must, then, be to conserve this old
appearance, requiring a project that respects this idea. Faade These mortars are applied manually to the wall by trowel, and may
renovation, an operation that today all too often takes the form also be projected by a hand-operated roughcast machine or with
of a totally new rendering after removal of the existing render, is projected sand, in which case the facing must be compressed by
in fact a more complex operation that should be undertaken trowel or float. They can also be applied by machine, in which
gradually. case admixes must be added to the mortar, with specific doses
according to the machine used and the type of mortar; they are
Maintenance: the finishes are in a good state of repair: generally air entraining agents and plasticizer (check their
The woodwork needs a new coat of paint compatibility with lime mortars). The suitability of using a sprayer
The rendering is well bonded to its support and just the base is will depend on the desired finish; it may be appropriate for
damaged to a height of some tens of centimetres. In this case, finishes smoothed with a trowel or float, but the saving in time is
re-rendering the wall up to a height of 90 cm using lime mortar less in the case of rendering that is dashed and then finished using
to create a base, touching up a few points and a diluted lime a trowel, and it is always advisable to carry out tests.
wash to create a uniform surface will be sufficient to conserve
or consolidate the old rendering and its imperfections.
The choice of binding agent
Conservation/restoration: the finishes are not in a good state of
repair, but the aesthetic quality of the facing and the nature of the Having decided on the choice of faade renovation, it is then
finishes (sundial, inscriptions, etc.) call for conservation: necessary to choose the binding agent. The following parameters
The techniques to be used are those of conservation, to fix the will help to narrow down the choice.
patina and the action of time, at the same time restoring to the
finishes their role of protection, resistance, etc. The nature of the support
These techniques are applied by specialists, and the project may Old or contemporary walls, limestone rubblework, medium or
envisage a localized intervention of this type that does not hard stone, rammed-earth or cob walls are different materials that
necessarily apply to all the facings. call for a specific binding agent for the scratch coat.
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Renderings: consolidation, restoration or replacement.
The desired result: the finish coat scratch coat. In the following tables, non-hydraulic lime refers to
Climatic conditions, the timeline for work and the stockpiling slaked limes and lime putty.
system all intervene in the choice of the binding agent. All of these The surface to which the rendering is applied has its own
factors must be taken into account when applying the brown characteristics of bonding, porosity and affinity with water. These
coat. characteristics determine the choice of binding agent used to mix
the scratch coat. In the following tables, non-hydraulic lime
Le rsultat souhait, la finition refers to slaked limes and lime putty.
Today, the finish coat of a rendering is always applied with regard
for aesthetics. Factors to be considered are the grain of the B. Site environment and brown coat or levelling
texture, the colour of the rendering and the presence, if
applicable, of mouldings. The possibilities of stockpiling lime may dictate the choice.
The combination of these three elements should guide the choice Climate
of binding agent. Climate also affects the choice of binding agent. In the event of
extreme temperatures or high dry wind, it is preferable to use
A. Observations on the support: the scratch coat natural hydraulic rather than non-hydraulic lime, since the former
The surface to which the rendering is applied has its own sets faster. The choice of a suitable time for work (spring or
characteristics of bonding, porosity and affinity with water. These autumn) or the implementation of protection (wind break,
characteristics determine the choice of binding agent used to mix the sheeting, etc.) may make it possible to reverse this choice.
Dusting off
Soft or medium
rubblework Wetting Aerial lime or NHL
masonry
Scratch coat
Dusting off
Fired clay brick
Wetting NHL, aerial lime
Scratch coat
Dusting off
Wetting
Compo (NHL + XHA)
Hard stone Keying
NHL
Wetting (mist)
OLD BUILDING Scratch coat
Dusting off
Wetting (mist)
Rammed earth, adobe, cob Aerial lime
Slurry
Dusting off
Wetting (mist)
Drying
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Renderings: consolidation, restoration or replacement.
The time schedule Moulding: the rendering is simply marked to simulate bonding
If the work is to be carried out in a short period of time, use of or presents relief.
natural hydraulic lime is preferable to non-hydraulic lime
(except in the case of three-coat plaster and mezzo-fresco Dash coats finished with a trowel or broom should be applied
application). In normal climatic conditions, the setting time onto a previously smoothed brown or finish coat. The dash coat
between scratch coat, brown coat and finish coat can be does not ensure a waterproof finish.
halved. The finish coat can be mixed using non-hydraulic lime. The colour of renderings is the result of the aggregate/binding
The finish coat continues to set after the scaffolding is agent mix or a lime wash.
removed.
In the case of coloration using aggregate, it is important to
C. The desired result: the finish coat bear in mind that natural hydraulic lime has a slight colour of
The main role of the finish coat is to highlight and present the its own (greyish beige, sometimes with a touch of ochre).
facings. The result is a combination of: Aerial limes are much whiter. The choice of one lime over
another can make all the difference to the aggregate and has
The grain of the rendering: the surface may be very smooth a direct effect on the colour of the rendering. Very white lime
or rough (coarse grained surface) tends to alter a solid colour, but there are no hard and fast
The colour: the colour is obtained by lime wash applied while rules. A prior test is always advisable.
the support is still wet or dry, or simply using exposed
aggregate and the binding agent of the mortar In the case of coloration using lime wash on a dry surface, it
may be applied to a rendering of non-hydraulic or natural
hydraulic lime.
On-site work
Use of a
Float-finished Aerial or natural wooden float 1. When modifying openings, respect the proportions and
Fine
rendering hydraulic lime helps to limit general arrangement (a window that is taller than it is wide,
laitance.
etc.). In the case of large openings on the ground floor, a
Fine-grained detailed project must be produced, locating the element in the
sand. Slow plan of the faade.
Trowel-
Non-hydraulic setting provides
smoothed 2. Determination of the main faade and drafting of a project in
lime a second chance
rendering
to compress the which the finish of the rendering creates a hierarchy.
rendering.
Very fine 3. Lime rendering (aerial or natural hydraulic lime) with a coarse-
grained finish (dash-trowelled, daubed), trowel- or float-
Retouching Lime putty can
float-finished
Non-hydraulic
be coloured smoothed, etc. The colour will be that of the mixture of sand
lime
rendering with pigments. and lime. If it is not satisfactory, it can be modified using very
watered down milk of lime tinged with ochre and earth.
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2. In most cases, however, it is not possible to eliminate the source This is possible in those cases where the building is surrounded
of damp, because the source is rainwater, or the groundwater by paving, and slopes can be clearly established.
level, or water in the capillary fringe. In these cases, the correct The drainage channels or trenches built for this purpose should
course of action is to try to avoid contact between the be as far as possible from the faade in question. If the paving
water and the building, at the same time designing a is laid over infill or very permeable ground, the channel should
course for the water. It is important to stress that, in general, be waterproofed to avoid possible seepage to the base or
it is not enough to impede or prevent contact (barrier effect), foundations. As a general idea, we have to imagine that water
because water is constantly moving. The most efficient solution not only flows over paving, it also penetrates through cracks
is to design a course for it to follow. between slabs and footing, and runs beneath them, making it
necessary to study each case separately.
a. In the case of damp caused by the absorption zone, fed by rain If it is not possible to collect rainwater on the surface (due to
in the proximity, the best solution is to design a route for the an unpaved or partially paved surround) it will be necessary to
water (surface channelling, drainage, etc.) that protects the construct a perimetric drainage system to collect and channel
wall by preventing prolonged contact between the water and the water away. In fact, drainage is an artificial underground
the foundations or base. (Figs 2 and 3 show the solution stream, designed to facilitate the flow of water. This involves
adopted to evacuate rainwater retained in the atrium of the considering the following premises:
church of Santa Maria in Arvalo in Avila, Spain. Project: Isabel The drainage system must have a clear outflow point. The
Garca Muoz and Soledad Garca Morales.) depth of the system at this point is the main conditioning
Theoretically, the nearer to the surface the water is collected factor in the layout of the drain. If there is no possibility of
and channelled, the less risk the solution involves, as in this forming a natural outlet for drained water, it may be
case it is simpler to find a point towards which to conduct it. necessary to include a well (sufficiently large and at a
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The treatment of damp in traditional architecture
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The treatment of damp in traditional architecture
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The treatment of damp in traditional architecture
6 7
None of these interventions offer a definitive solution, but in If diagnosis detects that the problem is due to hygroscopic salts,
some cases they are the only possibility, until new construction the criteria of intervention are the following:
techniques become available. The aim is to conserve, to the
best of our ability, buildings affected by irresolvable damp, and a. a. Check that no focus of damp exists, or is so minor that
prior study has to answer questions such as what will happen intervention is not required.
to the materials when evaporation is accelerated, or where the b. Next, if the element is of artistic or heritage value, the next step
evaporated water will be evacuated to. We have to avoid the is to try to eliminate surface salts. Restorers are well acquainted
evaporation from one place causing condensation in another. A with the task of desalination of walls and sculptures. This
typical case is ventilation of a cave or crypt: unless the entire involves placing cellulose membranes soaked in distilled water
building is analysed, damp may condense under the roof or in on the surface to be restored. The water in the membrane
the vaults, because damp air tends to rise, and could dissolves the surface salts of the element in question, and
accumulate there. subsequent evaporation transfers the salts to the paper, on
which they dry and crystallize. The dressing may then be easily
removed. This process is repeated as often as necessary.
