Structural and Sequence Stratigraphic Analysis of Cretaceous Sequence

STRUCTURAL AND SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC
ANALYSIS OF CRETACEOUS SEQUENCE , KADANWARI
AREA, LOWER INDUS BASIN, PAKISTAN.

.
MS GEOLOGY
By
Muhammad Imran
PGLF12E006
Under the Supervision of
Mr. Abdul Hannan
A thesis submitted to Department of Earth Sciences University of

Sargodha in the partial fulfillment for the degree of Master of Science in
Geology
DEPARTMENT OF EARTH SCIENCES

UNIVERSITY OF SARGODHA, SARGODHA-PAKISTAN
Session 2012-2014
CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY OF RESEARCH WORK
I hereby certify that the research work reported in this thesis titled
STRUCTURAL AND SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
OF CRETACEOUS SEQUENCE , KADANWARI AREA, LOWER
INDUS BASIN, PAKISTAN. by Mr. Muhammad Imran, session 2012-
2014 has been carried out under my supervision in partial fulfillment of
the requirement for the award of degree of Master in Science in the
subject of Geology, Department of Earth Sciences, University of
Sargodha and is hereby approved for the submission. It is further
certified that the research work carried out by the scholar is original and
nothing is plagiarized in it.
_________________________
Mr. Abdul Hannan
Supervisor
Lecturer
Department of Earth Sciences
University of Sargodha,
Sargodha
i
SUBMISSION CERTIFICATE
This thesis titled STRUCTURAL AND SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC

ANALYSIS OF CRETACEOUS SEQUENCE, KADANWARI AREA,
LOWER INDUS BASIN, PAKISTAN by Muhammad Imran is hereby
approved for the submission to the Department of Earth Sciences, University of
Sargodha, Sargodha in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science in Geology.
__________________________ _______________________
(Prof. Dr. Khalid Mahmood) (Mr. Abdul Hannan)
Chairman Lecturer
Department of Earth Sciences, Department of Earth Sciences,
University of Sargodha, University of Sargodha,
Sargodha. Sargodha.
ii
DECLARATION CERTIFICATE
I hereby submit that the research work reported in this thesis titled
STRUCTURAL AND SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF CRETACEOUS
SEQUENCE, KADANWARI AREA, LOWER INDUS BASIN, PAKISTAN by me is
original and nothing been stolen/copied/plagiarized from any source.
_________________________
Mr. Muhammad Imran

Session: 2012-2014
MS Geology
Department of Earth Sciences
University of Sargodha,
Sargodha.
iii
DEDICATION
iv
Acknowledgment
This thesis would not have been possible without the great many individuals
who generously offered assistance or advice or provided materials. Not all of this
made it directly into the final manuscript, but their contributions helped me to develop
the final content.
My Sincere thanks also go to Prof. Dr. Khalid Mahmood (Chairman Department
of Earth Sciences) for his precious support and facilitation throughout this study.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Mr. Abdul Hannan

for his cooperation, guidance and valuable suggestions during this research. Without
his generous assistance and profound geoscientific advice it would have been
impossible to complete this thesis. My appreciations are due to my supervisor for his
patience and cooperation during the long preparation and for the generous form and
layout of this thesis.
I am also indebted to Mr. Tahir Maqsood (Tulluw Oil) for his cooperation and
help to demark seismic horizons and subsurface structure. A big thank is also due to
my dear friend Mr. Fakhar-ud-din for his valuable company and support throughout
this endeavor. Lastly, I offer my regards to the personal of Directorate General of
Petroleum Concession (DGPC) and LMKR for providing seismic and well data used in
this research.
Muhammad Imran
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Certificate of Originality of Research Work i
Submission Certificate ii
Declaration Certificate iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgment v
Table of Contents vi
List of Figures xi
List of Tables xii
Abstract xiii
CHAPTER 01 1
Introduction 1
1.1 Importance of Work 1
1.2 Location of the Area 2
1.3 Aims and Objectives 3
1.3.1 Subsurface Structural Interpretation 3
1.3.2 Facies Analysis 4
1.3.3 Sequence Stratigraphic Analysis 4
1.3.4 Source and Reservoir Rock Potential 4
1.3.5 Identification of Petroleum Plays 4
1.4 Basemap 4
1.5 Workflow 5
CHAPTER 2 Literature Review 7
CHAPTER 03 Regional Geology and Tectonics 10
3.1 Historical Evolution 10
3.2 Regional Geological Framework 11
3.2.1 Karakoram Block 11
3.2.2 Kohistan-Ladakh Magmatic Arc 12
3.2.3 NW Himalayan Fold and Thrust Belt 12
vi
3.2.3.1 Salt Range Thrust and Kohat Potwar Fold Belt 12
3.2.4 Indus Platform and Foredeep 13
3.2.4.1 Sedimentary Cover 14
3.2.5 East Blochistan Fold and Thrust Belt 14
3.2.6 KakarkhorasanFlysch and Molasse Basin 14
3.2.7 Chagai-RasKoh Magmatic Arc 15
3.2.8 Makran Accretionary Zone and Kharan Basin 15
3.2.9 Pakistan Offshore 15
3.3 Indus Basin 16
3.3.1 Subdivisions 16
3.3.2 Upper Indus Basin 16
3.3.3 Lower Indus Basin 17
3.3.3.1 Geological Description of Lower Indus Basin 17
3.4 General Geology and Structure of Kadanwari Area 18
3.5 Early Cretaceous Paleogeography of the Lower Indus Basin 19
3.6 Stratigraphy of the Area 20

