TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN TEACHING

Instructional materials in teaching or resources are available from many sources. Modern education faces lots of problems. The attempts at solving
these problems, which involve the use of, organized combination utilization of people, materials, facilities, equipment and procedures to achieve
the desired instructional materials in teaching, instructional media and educational media virtually mean the same thing.

They all involve media materials derived from communication revolution, which can be used to promote teaching learning process.
According to Agu Okogbuo (2000) instructional materials in teaching could be classified into:

1. Visual material - such as picture, diagrams buildings, projectors, teachers themselves, chart, real objects (realia) studies etc. these materials
such as books, newspapers journals, magazines, pamphlets, handout or modules were also involved.
2. Audio materials such as tape recording, cassette, radio, teleconferencing, language laboratories, teachers voice. They appeal to the sense of
hearing.
3. Audio-visual materials - which include the television, video recording motion pictures with sound tracks, slide and films trips projection with
sound tapes, films and multimedia. They appeal to both sense of hearing and sight.
4. Materials/software - include graphic materials, printed materials, slide, filmstrips, overhead transparency, cassette tapes, and motion pictures.
5. Equipment/hardware: examples include: black boards, tape recorders, projectors and video recorders. They are used in presenting materials,
static or display such as chalkboard, flannel graph, flip charts, magnetic board are also used in presenting materials or lectures.
6. Electronics - this comprises of radio, computer , e-mail, multimedia. These teaching materials makes teaching and learning process more easy
and concrete.
7. Non-projected media include books and other printed materials, objects, specimens. Models mock-up graphical materials, bulletin boards that
exhibits, black boards, field trips, simulation and games.
8. Two-dimensional instructional materials in teaching - include flat pictures, graphs, chart, diagrams posters, comics, cartoons, slides, films trips.
They are also non-projected materials with characteristics of being flat and light and may be either in opaque or transparent form.
They have length but no height, hence they are 2 dimensional aids.
9. Three-dimensional institutional materials - include models, mock up objects, specimens, laboratories, simulation and games (toys). They are
non-projected materials. Characteristically, they have length, width, height, hence they are called 3 dimensional.

Instructional materials in teaching generally make the teaching process easier. However in order to appreciate the importance of instructional
materials in teaching -learning process, Rhert Heinich et al (2001) consider the reasons for using them. They include to help:

1. Gain and hold the attention of the learner

2. Provide visual aspects to a process or techniques
3. Focus attention on highlight of key points
4. Create impact
5. Facilitates the understanding of abstract explanations.
6. Provide a common experience to a large number of learners
7. Stimulate reality

With this, instructional materials in teaching help to concretize the learning process.

Words only convey little or no concreteness in the teaching-learning process. In effect, the type of instructional materials in teaching used depends
on what the teacher wants to demonstrate; for instance, the reasons for media is to create clear idea of something e.g. real object (realia) models
as follows:
1. To give visual access to something which may be inaccessible to clarity abstract information which may be difficult to communicate verbally.
Examples are model picture, photo, posters and diagrams.
2. To condense large qualities of information e.g. diagram and handout
3. To promote mental activities of students; examples are handout, textbooks, films and picture
4. To teach language pronouncement e.g. audiotapes.
5. To support work of the teachers e.g. sound recordings

They make learning more interesting, more real and lively. At all level of education, instructional materials in teaching are very important in the
attainment of desired goal and objectives. The traditional chalkboard method of teaching involves only the learning sense of hearing and they
easily loose of interest after some time. However, the utilization of instructional materials in teaching and learning situation involves not only the
sense of hearing but also the sense of sight and touch, looking at educational practices, the Chinese proverb conclude that:
I hear I forget
I see I remember
I do I understand

Kindler (1993) stated that people generally remember;

10% of what they read
20% of what they hear
30% of what they see
50% of what they hear and see
70% of what they say and
90% of what they say as they do a thing.

For this reason, it was concluded that instructional materials in teaching ensure more effective learning since the leaner not only hears but also
sees and does. Instructional materials in teaching play a very big role in teaching and learning process as enumerated below:

a. It helps the teacher to provide his students with meaningful sources of information.
b. Helps the teacher by providing him with means of wildering his students of information
c. Being experts with learning resources in the classroom
d. Allow members of a group or class to share equally the same teaching experience.
e. Provides the teacher means of exposing the students to a wide range of learning activities.