2. Criteria of intervention in damp caused by hygroscopic This system serves to remove small amounts of salts deposited
condensation on the part of the wall nearest the surface. It is a delicate and
expensive procedure that requires the intervention of a
As we have seen, this type of damp is produced when the building specialist and ongoing supervision to prevent deterioration of
comprises materials that present abnormal hydric behaviour due the material. It is therefore not a suitable solution for large
to the presence of hygroscopic salts. The reaction of the material surfaces without particular value.
to the presence of damp (even in vapour form) is disproportionate: c. If desalination is not considered appropriate, the only solution is
large stains appear, seemingly caused by intense focuses of damp to eliminate the contaminated materials: chipping away
though in some cases there is no more than a little evaporation renderings and, sometimes, the bonding mortar in brick
from damp ground, or sometimes even just vapour in the masonry. Sometimes the salts are only in the render and, once
atmosphere. removed, the damp disappears. If the walls are not rendered,
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8
9
but are built of bare brick or stone, only the mortar can be The most effective course of action is to verify the first, using the
removed, which somewhat improves the appearance of the necessary techniques. Solving the problem is not usually difficult
lesion without completely eliminating it. because it involves construction: designing an appropriate solution
In some buildings, it is common practice to replace bricks or for each case.
ashlars with new ones. In this case, hygroscopic damp
disappears completely, though this criterion of intervention Through the roof
cannot at present be generalized. Seepage is normally caused by a poor original design or ageing of
d. If none of the above courses of intervention are possible, the the materials used, and intervention must address the specific
stain is there to stay. Ultimately, if the only focus of damp is case.
ambient vapour, the lesion is not important, despite being At this point, it is interesting to reflect on the permeable nature of
unsightly. The project and type of building will dictate the most Mediterranean flat and terrace roofs. Their effectiveness lies in
appropriate course of action in each case. layers of mortar that are carefully analysed and selected according
to the microclimate with the purpose of rapidly evacuating excess
water, at the same time absorbing some of it, which subsequently
3. Criteria of intervention in damp caused by rainwater evaporates and cools the interior ambiance. The water absorbed
seepage must never reach the interior facing; experience and construction
tradition have established the most appropriate design in each
If diagnosis reveals this problem, the most correct course is to try place.
to prevent seepage as close as possible to source. This means The solution will fail if an attempt is made without analysis to
finding out: convert the traditional flat roof into an impermeable roof by
interposing waterproof sheeting or materials with an insufficient
Where the water enters absorption coefficient (modern ceramic or encaustic tiles). The
The route it takes change of concept in the functioning of the roof calls for an
Why it appears where it does. analysis of its new behaviour, in response to high levels of runoff
that did not used to exist. The existence of runoff means
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Through walls
Some of the criteria for intervention in the roof are also applicable
to walls that are subject to the action of rainwater and to the
design of the necessary protection elements.
The rain that falls on a wall both produces runoff and is absorbed
by the materials. The balance between runoff and the amount of
water absorbed is a characteristic of different construction
solutions and, as in the case of the roof, responds to the practice
9 of many years (or even centuries), adapting construction to the
materials available and local climatic factors (Fig. 9).
As in the last section, uninformed modification of these practices
may lead to failure.
It is important to remember that a wall in poor condition is not the
same wall that was originally built. For example: rounded edges of
ashlars may completely modify the proportion of water absorbed
by a wall, in some cases calling for intervention that goes beyond
repointing to replacing ashlars or a render.
As this text illustrates, an analysis of rainwater in permeable
buildings is necessary to a correctly designed solution, and
solutions do not admit of recipe-swapping or model answers.
For us, this difficulty is a source of interest, and its study is a mine
of knowledge
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Fandi Waked
Architect
Faculty of Archaeology and Anthropology of Yarmouk University,
Irbid-Jordan
1. Abstract
2. Introduction
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Consolidation of the sandstone monuments of the world heritage site of Petra
It must be noted that the testing of the conservation methods has 4.2. Laboratory testing program
an exclusively comparative significance. Above all when we The following laboratory testing methods were applied in this study.
consider the fact that the simulations carried out in the laboratory
are only approximations of the natural mechanisms of 4.2.1- Consolidant uptake value (Depth of penetration)
deterioration. This project is based on designing a test regime that The main aim of this test is to evaluate the penetration properties
could be effectively used to 'evaluate a series of promising of a consolidation product. Drill cores with 4.1cm diameter and
commercially available stone consolidants and preservatives. The known weights were used in this test. The consolidants were
aim is to select the suitable material that can be used to protect added to the stone by capillary rise method. The drill cores were
the threatened and weathered monuments of Petra. placed on the top of sponge saturated with different consolidants.
The weight increase and rising height of the consolidant were
recorded as a function of time. Reading were taken after 30, 60,
3. Performance Criteria 120, 300, 600,1200, 1800,and 2400 seconds.
In deciding on the most suitable consolidant for a particular 4.2.2-Capillary water uptake value
treatment, various factors must be taken into consideration. To carry out water absorption measurements 15 drill cores with
(Amoroso and Fassina 1983: 244). Based on experience and 4.1cm diameter of different lengths and known weight were
knowledge accumulated in the past few decades, there is almost used. The tests were performed according to DIN 52617. Drill
a consensus about the requirements that a stone consolidant cores were treated with the different consolidants by spraying.
should fulfill. These are: Some untreated cores were kept as a control. Each test sample
was individually placed on top of the water saturated pad to allow
1. Increase in the cohesive strength of the treated stone. water to penetrate from the bottom surface of the samples by
2. Substantial penetration of the treated stone, accompanied by capillary suction. After 30, 60, 120, 300, 600, 1800, 2400 and
9 deposition of the consolidant to the full thickness of the 6000 seconds the level of water and the amount of water sucked
weathered zone of the stone. up w ere measured and recorded by height and weight increase.
3. Absence of deleterious chemical or physical interactions
between the consolidant and the stone. 4.2.3-- Water absorption by total immersion
4. Creation of a continuous hardness profile. Untreated and treated drill cores of the Petra sandstone were
5. Low coefficient of thermal expansion. immersed in water. The absorption of water represented by the %
6. compatibility with the nature of the stone. weight gain was recorded after 10, 30, 60 and after 24 hours. The
7. Water vapor permeability/ water repellency (where 10 minutes value, the initial absorption capacity gives insight into
applicable).
8. Ease of 'application.
9. User safe and economical (labor and material)
10. Long term effectiveness.
(Torraca, 1988:87), (Price, 1975: 352), (Amoroso and Fassina,
1983: 243), (Clifton, 1984: 153-54), (Weber and Zinsmeister,
1990: 54),(Weber, 1980: 379).
4.1. Consolidants
Four commercially available stone consolidants were selected for
the purpose of this study.
Three of the consolidants are based on silicic acid esters: Wacker
OH, Wacker H and Funcosil. The fourth is Befix which is a silicate
based material (Remmers: 1995, Sanotec: 1995, Wacker-Chemie:
1995). The materials are either water based or solvent based and
were applied with a brush or by spraying to drill cores and cubes
of sandstone taken from a quarry in Petra. Petra (Jordan)
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the absorptive behavior of the stone in the initial phase of a rain stone. The tests were performed following the methods outlined
shower. in procedure A of ASTM method C 666. Samples treated with
different Consolidants in addition to a control untreated sample
4.2.4- Water vapor permeability were cycled between -18 oC and 22 oC with a cycle time of 4
For performing this test 6 samples were used; from each sample, hours.
two slices, about 7 to 10 mm thick, one for dry cup and the other
for wet cup, were taken. The test was carried out according to DIN
52615; 5. Results and Discussion
4.2.5-Salt crystallization test The depths of penetration of solutions of Wacker H, Wacker OH,
The test was carried out according to DIN 5211. Five drill cores Funcosil OH, concentrated Befix, 1:1 Befix, 1:3 Befix and 1:6 Befix
were used in this test. Treated and untreated samples were into the drill cores of the sandstone were found to vary between
immersed in a sodium sulfate solution for 16 hours. The samples 57.50 mm and 27.00 mm. The best penetration was achieved by
were then removed from the solution and heated in an oven for 5 Wacker H followed by Wacker OH. This is mainly due to their low
to 7 hours at 110oC. A one time soaking and heating procedure viscosity and due to their low molecular weights.
is considered to be one cycle. The specimens were subjected to a The capillary water uptake values of different samples of the
series of cycles; after each cycle they were examined visually and untreated were high and varied. They range from 3.26 to 7.69
weight losses were determined. kg/m2h0.5. This is mainly due to the difference in the nature of the
sandstone which means different porosity and due to the different
4.2.6-- Compressive strength measurements extent of weathering that the stones suffered. All consolidants
Compressive strength measurements were carried in accordance have decreased the capillary water absorption to different extents.
with DIN 1164. The tested consolidants were applied to duplicate The calculated water absorption coefficients indicate that the
prism specimens of stone, 65x 150 x 25 mm. Duplicate prism order of reduction of water absorption was: Wacker H =Befix 1:1 9
specimens of untreated stone were also tested. The compressive > Befix concentrated >Wacker OH > Funcosil OH >Befix l: 3 > Befix
strength was measured under a hydraulic press (maximum 1:6 >untreated. Wacker H imparts its water repellency effect due
compression 10 T). (Sattler, L., and Snethlage, R.:1990) mainly to its alkoxysilanes component. Alkoxysilanes have the
advantage of imparting a degree of water repellency to the stone
4.2.7-Resistance to Freeze-Thaw Damage by virtue of their alkyl group which is methyl group in most cases
This test was done to evaluate the effectiveness of different (Larson.J.H S.:1982). Mixtures of silicic ester and
consolidation treatment to improve frost damage resistant of the methlyltrialkoxysilane are cross-linked within the stone by a
condensation or condensation process to both consolidate the
spalling stone surface and protect it by making it water-repellent.