3.6.1 Introduction 20
3.6.2 Rocks of the Cretaceous System 20
3.6.3 Lithostratigraphic Units of the Area 21
3.6.3.1ChiltanLimestone (TakatuFormation) 22
3.6.3.2 Sembar Formation 23
3.6.3.3 Goru Formation 23
3.6.3.4 Ranikot Group 24
3.6.3.5 Sui Main Limestone 25
3.6.3.6 Ghazij Group 25
3.6.3.7 NariGaj Siwalik and Alluvium Formation 25
3.7 Hydrocarbon Potential of the Area 26
vii
CHAPTER#04 28
Subsurface Structural Analysis of Kadanwari Area 28
4.1 Review of Seismic Method 28
4.2 Wave Types 29
4.2.1 Body Waves 29
4.2.2 Surface Waves 29
4.3 Seismic Velocity 30
4.4 Seismic Data Acquisition And Processing 31
4.4.1 Survey design 31
4.4.2 Seismic Sources 32
4.4.3 Seismic Detectors 32
4.4.4 Data Processing 32
4.5 Geological controls on Seismic properties 33
4.6 Data Presentation 34
4.6.1 Navigation Data 34
4.6.2 Seg Y Data 34
4.6.3 Well Data 35
4.6.4 Scanned Sections of the Seismic Lines 35
4.6.5 Tying Seismic Lines 35
4.6.6 Methodology for interpretation 36
4.7 Stratigraphic Analysis 36
4.8 Structural Analysis 38
4.8.1 Time Structure Maps 43
4.8.2 Depth Structure Maps 47
CHAPTER#05 52
Well Log Analysis and Sequence Stratigraphy 52
5.1 Well Logs Review 53
5.1.1 Caliper Logs 53
5.1.2 Self-Potential or SP Logs 53
5.1.3 Resistivity and Conductivity Logs 54
5.1.4 The Gamma Ray Logs 54
5.1.5 Density Logs 54
5.2 Data Set and Methodology 55
5.3 Petrophysical Analysis 56
viii
5.3.1 Cross Plots 56
5.3.2PetrophysicalAnalysis of Kadanwari-01 58
5.3.3 PetrophysicalAnalysis of Kadanwari-10 59
5.3.4 Petrophysical Analysis of Kadanwari-11 59
5.4 Lithology Reconstruction from Well Logs 59
5.5 Electrosequence Analysis 60
5.5.1 Electrofacies Annotation 61
5.6 Facies Description 61