Berkey (1996) wrote that rational selection of instructional materials in teaching is a necessary step for effective teaching. He further added that
the ability to select and utilize methods and materials are important qualities of a professional teacher. He outlines the criteria for selecting
resources are as follows:
1. Instructional objective to be achieved by students
2. The teaching resources available for use
3. The characteristics of students to be taught
4. The teachers ability and experiences

What Are Learning Resources?

For many people, the words educational materials invoke images of large, print, classroom textbooks with small type, outdated information, and
content that covers the breadth but not depth of a subject. But learning resources are more than that. They are any tool that helps teachers teach and
students learn.

Learning resources include:

Textbooks (print and digital) Workbooks Worksheets Manipulatives (blocks, beads, etc.) Flashcards Educator workshops
Non-fiction books Posters Educational games Apps Websites Software
Online courses Activity books Graphic novels Reference books DVDs CDs
Magazines & periodicals Study guides Teacher guides Labs Models Movies
Televisions shows Webcasts Podcasts Maps & atlases
Multiple Ways to Engage Students in Diverse Classrooms

Auditory Visual Tactile-Kinesthetic Affective Technology Options

Listening to text read Using a dictionary Using a Braille Working in areas of student interest Using a talking dictionary
aloud dictionary
Listening to and retelling Highlighting key points Touching words on a Working with a partner who can help Downloading and listening to a
directions word wall with definitions podcast on an iPod
Asking and answering Outlining steps to solving Using manipulatives Working alone or in cooperative Using a word processing program
questions a problem groups
Engaging in a debate Completing a graphic Building a model Participating in a discussion group or Using a talking calculator
organizer book club
Engaging in a discussion Designing a poster Using response cards Participating in a seminar Creating spreadsheets
Giving verbal prompts Illustrating or taking Using a game format Giving feedback Creating a video
pictures
Talking through steps Drawing Finger spelling Giving praise Using blogging or text messaging
From Garguiulo/Metcalf. Teaching in Today's Inclusive Classrooms, 1E. 2010 Wadsworth, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reproduced by
permission. www.cengage.com/permissions.

Worksheet commonly refers to a sheet of paper with questions for students and places to record answers. The term may also refer to a single array
of data in spreadsheet software or an informal piece of paper that an accountant uses to record information.

Why Use Worksheets?

Worksheets are generally popular with learners because they are usually non-intimidating and user-friendly as well as providing a finite exercise
(ideally one page) where learners get rapid feedback and can often judge for themselves their own abilities and progress. They are also a
convenient, often free, resource for teachers that can easily be saved and printed as required.
they can make good fillers and warm-ups
useful for revision, practice and test preparation
they can reinforce instruction
they are handy for homework
some worksheets can be done in pairs or small groups, helping develop communication and teamwork skills
in large classes, when stronger learners have finished you can have some worksheets handy to keep them happy
worksheets can help stimulate independent learning
they can provide a good deal of repetition, often vital for internalizing concepts
they are useful for assessment of learning and/or progress (especially targeted to specific areas)
they are flexible and can supplement a text book very well
they let students keep their work as reference material if they so wish

Features of Effective Worksheets

There are many different types of worksheet, but there are some common features that tend to make any worksheet work better
for your students. When selecting or making a worksheet, bear in mind that an effective worksheet:
1.is clear
2.clearly labels questions/tasks with numbers or letters (so they can easily be referred to orally during feedback or answers)
3.is straightforward and fit for purpose; unnecessary complication, color etc. detracts from its usefulness
4.is appropriate to the age, level and ability of the students
5.can be created (and stored) on a computer and is thus easy to edit and print repeatedly
6.has excellent presentation
7.has a font that is easy to read and of large enough size
8.uses images for a specific purpose only, and without cluttering up the worksheet
9.does not have irrelevant graphics and borders
10.has margins that are wide enough to avoid edges getting cut off when photocopying
11.makes good use of space without being cluttered
12.has a descriptive title at the top and a space for the student to write their names
13.gives students sufficient space to write their answers
14.has clear, unambiguous instructions
15.uses bold OR italics OR underline for emphasis, but not all three
16.uses color sparingly, and with regard to available photocopying resources/costs
17.focusses on one learning point (except perhaps for more advanced students)
18.is no longer than one or two pages (that is, front and back of a single sheet)
19.should be accessible to the learner (at that level) and answerable in a relatively short period, say 5 to 15 minutes (worksheets are
not exam papers)
20.should have the easier tasks first - success is motivational
21.only uses images that can be photocopied clearly (line drawings, for example, tend to photocopy better than photographs)
22.if appropriate is divided into sections, each with a clear heading
23.is not formal or stuffy; instead it uses words in a way that encourages students to explore and learn on their own

Types of Worksheet
Worksheets range in type from straight-text multiple-choice questions to illustrated puzzles and mind games. Here are a few
examples of worksheet types that have proved particularly effective in teaching English. For each type we list language points it
works well with.