Befix is an aqueous solution consisting of organic part and of a
reactive silicate part. The reactive silicate part reacts with the
dissolved calcium and magnesium ions of the stone surface to
form a new, compact and stable silicate compound which with its
organic part will impart a hydrophobing effect.
From the weight loss with time in the wet cup experiment and the
weight increase in the dry cup experiment water vapor diffusion in
Kg/m2 was calculated.
The untreated sample has a high water vapor permeability which
is manifested in its low diffusion resistance coefficient. It is quite
evident from the results that the treatment of the stone with the
different consolidants brings about a decrease in the permeability
of the stone. However the decrease in permeability results from
the treatment is not remarkable. The largest decrease in water
vapor permeability was caused by treatment with Wacker H (28%)
while the lowest decrease was caused by treatment with Funcosil
OH (8%). Treatment with Wacker OH and Befix 1:6 caused almost
Petra (Jordan) similar decrease with 8% and 10% respectively.
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Consolidation of the sandstone monuments of the world heritage site of Petra
Conclusion
Snethlage, R., Wendler, E., and Sattler, L., The Application of Laboratory Processes
and Studies to Real Structures, Proc. Sympo. Analytical Methodologies for the
Investigation of damaged Stones, 14-21 Sep., Pavia: Italy, 1990.
Amoroso, S., and Fassina, V., Stone decay and conservation, Materials Science
Monographs, 11, Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1983.
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Consolidation of the sandstone monuments of the world heritage site of Petra
Price, C. A., The Decay and Preservation of Natural Building Material, Chemistry in
Britain, 350-353, 1975, 11(10).
Weber, H., Stone renovation and consolidation using silicones and silicic esters.
Wacker-Chemie Gmbh: Munchen, 385-375, 1980.
Sanotec Austria, Innovation, Research and Development for the Protection of the
Environment, Special Products for Buildings, Construction, Preservation and
Treatment, Sanotec Austria Technical Report, Austria, 1995.
Sattler, L., and Snethlage, R., Durability and Stone Consolidation Treatments with 9
Silicic Acid Ester, Proc. Sympo. Analytical Methodologies for the Investigation of
damaged Stones, 14-21 Sep., Pavia: Italy, 1990.
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Class of risk
Before going onto the treatments, I will begin by determining the Spraying old timber beams before reinstalling them
risk to a timber element in a construction. The concept of class of
9 risk is related to the probability of a timber element, structural or
otherwise, being attacked by biotic agents according to its
potential or real placement. As damp is fundamental to the
majority of biotic attacks, the following classes of risk are listed.
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Treating and protecting timber
Protective products
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Treating and protecting timber
treatments. They penetrate very well and can be applied to both Class of risk Type of protection
new wood and wood that forms part of a construction, but
1 None (surface treatment recommended)
always dry (less than 20% moisture content). They do not change
the colour of wood. Some active principles (DDT, dieldrin, lindane) 2 Surface (average treatment recommended)
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Treating and protecting timber
Double-vacuum
4 25 kg/m3 Autoclave
Creosote product
In contact with the
In-depth
ground or freshwater Permanent
Water-borne 9
8-15 kg/m3 Autoclave
5 In-depth
Permanent Water-borne 8-15 kg/m3 Autoclave
In saltwater
Wood before use Curative treatments are only applied to timber elements already in
Surface treatment (dipping) place and under attack.
Surface treatment (spraying)
Surface treatment (brush) Wood in use
In-depth treatment (prolonged immersion) Surface treatment (spraying)
In-depth treatment (double vacuum) Surface treatment (brush)
In-depth treatment (pressure process in an autoclave) In-depth treatment (pressure injection)
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Treating and protecting timber
treatment, by injection. In other areas that may be susceptible to Treatments against abiotic agents of degradation
attack, preventive surface treatment will be sufficient.
Social insects. Termites. Normally, when treating wood for an Treatments against photo-degradation.This involves the
attack of termites (Reticulitermes), we will not be able to eliminate application of varnishes or, preferably, stains. Stains are oil-based
the termite nest, which is generally outside the building. We have products to give an open-pore finish to new or old woods. Their
to therefore try to isolate the building and eliminate the insects main characteristic is that they do not form a film on the surface
that remain inside. This will be more or less difficult, depending on of the wood and as a result there is no degradation. They are less
the complexity of the building. First, a chemical barrier has to be effective as insecticides and fungicides than preservative base
created around the perimeter of the building by injecting the coats, but they incorporate mineral pigments (metal oxides that
insecticide into the ground and the base of the walls. The next resist photo-degradation) to reflect the suns ultraviolet rays that
step is in-depth treatment, injecting all the timber in the dwelling: damage the wood.
pillars, beams, truss, door and window frames, etc. This is a very Fire-prevention treatments. These may take the form of
expensive treatment with an aggressive effect on the timber. products that reduce flammability, fire retardants such as
A new type of treatment is currently being worked on. It involves ammonium sulphate, borax and others. Another possibility is to
putting down cellulose bait treated with a chitin inhibitor. This coat wood with products such as fire-resistant paints, intumescent
type of treatment appears to eliminate the termite nest coatings, plaster and other materials, with the drawback that they
completely. It is less aggressive than the traditional system as it conceal the wood.
does not require perforating all wooden elements and inserting
injection valves every 30 cm.
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Best methods of treating the rolling and cracking: 3. Strengthen the weaken wooden elements: restorers tend to
use modern chemical substances for its success in long period to
1. Mechanical Methods: its effectiveness was proved in case of keep the wooden element, but as we mentioned before, there are
small thickness woods either decorated by other substances or two ways to strengthen the weak woods:
undecorated. Rolling and cracking in this case represent a lot of 1. Mechanical way
danger that threatens the feeding substances and spoiling the 2. Chemical way
colors. These methods need suitable periods of weather Most of the times, it is sufficient to use the chemical ways, but in
conditions to prevent the rolling of the element again in case of some cases, the element needs the mechanical way, and that is for
exposure to the same environmental conditions that causes rolling increasing the degree of stability and giving the hardness to its
in the first time. body. This depends on the condition of the wooden element.
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Methods and substances for treating and repairing the wooden elements, the
Egyptian experience
Treatment of the wooden elements which are infected with element. The use of this method must be at least for two years to
insects: ensure the insect exposing in all its growing stages.
This chemical way resistance is applied through three techniques:
First: Resistance by natural ways: Spray way with special pumps, that is used if its hard to use the
By depending on weather factors to kill the insects activities: brush.
1. Heat Flooding way.
2. Light Steaming way.
3. Humidity
4. Air pressure Treatment of wood infections by funguses:
Funguses are affected with humidity, high temperature and light
Second: Resistance by mechanical ways: in the surrounding environment. These elements affect its
1. Using hunting boxes for attracting insects. generation degree. Wooden elements could be steamed by using
2. Building walls and holes in insects paths. pesticides which divide into:
3. Collecting insects eggs by hand. 1. Pesticides which are soluble in water.
4. Killing the host upon which the insect depends in its food. 2. Pesticides which aren't soluble in water, and these are better to
use
Third: Resistance by chemical ways:
Considered the best way, by using pesticides with special The used pesticides should have these conditions:
descriptions which include its continuous effect for a suitable 1. High effectiveness and a relative long effect.
period to overcome insects, and arent harmful for the wooden 2. Easily to reach the cells of tiny insects.
3. Dont leave traces on the treated wooden element.
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departure when undertaking rehabilitation of traditional values in traditional architecture and the reality of a contemporary
Mediterranean architecture. rural world that seeks to modernize housing with new forms and
materials as a symbol of progress.