5.6.1 Shale Interbedded with Sandstone. CS-1 61
5.6.2 Coarsening upward Massive Sandstone. CLG-1 62
5.6.3 Shale Interbedded with Sandstone. CLG-2 62
5.6.4 Fining upward Shale Facies. CLG-3 62
5.6.5 Upper Sandstone-Shale Facies. CLG-4 62
5.6.6 Coarsening upward Sandy Shale. CLG-5 63
5.6.7 Coarsening upward Calcareous Shale. CLG-6 63
5.6.8 Marl Interbedded with Limestone. CUG-1 63
5.6.9 Marl Interbedded with Shale.CUG-2 63
5.7 Sequence Stratigraphic Surfaces 64
5.7.1 Subaerial Unconformity (SU) 64
5.7.2 Regressive Surface of Erosion 64
5.7.3 Transgressive Surface 65
5.7.4 Maximum Flooding Surface 65
5.8 System Tracts 65
5.8.1 Highstand System Tract (HST) 65
5.8.2 Early Lowstand System Tract 66
5.8.3 Late Lowstand System Tract 66
5.8.4 Transgressive System Tract 66
5.9 Sequence Model of Kadanwari Area 67
5.10 Hydrocarbon Perspectives 67
ix
CHAPTER # 06 68
Conclusion, Discussion and Recommendation 68
Conclusion and Discussion 68
Recommendation 69
References 70
x
List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Location map of the study area where red rectangle represents Kadanwari 2
Gas Field.
Figure 1.2: Base Map created up to scale in 42N zone of Universal Transverse 5
Mercator system.
Figure 3.1: Location, regional geology and structure of the study area, (modified after
Ahmed et al., 2013). 19
Figure 3.2: Generalized stratigraphy of Lower Indus Basin (modified after Shah 1977). 21
Figure 3.3: Generalized stratigraphy and petroleum play properties of Lower Indus
Basin (modified after Ahmed, 2013) 26
Figure 4.1: Illustration of seismic exploration method. 28
Figure 4.2: Measurement of velocity in different rock types reported by Birch (1966). 30
Figure 4.3: Trace of seismic line TJ88-207. 37
Figure 4.4: Formation reflectors marked on the strike line. 38
Figure 4.6: Interpretation of line TJ89-512. 39
Figure 4.8: Interpretation of line TJ89-510 41
Figure 4.10: Interpretation of line TJ89-508 42
Figure 4.11: Two way travel time structure map of top Ranikot. 43
Figure 4.12: Two way travel time structure map of top Upper Goru. 44
Figure 4.13: Two way travel time structure map of top Lower Goru. 44
Figure 4.14: Two way travel time structure map of top Aptian Sand. 45
Figure 4.15: Two way travel time structure map of top Albian Sand. 45
Figure 4.16: Two way travel time structure map of top Sember Formation. 46
Figure 4.17: Two way travel time structure map of top Takatu Formation. 46
Figure 4.18: Structure mash from Ranikot Formation to Takatu Formation with faults. 47
Figure 4.19: Depth structure map of top Ranikot. 48
Figure 4.20: Depth structure map of top Upper Goru. 48
Figure 4.21: Depth structure map of top Lower Goru. 49
Figure 4.22: Depth structure map of top Aptian Sand. 49
xi
Figure 4.23: Depth structure map of top Albian Sand. 50
Figure 4.24: Depth structure map of top Sember Formation. 50
Figure 4.25: Depth structure map of top Takatu Formation. 51
Figure 4.26: Depth structure maps mosaic with wells and Formation tops. 51
Figure 5.1: Basic Cycle of sequence development. 52
Figure 5.2: Photoelectric effect of different minerals. 55
Figure 5.3: Neutron-Density cross plot of Cretaceous strata in Kadanwari-01. Yellow
color is representing the Sandstone, Blue color is representing the Limestone
and dark grey color is representing the shale. 57
Figure 5.4:Neutron-Density cross plot of Cretaceous strata in Kadanwari-10. Yellow
List of Tables
Table 4.1 Seismic lines and their information of the study area 35
Table 4.2 Time shift applied to different lines during intersection to remove misties. 36
Table 5.1: Kadanwari wells used for interpretation 55
Table 5.2: logging tool response values from Serra (1972, 1979), Dresser atlas (1983),
Gearhart (1983). 60
xii
ABSTRACT
This study incorporates the subsurface structural and sequence stratigraphic analysis
of Lower Cretaceous rocks of Kadanwari area. Kadanwari area lies in the southwest of Indian
Shield and forms an integral part of vast Lower Indus Basin. The geology penetrated through
the wells consists of Lower Cretaceous carbonaceous shales of Sembar Formation which is
underlain by Jurassic carbonates of Chiltan Formation. The rocks of Cretaceous period in
Kadanwari area are of heterogenous composition and includes Sembar shales, Lower Goru
sand and clay and Upper Goru marl. The top of the Cretaceous Period is marked by a period
of non-deposition and the Tertiary sediments directly/unconformably overlie Lower
Cretaceous rocks. These Tertiary sediments are covered by a thick blanket of
alluvium/desert sand.
The current study is completed with the help of seismic data (SEGY), well data (LAS)
and formation tops provided by LMKR. Seismic dip (TJ89-508, TJ89-510 and TJ89-512) and
strike (TJ88-207) lines as well as well logs (Kadanwari-01, Kadanwari-03, Kadanwari-10 and
Kadanwari-11) acquired from the Directorate General of Petroleum Concession (DGPC) are
used to establish structural and sequence stratigraphic model of the Cretaceous strata. The
data is interpreted predominantly by analyzing seismic horizons and gamma ray log trends
on Petrel Platform and Kingdom software.
Tectonically, the area lies in extensional regime affected by Late Jurassic-Early