Matching Worksheets
This type of worksheet usually asks students to match up pairs of items (for example opposite words or start and end of a tag
question). This is often done by having one column of items on the left and the matching items, not in the same order, in a column
on the right. Students have to draw lines between the matching items. (This is sometimes known as a spaghetti exercise.)
Skill-based Worksheets
Each of these worksheets has been designed to print out on a single sheet of A4 or US Letter size paper. Each worksheet may be
downloaded, printed, photocopied, used and distributed freely for non-commercial purposes provided you do not modify its
content. (listening, speaking, reading, writing, grammar, vocabulary)

There are several other types of worksheet, including:

Multiple Choice Worksheets are basically quiz-type exercises
Gap Fill Worksheets where students insert the right words in gaps in the text
Word Puzzle Worksheets include crosswords, word search and word maze
Labelling Worksheets where students annotate an illustration
Theme-based and Topic-based Lesson Plans

The formatting and presentation of a worksheet is important. Some worksheets are thrown together with little concern for their
usability or the students who will have to do them. When designing your worksheet you can think first about the elements discussed
above (Features of an Effective Worksheet) and then consider the following specific points:

1.Target your worksheet carefully to your students (that is, age and level).
2.Ideally, keep your worksheet to a single page (one side of a single sheet).
3.Use a font that is easy to read. For example, use Arial or Verdana which are sans serif fonts particularly suited to computer use.
Don't use some fancy cursive or
4.handwriting font which is hard to read at the best of times, especially after photocopying to the nth degree. If you want something
a little more fun, try Comic Sans MS but make sure it prints out well (given that English teachers operate all over the world not all
fonts are available everywhere). Whichever font(s) you decide on,
5.don't use more than two different fonts on one worksheet.
6.Use a font size that is large enough and fit for the purpose. Anything under 12 point is probably too small. For young learners and
beginners 14 point is better (remember when you learned your own language as a child?).
7.To ensure legibility, NEVER USE ALL CAPITALS.
8.Keep your worksheet clearly broken up into appropriate sections.
9.Use headings for your worksheet and its sections if any. Your headings should be larger than the body font.
10.Use bold OR italics OR underline sparingly (that is, only when necessary) and never all three.
11.Determine and be aware of the purpose of your worksheet. That is, are you trying to practise a just presented language point,
reinforce something already learned, revise for an exam, assess previous learning, or achieve some other educational goal?
12.Be clear in your mind about the specific language point (or points for more advanced learners) that is the object of your
worksheet.
13.Choose worksheet tasks that are best suited to the language point in mind (for example word scrambles for spelling, and sorting
for word stress).
14.Use short and very clear wording (which will be limited mainly to the instructions).
15.Test your worksheet! That means: do the worksheet yourself, as if you were a student. Are the instructions clear? Is there space
to add your answers? Is the answersheet, if any, correct? Adjust your worksheet as necessary.
16.see how well it photocopies. Do the edges get cut off? Are images faithfully reproduced? Adjust as necessary.
17.Evaluate your worksheet! Your newly created worksheet is unlikely to be perfect the first time. Monitor student reaction and
adjust as necessary.
18.If you keep your master worksheets as hard copies (rather than as computer files), be sure to preserve them well in plastic
wallets. Use only the original for photocopying and put it safely back in its wallet when done. Nothing is more demoralizing to
your students than a degenerate photocopy of a photocopy.

*When you create a worksheet, you may choose to create a corresponding answersheet. Even if you intend to cover the answers
orally in class and not to print them out for each student, you may find a single printed answersheet useful for yourself. How you use
an answersheet depends of course on practicalities like the complexity of the worksheet, the age and level of the students, and even
your own experience as a teacher.