The reality is that until recently user participation in the construction
The transformations of traditional architecture and user and rehabilitation of housing was quite normal when producing
participation in the rehabilitation of housing traditional architecture. It seems necessary that it should continue to
be so and that the presence of the direct beneficiary of the
Throughout history, traditional architecture has been carried out intervention, both in the project phase and in the carrying out of
without the involvement of architects, constituting the natural work, should be one of the keys to popular architecture.
spontaneous expression of a people with the need to provide a Nonetheless, the traditional forms, colours and materials that are
roof over their heads. Buildings constructed without a project appreciated in a contemporary view of the traditional world are
show their natural capacity for transformation when it was frequently not accepted by their users, who look down on the
necessary to consolidate, remodel or extend in accordance with traditional as being associated with the past, the symbol of
the programme of needs. underdevelopment they hope to rise above, and whose
The industrial revolution, improved communications and the expectations of housing are closer to conventional urban housing,
availability of new materials have opened the range of technical which they identify with progress.
and formal possibilities to local builders, who continue to be Specifically, this takes the form, for example, of the loss of value
responsible for the construction or remodelling of traditional for the local population of traditional cobbled paving, normally
architecture. However, the change in starting conditions, with roughly built with large stones, which are replaced by flat stones
new structural and typological concepts that are no longer based for greater convenience and to allow traffic.
on local tradition or the principles of economic and social These valuations on the part of the user contrast with the opinions
organization, has substantially modified the end result and the of the occasional visitor, the tourist or the newcomer, attracted by
image of new popular architecture, which is still the response to rural tourism or gentrification in a historical neighbourhood. In
the new circumstances of the surroundings despite parting many cases these new users becomes residents who consider
companyprobably definitivelywith the fundamentals of these epidermic values of architecture to be the seal of
10
tradition. authenticity. Conflict is inevitable, and the solution has to steer a
The present-day context of traditional architecture in much of the course between the different requirements, which will depend on
Mediterranean is a manifest conflict between two radically the specific conditions of the place, the heritage or exclusively
opposed concepts: the developed urban world that finds heritage residential nature of the neighbourhood or rural setting and, in
Popular architecture is characterized by the use of colour and salvaged materials. The museified remains of traditional architecture form part of the present-day
Barrio de la Chanca, Almera (Spain). urban landscape in harmony with the new architecture. Larache (Morocco).
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short, on identifying why and for whom we are undertaking in our Mediterranean environment, in heritage contexts with limited
rehabilitation. socioeconomic conditions. In order to carry out this standardization,
The presence of the architect, responsible since the Modern the role of an understanding administration that considers these two
Movement for solving housing problems, finds in traditional aspects is once again very important. There are examples in the south
architecture the apparent contradiction of having to order this of Spain, where the regional government of Andalusia has
process. His or her participation in striking a balance between the implemented public programmes of self-construction and
conservation of values to be preserved while responding to the rehabilitation of dwellings, financing the necessary materials to carry
present-day needs of the occupant and user of traditional out the work and hiring of specialists.
architecture is a major challenge. The experiences carried out have included numerous associated
However, the reality in many Mediterranean regions is that the advantages. The user directly manages site work and even
presence of the architect is limited in the processes of construction contributes his labour, leading to a reduction of costs and greater
or rehabilitation of dwellings in popular contexts, where the social profitability of the investment made. This is also useful for
owner, with the help of a local builder, designs, finances and future transformation and maintenance work, thanks to the users
carries out work without a prior project and, in many cases, knowledge of the location of structural elements, installations, etc.
without administrative control. Here, the processes of self- This practice is normally associated with small-scale work, though in
construction or self-rehabilitation display a higher degree of user many cases actual needs call for overall interventions affecting a
participation in the production of housing. large number of buildings or the rehabilitation of singular buildings.
The naturalness of these processes and personal involvement in These interventions are habitually promoted by local or state
the construction of ones home are worthy of attention, government and involve the initial consequence of hiring a single
considering the phenomenon as a reality that deserves to be construction company that is not usually linked to the site of work.
valued, with, as applicable, the introduction of elements to order In this case, experiences have been directed at obliging the tendering
and reinforce the phenomenon: the presence of an architect as a company to hire local residents of the neighbourhood or town as
professional who can help to redirect the process and the workers on the site. This measure introduces major social benefits, as
participation of the public administration to co-finance work, it provides employment in the place in question and contributes to
provide the necessary economic resources to hire specialists and, professional qualification. In return, the local residents offer
10
in short, improve the quality of the intervention. knowledge of local construction culture and their participation on
The standardization of this practice is desirable, not as the site is an advantage for subsequent maintenance or repair work. The
implantation of measures to distort its initial values but as a strategy experiences carried out were not straightforward due to the difficulty
to reinforce them, considering self-rehabilitation as a possible model of finding workers with the relevant basic training and personal
In countries in the south of the Mediterranean, a new metal door is integrated into The use of a mixture of traditional and Western clothing illustrates the social reality
popular architecture. In the north of the basin, the traditional wooden door in many regions of the Mediterranean. This combination can also be seen in the
becomes a fossilized object in an open-air museum. High Atlas (Morocco) / architecture. Syria.
Alpujarra (Spain).
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interest. These are, however, initiatives of undeniable interest that The technical team, normally comprising architects and specialists,
deserve to be incentivized. is responsible for drafting the project, overseeing rehabilitation
work and economic administration. It plays a vital role in the
correct planning and rationalization of the process. However, the
The agents involved in carrying out rehabilitation work different circumstances that converge in the rehabilitation of
traditional architecture call for greater efforts on the part of those
The technical and economic administration of building work responsible, who cannot limit their participation to technical
always requires the active participation of three main agents: the aspects of the intervention. They are required to give greater
client or user of the building, the specialists who manage the site commitment and dedication, since they have to modify their
and the construction company employed to do the work. traditional role as distant, unrelated specialists to increasingly
However, the singular characteristics of rehabilitation work call for become mediators between housing and heritage, between rules
a redefinition of these figures and their forms of interrelation. and reality, between the private individual or the government
The owner and user is the person who decides to rehabilitate their body that hires them and the needs of the dwellings user.
dwelling, initially using their own resources. However, The construction company is responsible for carrying out physical
rehabilitation normally involves greater technical and economic rehabilitation work and has to adapt to the specific characteristics
problems than conventional construction, and certain heritage of this kind of project. In these cases, the presence of small local
values tend to affect the population in general rather than just the companies, or just a good builder who is familiar with local
owner. This gives rise to the appearance of the administration to construction systems and materials, is the best choice if the scale
develop the work, normally establishing measures of protection of intervention allows it. However, the loss of traditional trades in
and contributing economic resources. The presence of this new most countries in the Mediterranean basin calls for applied research
agent is more obvious in the case of singular buildings or facilities to recover traditional construction systems, making ongoing
such as public washing places, deposits, mills, etc., where public collaboration with the technical team particularly important.
use and, in many cases, public ownership, clearly calls for the These three figures are not always perfectly defined and
participation of the administration. completely independent. This can have a noticeable effect on the
10
The recovery of public washing places, financed by the regional government, has Recovery of the local set paving conserving the traditional technique. Albayzn,
been carried out using local construction materials and systems. The Alpujarra, Granada (Spain).
Granada (Spain).
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management model, substantially conditioning the intervention given urban or rural areas, and the imposition by the
design, mechanisms of control and the end result. administration of specific criteria of intervention.
The necessary interaction between the different agents involved The role of public initiative must be seen as an element to
is, then, an important issue for consideration, particularly if the regulate and stabilize a process in which market entropy or
public administration is involved in the process, since in some private interest could produce imbalances that interfere with the
cases this supposes the distancing of the direct beneficiary of conservation of the values of traditional architecture. However, if
intervention. This requires the modification of established roles public initiative does not respect local singularities, the hoped for
and a more demanding position for all of them, though one with results will not always materialize.
great ultimate benefits. On other occasions, the difficulty is that In some cases, the administrations interests do not coincide with
the interventions are informal, beyond the control of the the real needs of the direct beneficiaries of intervention. These
administration. This is the case of self-rehabilitation, where the issues are difficult to address by means of general or systematize
owner of the dwelling, with the help of a local builder, designs, reflections, calling rather for personalized attention that is
finances and carries out work without the presence of difficult to achieve in large-scale rehabilitation interventions.
specialists, still a relatively habitual circumstance in some areas Sadly, many public interventions in historic centres carried out in
of Mediterranean geography and one that is worthy of mention. recent decades have invested their efforts in improving the
exterior image of buildings and, with it, the urban image of the
The public administration as regulator of the process district, rather than solving the real needs of their inhabitants.
In Mediterranean countries where the economic and Though this trend is fortunately tending to disappear, many
management capacity of the public administration is sufficient, programmes have been carried out to rehabilitate faades or
the rehabilitation of traditional architecture is usually promoted urban elements without paying due heed to the interior of
by the state. buildings and, therefore, failing to address problems of structure
Its presence as technical overseer of the process also involves or habitability. In other cases, the initial criterion of recovering a
total or partial financing of work. This generally takes place traditional typology, inevitably disrupted by the subdivisions of
within the framework of programmes to protect or safeguard dwellings, occupation of courtyards and galleries or extensions,
10
Recovery of the construction technique of rammed-earth walls, traditional in the The application of a layer of plaster over the timber roof sheathing before laying
north of the Mediterranean basin. La Peza, Granada (Spain). the tiles is a traditional technique now being recovered by rehabilitation projects.
Albayzn, Granada (Spain).
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comes into direct conflict with the spatial requirements of the be brought in, subcontracting local companies with tight profit
current users. margins, generally reverting negatively on the quality of work.