Cretaceous rifting of Indian Plate from Gondwanaland. Two major basement associated
extensional faults, extending to the Paleocene base, have been traced in all the seismic
lines. The Upper and Lower Goru facies downwarped on the Sembar Shales near the fault
lines resulting in a combined stratigraphic- structural traps near the fault lines. The overall
structure of the area is dominated by step fault. Facies and sequence models derived from
electrosequence analysis of well logs shows that the lower Indus Basin undergone through
longer episodes of sea level regression than the transgression, resulting in the deposition of
prograding sequences during Lower Cretaceous.
The petrophysical analysis of well logs indicate that the Lower Cretaceous upper
sands of Lowstand System Tract and the lower sands of High Stand System tract of sequence
I are potential reservoir rocks. Two Sequences are marked following the sequence model IV
xiii
of Hunt and Tucker (1992) and Plint and Nummedal (2000). A condensed section is
developed below the intra-sequence, maximum flooding surface of sequence I. This
condensed section is represented by a sharp increase in Gamma ray log value with minimal
Neutron-Porosity value in all the wells understudy.
The total 9 facies have been recognized from the log trends of the area. No well was
drilled across the Sembar Formation. So the nature of the lower contact of Cretaceous rocks
with Jurassic Chiltan Limestone could not be assessed in this study. The upper contact of
Cretaceous rocks with Paleocene strata is marked with an unconformity at the top of Upper
Goru Formation.
xiv
CHAPTER # 01
Introduction 2012-14
Chapter # 01
Introduction
1.2 Importance of Work
Sequence stratigraphic tool in predicting stratigraphic traps is becoming a

prerequisite in petroleum industry for the development of both conventional and
unconventional reservoirs. The requirement of finding a stratigraphic trap is
analogous to unconventional reservoirs as most of the conventional reservoirs have
been exploited. Currently, most of the energy and production companies are using
sequence stratigraphic tools only in mature hydrocarbon exploration basins due to the
risk involved in frontier hydrocarbon exploration basins as is the case of Punjab
platform in Pakistan (Hedley, 2001).
The sequence stratigraphic approach is independent of scale (Schlager, 2005;

Catuneanu, 2006) and can be used according to the requirement. The Cretaceous time
in Lower Indus Basin has seen no major hiatus and is very important in context of
hydrocarbon exploration (Ahmed, 1991). This study also includes the structural
analysis of the Cretaceous sequence to accomplish the effects of early Cretaceous
tectonic activity during the basin evolution. The rocks with reservoir potential in
Lower Indus basin are mainly of Cretaceous and Eocene age (Ahmad, 1996). The
importance of Cretaceous Sands in a sequence stratigraphic framework has been
repeatedly elaborated by energy and petroleum companies in their exploration
endeavors in Lower Indus Basin (Ahmed, 2013). The Cretaceous period has played an
integral part in the development of structure and stratigraphy of the Indian
subcontinent. The rifting of Indian plate from Gondwanaland, the transgression of
shoreline during Early Cretaceous and the regional volcanic activity during Late
Cretaceous were some of the prominent events of Cretaceous period (Courtillot,
1986).
Some of the stratigraphic traps and combined stratigraphic and structural traps
have been drilled by energy and production companies in Lower Indus Basin but the
prime focus was to hit a structural trap (Ahmed, 2004). The prime objective of this
research is to minimize lithology prediction risk by predicting lateral and vertical
1
facies changes, discontinuities studies and by subsurface structural analysis of