Another issue to emerge in interventions by the public Another figure introduced by government bodies is the approved
administration is the difficulty of establishing the dividing line company, which has to present specific requirements to be able to
between the case of heritage architecture with values to be work on rehabilitation in a neighbourhood, village or region. The
conserved and that of an intervention to exclusively solve approved company guarantees a minimum level of quality and
problems of basic habitability. Normally, there are three raises the average standard of interventions, and is required to
government agents involved: one responsible for the conservation provide general standardization. This circumstance, necessary but
of heritage, one responsible for developing public housing and not always possible in certain informal construction sectors, is
one responsible for social aspects. In traditional architecture, it is habitual in small-scale remodelling projects and is widespread in
difficult to define the dividing line between competences and how most Mediterranean countries.
to direct the priorities of intervention and available funding, The approval of companies and, in short, the insistence on
leading to numerous conflicts in past experiences. improving their technical capacity and economic administration
The public presence must in any case be well received, since in necessarily involves specific programmes to retrain or recycle
economically active contexts, limited but judiciously directed state artisans and workshops or training centres, which are definitely a
investment has proved to act as an incentive to private investment. positive experience that helps to raise the quality of construction
However, in more limited contexts the intervention ends when companies staff.
government funding dries up, making it ultimately responsible for
the commitment to intervention and the end result.
The project and the tender action
The training of specialists and construction companies
The most delicate part of intervention in traditional architecture The production project and site contract establish and define the
comes with implementation on site, due to the lack of a culture of relations between the developer, the specialists and the
rehabilitation and the shortage of specialists and qualified labour, construction company intervening on any building site, which
which logically affect the quality of finished work. acquire singular characteristics in the case of rehabilitation work.
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Professionals have to complete their specific training with The production project must reflect the content of work to be
specialization courses, preferably focusing on site work, where the carried out and is a valuable document that has to adjust to the
theoretical conditions of academic training are insufficient to deal real needs of the intervention. The definition and characteristics of
with the complexity of rehabilitation. this document are covered in other chapters of this guide, but the
This is necessary in all Mediterranean countries, but particularly so project merits further discussion here as regards aspects related to
in those in the south, where the number of architects is on-site work, as it depends in many aspects on this documents
insufficient to deal with existing demands for the construction of capacity to respond to unforeseen events that may appear during
new dwellings. Here, professionals are less interested in work.
rehabilitation work and in those cases where it does exist, in It is indisputable that the best guarantee of the implementation of
practice it is limited to the restoration of monuments, to the a project is the degree of closeness to the reality of the
exclusion of traditional architecture. intervention. The most efficient strategy is to carry out a
Generally, when the administration takes part in the process, it comprehensive phase of preliminary studies and diagnosis of the
imposes minimum conditions on specialists involved in building in order to limit unforeseen events during on-site work.
rehabilitation. The creation of groups of professionals to draft and However, this is not always possible due to the difficulty of
direct rehabilitation work has produced satisfactory results and carrying out analyses, removing renders or false ceilings, etc., in a
contributes to the specialization of professional activity. building that is being lived in by its inhabitants.
Another consequence of the above is that detailed knowledge of
Construction companies are required to have specific knowledge all the technical and construction solutions and materials present
of the singular characteristics of the architecture in question. Local in the building will not be collated until the site-work phase, when
companies working in villages in the rural world or historical partial modification of some of the intended solutions will be
neighbourhoods are the best choice, due to their knowledge of necessary. The project will inevitably require modification and
construction systems, and to the difficulties of storage and access must therefore be sufficiently open and flexible to absorb new
to materials. However, these companies do not normally comply circumstances.
with requisites in the event of the administration being responsible Another requirement is the involvement of the users and their
for contracting. Larger firms or those from other contexts tend to active participation in the drafting of the project. This is often
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managers, specialists and constructors can produce documents circumstances that are possible if not desirable in a rehabilitation
that are able to adapt to the unforeseen events of site work. project, and therefore accepted and incorporated as a normal part
The second vital document for the correct development of of this type of intervention.
rehabilitation work is the works contract, which establishes the These documents are particularly important in works covered by
economic relation between the owner and the construction the Act on Contracts of Public Administrations applied, with
company. This document must be known to the technical team, variations, in different Mediterranean countries. Administrative
which will advise the client. This team will also take part in selecting difficulties tend to arise when rigid conditions, normally created
the most suitable bid, as an excessively low quote for rehabilitation for new constructions, are applied to rehabilitation, making it
work does not necessarily guarantee savings at the end of the day. especially necessary to adapt project regulations and the Act on
The contract must specify the time limit for rehabilitation work Contracts to the singularity, characteristics and scale of
and the form of payment, normally by certification associated with rehabilitation work.
time periods or phases of work. Another question that must be Although most countries have an appropriate administrative
reflected in the works contract is the possibility of issuing a framework for the above conditions, compliance with these
certificate of completion, which adapts the estimated budget to regulations is another matter. The strict application of regulations
work actually carried out and details possible deviations from the would bring many rehabilitation projects to a halt, particularly in
initial quote. contexts where mechanisms of this kind are not habitually applied
However, if there is too great a difference from the original project and where the administrative procedures introduced by the
and the possibility of extending the budget or, simply, if there have northern Mediterranean are applied without sufficient adaptation
been major technical changes, a modified project may have to be to southern countries. Another more recent circumstance is that
drawn up. The modified project redefines the initial project and of intervention financed by European and international
incorporates new interventions, as well as carrying out a new cooperation programmes, which impose a series of administrative,
valuation. However, in many cases, this document involves partial technical, economic and safety requisites in technical and social
stoppage of work, a circumstance which is not always possible contexts where practices of this kind were not hitherto habitual.
when working on a dwelling that continues to be partially Independently of these administrative issues, we must not forget
inhabited or when the occupants are being temporarily rehoused that many interventions in traditional architecture are carried out
10
in conditions that are not always acceptable. informally and subject to scant control or supervision by the public
Liquidation and the modified project should be considered not as administration. A technical project or document drafted by a
deviations from or errors in the original project but as professional who has suitably planned rehabilitation work and a
The wealth of nuances of colour and texture in the walls of traditional construction The combination of new and traditional materials is one of the distinguishing
is an element to be conserved after rehabilitation. Rincn de Ademuz, Valencia features of new popular architecture. Alpujarra, Granada (Spain).
(Spain).
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works contract to establish the economic relations between the The choice of materials, environmental aspects and waste
parties are vital to the correct implementation of work. Striking management
the balance between what is desirable and what is possible is, in Traditional architecture did not present environmental problems,
these cases, the only useful strategy for carrying out the regulated since it was one element more in the ecosystem. However, the
process of rehabilitation of traditional architecture. It is, then, situation has changed: the adaptation of the building to present-
necessary to define a changing management model that adapts to day conditions of use necessarily requires the incorporation of new
the starting conditions of the socioeconomic context where the materials, and changes in social circumstances and production
intervention is carried out, initially establishing basic measures of economies, particularly in the rural world, are an added difficulty
control that can progressively increase in intensity until the in the conservation of the traditional model.
proposed aims are achieved. Historical buildings, and particularly architecture in the rural world,
were constructed using materials taken from their immediate
surroundings and used practically without being transformed.
On-site work However, the exhaustion of some natural resources, the
disappearance of systems of farming or forestry, and the creation
Preliminary issues of protected spaces have limited the availability of traditional
Before on-site work begins, there are various administrative issues materials, sometimes making it difficult to find the materials
to be resolved. needed for rehabilitation.
Normally, municipal authorities require a building permit, which It is often difficult to obtain stone or aggregate from nearby
authorizes the intervention subject to compliance of the quarries, which may have been closed down due to low
production project with urban planning regulations. Authorization profitability or because they are situated within natural parks and
is also needed to occupy the public highway or to supply water, can no longer be worked. In other cases, certain types of wood
electricity and drainage, normally requiring the payment of that were frequently used in traditional architecture are now
administrative fees. protected, or it is difficult to find products traditionally used in
In the case of intervention in buildings situated in urban or rural farming and livestock-keeping, such as straw, reeds, animal
complexes affected by heritage or environmental protection laws, excrement, etc.
10
the project must be reviewed by the corresponding authority. In this situation, it is only possible to use materials of similar
Protection measures may call for the carrying out of archaeological characteristics that are also found locally. However, this practice
studies on the site where work is to take place. involves a major risk: ease of transport and incomprehensible
The rehabilitation of this traditional dwelling was carried out with particular The restoration of the marabout of Sidi Abdellah ben Ali, situated in the ksar of
attention to the use of local construction materials and techniques, recovering the Tamnougalt, has helped to consolidate the local populations cultural and religious
elements that characterize it: the oven and the fireplace. Navapalos, Soria (Spain). symbols. The Draa Valley (Morocco).
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market laws now allow the use of raw materials from other
geographical contexts which are, in some cases, beyond regional
or national borders. The use of decontextualized local materials is
producing an alarming homogenization in traditional
construction: Galician slate used in supposedly traditional
constructions in the mountains on the Mediterranean coast, or
ceramics from the east of Spain in North African constructions are
some examples that illustrate the risk of this activity. However, in
other cases, their incorporation is inevitable: in pre-Saharan valleys
it is no longer possible to use palm beams to construct or
rehabilitate buildings, as the palm tree is protected in some
regions. Its replacement by eucalyptus is now accepted and forms
part of the new traditional architecture, despite not being an
Adobes drying before being used for construction. Dades Valley (Morocco).
autochthonous material.
It is always better to use a neutral material, such as a render to
cover a wall that should be built of stone, than to use a material
unknown to local construction, and it is preferable to accept a
degree of transformation in textures and materials that can be
integrated than to use traditional materials from other
geographical contexts.
The best solution, however, is to reuse materials salvaged from the
same building or other nearby buildings whose state of
conservation calls for a complete renovation and, therefore,
dismantling. We find a very representative case in southern
Morocco, where an abundant material such as the earth used to
10
build rammed-earth walls was reused to construct a new building
on its own ruins. However, there are not enough materials
available to systematically reuse them in all cases and it is
necessary to establish priorities, normally associated with the Palm timber beams and boards salvaged from an old construction are stockpiled for
use in a new building. Tafilalt (Morocco).
rehabilitation of public or especially representative buildings.
The difficulty of obtaining appropriate construction materials and
therefore recovering the traditional construction system in some
cases means a higher economic cost, which is a common
argument against it. But this is not always the case; sometimes it
simply calls for a little more effort in management or the planning
of materials and, in most situations, breaking with the builders
usual routine. Though it is true that it initially requires a greater
investment in time and effort on the part of the person or body in
charge of the work or the builder who carries it out, once the use
of a traditional material has been relearned it is accepted naturally
at no additional cost.
Another aspect that requires the transformation of traditional
architecture is adaptation to present-day levels of comfort and
habitability. This affects the use of new materials that comply with
functions of insulation, soundproofing or waterproofing,
especially drainage, plumbing and electrical installations, and the
implantation of renewable energy technologies.
In these cases, it is necessary to avoid the use of materials such as
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyurethane foams or formaldehyde Old and new materials are used in the regions new constructions. Alpujarra, Granada
compounds, which present problems of toxicity and waste (Spain).
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treatment. There are more environmental friendly alternative There are different approaches to this reflection, however,
materials, such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), rubber, according to the economic context in question. In northern
cork and wood. Mediterranean countries, developed economies can and must
Likewise, the excessive use of cement and steeluniversal assume the indirect costs of materials, which have a smaller
emblems of progress, though they represent major energy costs in repercussion on the end price than labour, which is more
their manufactureis completely out of keeping with the expensive. However, the reality in other Mediterranean countries
environment and the consequences are irreparable. The is quite different, normally more dependent on imported materials
alternatives tend to be more costly or less efficient in structural and technologies, proportionally more expensive than labour.
terms, calling for further research into models based on traditional
materials such as earth, ceramics or wood, possibly in constant Recovering and implementing traditional construction
confrontation with regulations but removed from dogmatic systems
stances that seek to simplify reality. The heritage qualities of traditional architecture respond to
Renewable energies are difficult to integrate into architecture, specific singularities associated with a region, a valley or a village,
particularly into a traditional building. This is not however a reason the value of which is of a quite different order. Traditionally,
for ruling them out and imaginative ways can be found to knowledge of the construction system and the appropriate use of
incorporate them. the material were the local builders heritage. In many
The use of new technologies and materials is here to stay, and Mediterranean regions, this intangible knowledge has either
must be accepted as a way of improving the conditions of disappeared or is in the process of doing so, due to the loss of
habitability of a traditional building. Nonetheless, particular value of local singularity and traditional trades. However, it can still
attention should be paid to the bioclimatic characteristics of be seen in the existing materiality of those buildings that are least
traditional architecture, a scientific study of which should be changed, even if it is not valuedor even identifiedby todays
promoted with a view to limiting the installation of other local population.
technologies, particularly in heating and lighting a building. A good observer of traditional architecture who can identify the
The final aspect to be considered is the management of waste characteristic way of building eaves, the particular bonding of a
produced during rehabilitation work as a result of the partial stone wall or the construction system used in a floor structure will
10
demolition of a building whose materials cannot be salvaged or be capable of distinguishing and valuing the local specificities of
the waste produced by the new intervention. Efforts must be traditional construction. This appreciation is only possible on the
made to limit the production of waste, especially if it is toxic, and basis of overall experience and a systematic knowledge of
dispose of it appropriately at an authorized dump. different traditional architectures in different geographical
This question is directly related to salvaging, which, despite initially contexts. Evidently, once the local construction tradition has
involving higher labour costs, allows reuse of the materials and disappeared, the recovery of the traditional model is the
avoids the need for transport to a dump and unnecessary waste responsibility of the initiated researcher or the technical team in
production. Reuse creates employment and limits the charge of the intervention. However, theoretical knowledge of the
consumption of raw materials, eliminating production and technique is not sufficient for its implementation in the recovery
transport costs, making it a particularly appropriate practice from of traditional architecture, which requires practical knowledge and
social and environmental viewpoints. the participation of the constructor.
In short, the use of a material, its implementation and If we were to compare the conservation of materiality using
environmental cost are not directly related to its market price, techniques borrowed from the field of monumental restoration
which is often considered decisive in whether or not to choose it. (the direct inheritance of material culture) with the real recovery of
However, this value does not include the indirect costs or the traditional construction trade, the latter would probably be
replacement costs. For the Uruguayan engineer Eladio Dieste, considered of greater value. There are representative examples to
there is a clear difference between financial economy, associated show that the conservation of materiality is necessary but, in
with money, and cosmic economy, which, in his words, represents general, the poor condition or ageing of the materials used in
being in agreement with the profound order of the world. This traditional architecture and the high economic cost of their strict
means including as part of the decision-making process a restoration call for an unprejudiced intervention, considering that
consideration of energy, environmental and social costs, and the the true value of this architecture lies more in the knowledge of a
loss of the values of traditional culture and symbols of local technique and the recovery of a trade than in the freezing of a
identification. The disappearance of these values obeys the historical structure.
principle of irreversibility, not cost-profit logics; once lost, they We must therefore accept the dismantling and reconstruction of a
cannot be recovered. stone wall or its repair using stone of similar characteristics, seeing
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this intervention as a natural regeneration of the masonry this respect, the presence on site of specialists and a
requiring new elements without losing its authenticity. This makes comprehensive control of tasks, however insignificant they may
rigorous knowledge of local construction techniques particularly seem, is essential to the conservation of these values.
important in order to avoid the simplifications and regional
homogenization that present traditional architecture as a historical The organization of tasks
falsity. This calls for a new concept: an understanding of the The organization of site work with time schedules and cost charts
building as a changing element that has undergone numerous is vital to any construction project, ensuring the efficient carrying
interventions in the course of its history and manifests itself as a out of tasks and quantifying the economic cost of each phase. A
sum total of construction sequences. suitable works schedule serves to anticipate supplies of the
Our intervention, then, must be seen as part of the living process different materials and availability of the technical and economic
of the building that is not afraid of being visible, without resources needed for the successful competition of the
necessarily incorporating new materials or new spatial or formal intervention.
concepts. Repairing an existing wall, which continues to fulfil the The experience of the builder or construction company in charge
same function in the building, is not the same as extending it of work is an important factor in this type of intervention, since
upwards to create a new floor or lengthwise to occupy part of an they are responsible both for organizing tasks and meeting
empty plot. standards.
However, it seems obvious that mere knowledge of the technique However, the inherent difficulty of rehabilitation work, due to
and the use of the material, once relearned by the builder, are not unforeseen events, makes it difficult to accurately specify the
sufficient to ensure criteria in the intervention; this also requires content and scope of work, and a definite time schedule. The
conceptual clarity. This sometimes emerges during on-site work, need for partial dismantling, the dependence on materials that are
as it normally takes the form of slight nuances that can only be not available on the conventional market and the many tests
addressed by physical construction: a detailed study of the sometimes needed to decide the judicious course of action all
contacts between masonries when a traditional construction is hinder work and require an added effort to keep to the deadlines
extended or conservation of the different heights in the eaves of and budgets laid out in the works schedule.
a roof in a converted building. Changes of render that express Normally, the standardization of conventional construction is
10
time sequences by means of slight differences in colour or texture based on the clear separation of the trades intervening, normally
produced by the proportion of mortars or the type of sand or
render chosen can also illustrate the transformations of a building
in the course of its history or manifest the latest intervention.
All too frequently, an ambitious restoration project causes the
traditional building to lose many of the nuances that characterized
it, becoming so regular as to remove all distinguishing marks. In
Rammed-earth walls are a living construction technique in the region. The Anti-
Atlas (Morocco).
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carried out by companies subcontracted for this purpose. This moisture content, become lighter in weight and achieve its final
circumstance, also an aspect of major work on monumental strength. The construction of a rammed-earth wall represents a
architecture, is not characteristic of traditional architecture, where considerable delay, which normally conflicts with the tight timing
the scale and the local nature of the intervention allow work to be of a conventional construction site.
carried out by a single team of builders who master most of the The finishes of the rehabilitation project also deserve some
necessary trades. One direct consequence is greater flexibility in consideration. The integrity of traditional architecture, in which
the organization of work, a necessary circumstance when carrying materials are present with limited transformations, conditions the
out rehabilitation work. final image of work, and this means envisaging colours and
Another aspect conditioning the organization of rehabilitation finishes during the initial phases. A timber beam that is to be
work, particularly in the case of a traditional building, is the stained and darkened has to undergo this treatment and the
availability of the necessary materials. It is important to be able to definitive colour must be decided before it is used. If the treatment
plan supplies in advance to ensure that a lack of materials is no is given afterwards, the inevitable seasonal movements of the
obstacle to completion of work. timber due to changes of humidity will produce colour differences.