Kadanwari area for hydrocarbon exploration.
1.2 Location of the Area
The area of research is Kadanwari gas field, Khairpur District, Sindh. The
location of Kadanwari is shown in figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Locality map of the study area in which red rectangle represents
Kadanwari Gas Field (Google Earth, 2016).
The Kadanwari area is an integral part of the Thar Desert where the geology is
covered with sand dunes. As there is no direct outcrop data available, the subsurface
geology encountered in wells is correlated with the outcrops of Sulaiman-Kirthar fold
2
and thrust belt. The thickness and lithology of the rocks in subsurface can differ from
that of the outcrop due to distant correlation. The geographical coordinates of the area
are:
Latitude: 2707'43.88''
Longitude: 6913'38.67''
The landscape is dominated with sand dunes and hardgrounds. Stabilized

dunes cover almost the entire area. The interdunal valleys are vegetated with bushes
and small trees. It has the altitude of about 200m. No river or stream exists in the area.
Annual rain fall is very low and during precipitation the water flows to the nearest
topographic low, or either evaporates there or infiltrates (Bender, 1995).
1.4 Aims and Objectives

As discussed in section 1.1 the main focus of this research is to minimize the
lateral and vertical lithology prediction risk by providing a genetic sequence model
through facies analysis and by the analysis of subsurface structure. The steps involved
to acquire the needful of this research are as follows:
Subsurface structural interpretation through 2D seismic interpretation
Petrophysical analysis of wells predominantly by gamma ray response
Facies analysis
Sequence stratigraphic analysis
Source and Reservoir rock potential
Detection of petroleum plays and various types
1.4.1 Subsurface Structural Interpretation
Subsurface structural interpretation is a prerequisite for stratigraphic analysis

of the area. Structural interpretation is also important in identifying petroleum plays.
Interpretation is carried out by analyzing seismic sections using background
knowledge and tectonic evolution of the area.
3
1.4.2 Facies Analysis
Facies analysis is necessary to mark the sequence stratigraphic surfaces and to

develop a genetic model of the basin. Sedimentary facies has been identified by
interpreting the well logs of the area.
1.4.3 Sequence Stratigraphic Analysis
The application of sequence stratigraphy in petroleum exploration especially

to identify stratigraphic traps has been very successful for the past few years. In
Pakistan, Lower Goru fairway in Miano and Sawan fields is represented by combined
structural and stratigraphic traps. The scope of this research is to extend the genetic
significance of Cretaceous sands in Kadanwari area. The sequence stratigraphic
analysis is done by identifying the trends, shapes and geometry of gamma ray and
neutron porosity log runs of Kadanwari-01, Kadanwari-10 and Kadanwari-11. The
fourth well Kadanwari-03 is not used in this study due to its poor quality.
1.4.4 Source and Reservoir Rock Potential
Reservoir properties like effective porosity, shale volume and moved

hydrocarbons observed from the petrophysical analysis using the Kingdom 8.6
software. The top most Cretaceous sands possess high effective porosity due to low
shale volume.
1.4.5 Identification of Petroleum Plays
Petroleum play identification is carried out using structural trends, and lateral
extension of already proven reservoir rock and its petrophysical properties.
1.5 Basemap
The base map of the study area falling in the 42N zone of the Universal
Transverse Mercator system is shown in Fig. 1.2. Lines abbreviated as TJ89-508,
TJ89-510 and TJ89-512 are the dip lines and the line named TJ88-207 is the strike
line. Only the line TJ89-512 is cross cutting the strike line while the other two are
falling short of the strike line. Four wells have been showed on the base map from
4
which two wells Kadanwari 3 and Kadanwari 10 are close to the line TJ89-512 and
can be used for correlation.
Figure 1.2: Base Map created in 42N zone of UTM system.
1.6 Workflow
Manual interpretation of seismic sections to identify subsurface structure and