Traditional materials are not industrially manufactured nor, in The singularity of the different tasks has a considerable effect on
many cases, are they supplied by a conventional builders the established time schedule. A common case is the choice of
merchant. It can therefore be difficult to find sufficient texture and colour of the mortar used to render a faade, as
homogeneous batches to complete work. The characteristic numerous tests have to be carried out to gauge the effects of
example is a batch of bricks or tiles that differ in format, colour combinations of different aggregates and binding agents to
and texture, either because they are made by artisans or are achieve the right mortar and finish. The long setting time of
salvaged from different demolition sites, which have to be traditional mortar and its chromatic influence on other elements
combined as they are used to prevent obvious differences. in the building require the tests to be carried out sufficiently in
In general, the time factor has a considerable influence on site advance.
work. Many projects take much longer than planned, as they
require certain climatological or seasonal conditions. For example, Safety measures
because lime mortar takes a long time to set it cannot be used in The implementation of safety measures and their strict
10
certain geographical areas during a hard winter, as it does not enforcement are aspects that cannot be too highly stressed, due
withstand frost. In other cases, traditional adobe can only be to the negative consequences of insufficient attention. They are
made after the harvest since it requires the fresh straw that vital to ensure the safety of workers, specialists and passers-by in
increases its strength and prevents retraction as it dries. Another rehabilitation work.
common case is the need for timber that is sufficiently seasoned It will be necessary to draft a technical document, the safety study
for use, which, in some cases, requires a period of a year. or plan, which reflects all the measures of individual and collective
Another characteristic example is the construction of a rammed- protection to be carried out in the course of on-site work.
earth wall which, being so thick, takes a long time to lose its In the case of rehabilitation work, special attention is needed to
the appropriate propping of the building during the partial
demolition of structural elements which, in a traditional
construction, find their stability in the interrelation of the whole.
The partial elimination of the structural system may modify the
original work and cause the rest of the structure to collapse. A
paradigm case is the conservation of the faade wall of a historical
building that is being gutted. Without going into the conceptual
appropriateness of this practice, it is habitual in many
Mediterranean old towns, where regulations to protect heritage
are limited to the frontage, producing a situation of particular risk
due to the possible collapse of the faade. In general, in buildings
with masonry walls is it important to identify bearing walls and
simple dividing wallsa vital consideration during demolition.
Another characteristic example is the partial dismantling of a
buildings timber roof framework. Structural knowledge and the
Construction of an adobe wall by a local builder, or maalem. Dades Valley
implementation of each of the constituent elements are the only
(Morocco). guarantee of a safe intervention.
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Collective protection measures (scaffolding, railings, protection is particularly problematic on sites in the rural environment, due to
nets, etc.) used to guarantee safety on site are designed for the physical distance from mechanisms of control and inspection.
installation in conventional buildings. They are difficult to adapt to This requires particular effort on the part of the agents involved in
historical buildings with their singular elements (cornices, these contexts.
balconies, timber floor structures, etc.). These considerations
should not however be presented as an excuse. They call for the
incorporation of complementary elements to guarantee correct Tasks to be carried out after competition of work
installation.
An important issue to be taken into account as regards safety is Once rehabilitation work is complete, the next stage is graphic
the installation during site work of elements to ease the and written documentation to explicitly record the work that has
subsequent conservation of the building, particularly cleaning and been carried out. Taking the initial project as its basis, it will
maintenance of roofs. include any modifications made and incidences or appreciations
In short, compliance with measures for both individual and connected to on-site work.
collective safety constitutes a necessary practice for the correct This completion document is very important, as it serves as a
carrying out of rehabilitation work. However, this is not an easy reference for future interventions. The technical and construction
task in contexts without this tradition. Many avoidable accidents characteristics of traditional architecture in adjacent contexts tend
happen, making it essential for the person or body in charge and to respond to the same circumstances and be affected by similar
the corresponding authority to make sure that safety measures are pathologies. The documentation and diffusion of experiences
implemented. carried out is therefore of incalculable value to other interventions
In the Mediterranean, the degree of compliance with these carried out in the same district or village.
measures varies depending on the country. However, the situation Detailed documentation of the definitive solutions applied on site
10
In the rural world in the south of Morocco, dwellings are still built with earth walls, he Kasbah Ait Ben Moro has been restored for use as tourist accommodation using
according to traditional methods. Dades Valley (Morocco). traditional materials and techniques. Skoura (Morocco).
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he Kasbah Ait Ben Moro has been restored for use as tourist accommodation using In the High Atlas of Morocco, stone is still used in construction. Teluet (Morocco).
traditional materials and techniques. Skoura (Morocco).
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Introduction
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Job creation through restoration towards a sustainable community
by upper middle class-intellectuals. Being occupied, and with BCH is possible, feasible and inexpensive simply because these
neither state sovereignty nor strategic planning, Palestine was not works are domestic.
prepared for such luxury! 3. Built Cultural Heritage has proved to have high adaptability
The weak legal frame for the protection, conservation and possibilities. Rehabilitated historic houses have been converted
development of Built Cultural Heritage contributed to the to housing, commercial and small business and tourism
deteriorating situation from which cultural heritage suffers. This facilities and services all assisting in the creation of
may explain the dire state of this heritage resulting from both the permanent jobs or alternative income possibilities for local
natural and man made destruction of these irreplaceable assets. communities.
This heritage has never been restored for its significance for a 4. Built Cultural Heritage rehabilitation involves job creation in
Palestinian past or future. The conservation initiatives were either both the short and long term. From Palestinian experiences it
driven by political forces (such as the case of Jerusalem and has been noted that restoration costs are primarily allocated to
Hebron), or by private investment initiatives (such as the investing local manpower and domestic material, rather than to
in tourism services). It was only after Oslo Agreement (1993) that imported labour and foreign materials, leading to some
Palestine witnessed substantial progress in conservation (large economic recovery in local suppliers and industries.
scale projects, introduction of new techniques, holistic or planning
approach, built cultural heritage new legislation, nomination of From political conservation to job creation
sites to WH List, restoration manuals).
The dire state of this heritage calls for immediate action, not only Between 2002 and 2006, RIWAQ managed to renovate more than
because this heritage constitute a major lifting agent to Palestinian thirty historic buildings in different towns and villages through
economy, but also because of what it constitute as part of the "Job Creation through Restoration5 Projects, to host social and
humanity material heritage; thus exceeds the narrow "national" cultural activities that serve marginalized social sectors. More than
borders or meanings. seventy thousand direct6 and indirect7 man days were achieved.
Workers skilled and semi-skilled, engineers and specialists
benefited.
Rehabilitation and socio-economic recovery RIWAQ sought to maximize employment through intensive labour
10
polices. Mechanical equipment was diminished or prohibited, thus
Cultural heritage conservations impact on soci-economic largely relying on manual labour in construction, excavation
development is becoming widely known on both local and global works, and mortar mixing There has also been a determination
levels. These rehabilitation projects manage to create a dynamic of to use locally manufactured items in construction and finishes
development in both the short term (during the rehabilitation such as tiles with traditional floor patterns to maximize the indirect
activities) and long term (after the rehabilitation activities). This man days achieved off-site. Riwaq relies on the traditional building
actually stems from the fact that rehabilitation works are local techniques and the employment of traditional details especially in
activities, which build on local techniques and domestic materials stone works, blacksmithing, joinery and carpentry, all needing
in most of its processes. According to the Palestinian experience, more labour, both skilled and unskilled, to produce. With the
conservation work dovetail well with the prospect of sustainable experience obtained over the years, the point has been reached
development because of the following: that now that almost two thirds of the total cost of the
rehabilitation projects is expended onsite and off-site manpower.
1. Built Cultural Heritage is made from local materials with local One third of the budget is allocated for materials and supplies,
know-how and techniques, and hence rehabilitation activities mostly local.
revive the building related crafts (such as stone carving,
joinery) and local industries (such as the manufacturing of
traditional floor tile patterns, lime production). Job Creation through Restoration as a new trend
2. Built Cultural Heritage rehabilitation is economically feasible
because conservation proved to be cheaper than building anew It is worth mentioning that Hebron Rehabilitation Committee
(the cost of restoration works is no more than 50% of the cost commenced in 2003 with cleaning and preventive conservation
of building new). In addition, restoration of vernacular projects in Hebron Old City neighbourhoods. The intention was to
architecture has a high recycling possibility during the create as many jobs as possible for Hebronites and to lay ground
restoration activity (reuse of materials) or in the case of the for private households to carry on the rehabilitation of their own
destruction of parts of these structures, the results are interiors. Also, as part of its Programme of Assistance to the
environment friendly deposits. Nonetheless, maintenance of Palestinian People in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, the United
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Tool 10
III. The work The reality of on-site work
Job creation through restoration towards a sustainable community
1
kbshara@yahoo.com
2
Historic buildings, according to Riwa's Registry , are those built before II World
War with vernacular or traditional methods (two-face stone walls, earth
structures, vaults, staked roofing).
3
Excerpts from Riwaq's brochure
4
Established in spring of 1991 RIWAQ: Centre for Architectural Conservation works
on many levels to confine the damage to both the vernacular architecture and
historical buildings and the unique Palestinian landscape. To achieve this end
RIWAQ has as its main objective the conservation and restoration of old buildings
and the development and promotion of an indigenous Palestinian form of
architecture based on firmly rooted building traditions and techniques.
5
Restoration meaning accedes the classic meaning of the word; reuse, adaptation,
conservation, consolidation, maintenance projects, to name but some, were
implemented in this program.
6
Direct man days are those obtained by hiring workers to do jobs on site such as
carpentry, plastering, jointing, tiling, mechanical and electrical works, etc.
7
Indirect man days are those obtained outside the site such as blacksmith, joinery,
traditional decorative tiles' production, etc.
8
Restoring Built Cultural Heritage for what it sells and not for its own merits.
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IV. Lifespan
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Maintenance of traditional architecture
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Maintenance of traditional architecture
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Maintenance of traditional architecture IV. Lifespan
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Tool 11
IV. Lifespan Maintenance of traditional architecture
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card
Identity card
Owner:
Contact data:
Address:
District / town:
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Height of adjacent building on left: GF+ Height of adjacent building on right: GF+
UTILITIES
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Tool 11
Maintenance of traditional architecture IV. Lifespan
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card
Floors
Stairways
Roof structure
Roof cladding
Eaves
Chimneys
FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material into street)
Balconies
Water
Eau
Drainage
Electricity
Gas
EMERGENCIES
See instructions for specific use in annexed sheets: SIGNED BY THE ARCHITECT/ENGINEER Name:
Conducted in on 20
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Tool 11
IV. Lifespan Maintenance of traditional architecture
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card
Floors
Stairways
Roof structure
Roof cladding
Eaves
Chimneys
FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material into street)
Balconies
Railings, grilles
Water
Drainage
Electricity
Gas
11
Estimated cost
Real cost
OBSERVATIONS
1. Every week
1. Preventive 2. Every month
2. Corrective 3. Every 2 months
3. Required by law 4. Every 6 months
5. Once a year
REPAIR RENEWAL
1. Preventive 1. Preventive
2. Corrective 2. Corrective
Conducted in on 20
Fill in the box with the date on which the programmed task was carried out.
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Tool 11
Maintenance of traditional architecture IV. Lifespan
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Height of adjacent building on left: GF+ 1 Height of adjacent building on right: GF+ 3
UTILITIES
1. Location
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IV. Lifespan Maintenance of traditional architecture
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card
The house as a whole and each of its component parts should be correctly used and maintained. This is why the owner should find out about the general
characteristics of the building and its different parts. A house in good condition should be:
- Safe. The house provides safety, but as buildings age they can present dangers: a domestic accident, a gas leak or an electrical discharge. By keeping the
house in good condition, we eliminate these dangers and increase safety.
- Long-lasting and economical. If the house is in good condition, it will last longer and age more gracefully, allowing us to enjoy it for longer. At the same
time, periodical maintenance avoids the large expenses involved in suddenly having to carry out major repair work due to a minor problem that has
worsened with time. Keeping the house in good condition is economically worthwhile.
- Ecological. Insulation and the correct functioning of installations (electricity, gas, heating, air conditioning, etc.) represent a major energy saving. If
appliances work well, we avoid overspending on energy as well as respecting the environment. A house in good condition is ecological.
- Comfortable. We can enjoy a house with the maximum applications of all of its part and installations, and achieve optimum comfort levels in the form
of the right temperature and humidity, good soundproofing and optimum lighting and ventilation. A house in good condition represents quality of life.
- Pleasant. A house in good condition looks better, thereby improving the image of our village or town.
The elements forming part of the buildings structure must not be altered
without the intervention of an architect/engineer. This includes making
Walls and/or columns Masonry
chases and creating doorways for the redistribution of interior spaces.
Eaves Timber --
FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material into street)
Faade finishes are usually one of the buildings most fragile features,
because they are in direct contact with the elements. Furthermore, what
Claddings and renderings Lime rendering may initially be just dirt or degradation of the aesthetic image may become
a danger, because anything that becomes detached will fall straight into
the street.
Balconies -- --
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Tool 11
Maintenance of traditional architecture IV. Lifespan
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card
Turn off the stopcock in the event of prolonged absence. In the event of low
temperatures, leave water running slightly to prevent it freezing in the
pipes.
Water Copper tubing
The correct functioning of the hot water network is a decisive factor in
energy saving, requiring greater attention to optimum energy
performance..
It is very important to keep the drainage installation clean and clear. It can
be achieved by basic maintenance involving correct use and hygiene habits
on the part of the users (the water drainage system, particularly the
Fibre-cement tubes lavatory, should not be used as a rubbish bin. Plastic, cotton wool, sanitary
Drainage
towels, razorblades, cotton buds, etc., should not be disposed of in this
way).
Flexible tubes connecting the gas source to appliances should not be longer
than 1.50 metres and should be printed with the period of validity, which
must be respected. It is important to make sure that the flexible tube and
connections of the appliance are directly joined and not loose. The joints
should be subjected by clips or clamps. They must not touch hot surfaces,
Gas Butane e.g. the oven.
Butane gas is heavier than air so, in the event of a leak, it lies near the
ground. Two ventilation grilles are required, one at the top and one at the
bottom of the exterior wall in the room where the installation is situated to
create a through draught.
EMERGENCIES
Fast, efficient action in an emergency can prevent unnecessary accidents, dangers and fires.
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IV. Lifespan Maintenance of traditional architecture
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card
FIRE PREVENTION
Do not store inflammable or explosive materials (petrol, fireworks, solvents, etc.) inside the house
Sweep the chimney periodicallysoot is inflammable.
Keep inflammable products away from the fire, and do not use them to light it (alcohol, petrol)
Avoid overloading and short-circuiting the electricity supply; this can cause fires.
Do not smoke in bed; you could fall asleep and cause a fire.
It is advisable to have a fire extinguisher in the house to deal with the various potential fires.
Disconnect electrical appliances and television aerials during storms and whenever you go away for an extended period.
See instructions for specific use in annexed sheets: SIGNED BY THE ARCHITECT/ENGINEER Name:
11
Julin Almagro Prez, architect
Conducted in Matar on 20 september 20 06
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Tool 11
Maintenance of traditional architecture IV. Lifespan
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card
Floors
Stairways
Roof structure
Eaves
FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material into street)
Balconies
Railings, grilles
Water
Electricity
Gas
OBSERVATIONS
Heavy rain in February affected the roof and 20 tiles had to be changed.
1. Every week
1. Preventive 2. Every month
2. Corrective 3. Every 2 months
3. Required by law 4. Every 6 months
5. Once a year
REPAIR RENEWAL
1. Preventive 1. Preventive
2. Corrective 2. Corrective
Julin Almagro Prez, architect
Conducted in Matar on 2 january 20 08
Fill in the box with the date on which the programmed task wa carried out.
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Tool 11
IV. Lifespan Maintenance of traditional architecture
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card
Floors
Stairways
Roof structure
Roof cladding
FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material into street)
Balconies
Water
Drainage
11
Electricity
Gas
Real cost:
OBSERVATIONS
1. Every week
1. Preventive 2. Every month
2. Corrective 3. Every 2 months
3. Required by law 4. Every 6 months
5. Once a year
REPAIR RENEWAL
1. Preventive 1. Preventive
2. Corrective 2. Corrective
Conducted in on 20
Fill in the box with the date on which the programmed task was carried out.
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Tool 11
Maintenance of traditional architecture IV. Lifespan
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card
Floors
Stairways
Roof structure
Roof cladding
Eaves
FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material into street)
Balconies
Railings, grilles
Water
Drainage
Electricity
Gas 11
Real cost:
OBSERVATIONS
1. Every week
1. Preventive 2. Every month
2. Corrective 3. Every 2 months
3. Required by law 4. Every 6 months
5. Once a year
REPAIR RENEWAL
1. Preventive 1. Preventive
2. Corrective 2. Corrective
Conducted in on 20
Fill in the box with the date on which the programmed task was carried out.
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Tool 11
IV. Lifespan Maintenance of traditional architecture
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card
Floors
Stairways
Roof structure
Roof cladding
FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material into street)
Balconies
Water
Drainage
11
Electricity (1) Technical inspection
Real cost:
OBSERVATIONS
1. Every week
1. Preventive 2. Every month
2. Corrective 3. Every 2 months
3. Required by law 4. Every 6 months
5. Once a year
REPAIR RENEWAL
1. Preventive 1. Preventive
2. Corrective 2. Corrective
Conducted in on 20
Fill in the box with the date on which the programmed task was carried out.
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Tool 11
Maintenance of traditional architecture IV. Lifespan
Support material for building maintenance: the identity card
1) Technical inspection of
Walls and/or columns
the structure
Roof cladding
Eaves
FAADE (Ensure thermohygrometric behaviour and prevent detachment of material into street)
Railings, grilles
Drainage
Electricity
Gas
Real cost:
OBSERVATIONS
1. Every week
1. Preventive 2. Every month
2. Corrective 3. Every 2 months
3. Required by law 4. Every 6 months
5. Once a year
REPAIR RENEWAL
1. Preventive 1. Preventive
2. Corrective 2. Corrective
Conducted in on 20
Fill in the box with the date on which the programmed task was carried out
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