lithology is not only time consuming but the probability of human error is high.
Nevertheless, manual interpretation is the backbone of seismic exploration. The
availability of advance computer programs to interpret seismic sections and well logs
is a sign of relief as they save time and energy in contrast to manual interpretation.
The use of Petrel (2008) and Kingdom 8.6 Software in this research made it possible
to visualize the data in 2D and 3D-window with built in interpretation tools.
5
The data is imported using 42N zone of Universal Traverse Mercator (UTM)
on petrel (2008) and Kingdom 8.6. Seismic horizons are picked on both the hard
copies and on the software.
The major steps of this research are as follows:
Importing seismic 2D and well data (LAS) into the petrel software
Picking and marking Formation reflectors
Velocity time analysis
Marking major structures
Converting faults into fault model
Creating time and depth contour maps
Correlation of well logs
Interpretation of well logs
Petrophysical analysis of well logs
Lithology reconstruction from well logs
Developing facies and sequence stratigraphic model
Discussing all the yielded results listed above
6
CHAPTER # 02
Literature Review 2012-14
Chapter # 02
Literature Review
The noteworthy classic work on the geology of Sindh is of Henry
Bartle Frere (1853) and William Thomas Blanford (1876). In 1893 Oldham published
the first ever book on the geology of India and made a foundation for the petroleum
companies working at that time. The work of Vrendenburg (1900-1930) on the
paleontology of Baluchistan and Sindh played an important role in defining the ages
of sedimentary rocks of the region. After the initial success of oil industry in Indian
subcontinent the personnel working with Attock Oil Company (AOC) and Burma Oil
Company (BOC) made an excellent effort in developing the structure and stratigraphy
of Indus Basin. The work of Pascoe (1920-1964) on the petroleum and general
geology and of Williams (1930-1959) on the stratigraphy of Lower Indus Basin is
worth mentioning.
After the partition of India, Pakistan Government founded the

Geological Survey of Pakistan to accelerate the search for mineral resources of the
country. In 1960, under the Colombo Plan Cooperative Project, Hunting Survey
Cooperation Limited (HSC) of Canada mapped the part of West Pakistan (Balochistan
& Sindh) on 1:250000 scale through Arial Photographic Survey to explore new
mineral resources of the the country.
Until 1970, the work on the structure of Lower Indus Basin was
limited to marginal (Sulaiman & Kirthar) fold and thrust belt due to the unavailability
of outcrop data in eastern Sindh. Although the prominent work on the structure of
Sulaiman and Kirthar fold belt in relation to india-Eurasia collision by Abdel et al.
(1971), Johnson and Powell (1976), Kazmi and Rana (1982), Farah et al. (1984),
Banks et al. (1986), Cowards et al. (1988), Humayun et al. (1991), Ahmed et al.
(1991), Jadoon et al. (1991, 1992, 1994 & 1996), Bannert et al. (1992), Khurshid et
al. (1992) and Hedley et al. (2001) has played an important role in deciphering the
subsurface structure of alluvium covered Lower Indus Basin. In 1970, Wise and
Withington delineate the subsurface structure of Lower Indus Basin with the help of
topographic shadow and ERTS imagery.
7
The introduction of geophysical techniques in exploring subsurface

geology and structure, importance of which has been explained by Balakrishnan
(1977) in Role of geophysics in the study of geology and tectonics, Geophysical case
histories of India, made it possible to study the subsurface structure of Lower Indus
Basin. By a gravity survey in 1977, Abdul Farah described the subsurface structure of
the Lower Indus Basin. In 1996, Jadoon et al. presented the gravity and tectonic
model of the Lower Indus Basin. Some new insights have been put forward by
Muhammad Nawaz Qureshi in 2005 to the subsurface structure of the Lower Indus
Basin.
The research on the hydrocarbon prospects of lower indus basin has been in
great acceleration since the first discovery from eocene rocks. In 1986, quadri and
shuaib discussed the hydrocarbon prospects of lower indus basin. The work by malik
and kamal (1988), raza and ahmed (19989 & 1990) was a great addition to the
petroleum geology of lower indus basin. In 1991, ahmed et al. Elaborated the
importance of sukkur rift in petroleum prospect of lower indus basin, the idea which
was further supported by zaigham et al. In 2000. Shuaib et al. (1993) described the
role of lower cretaceous sands in petroleum potential of lower indus basin.
The Cretaceous rocks in Lower Indus basin have been studied extensively by
energy and petroleum companies after the discovery of oil from Lower Goru Sands at
Khaskeli by Texas Oil Pakistan in 1981. This discovery changed the long standing
thought of Lower Indus Basin as a gas prone area and opened a.new oil
province.outside the traditional.oil province of, Potwar (Kadri, 1995). The discovery
of gas at Kadanwari from Lower Goru Sands by LASMO in 1989 filled the gap and
acted as a bridge between OGDC s operated Bobi Field (1988) in the south and
Kandhkot Gas Field (1959) of PPL in the north. Initially, all the wells in Cretaceous
rocks of Lower Indus Basin were drilled on what were originally mapped as structural
traps. As the development proceeds in Miano Field by OMV (Pakistan), it was
observed that some of the traps are actually stratigraphic in nature.
Although sequence, stratigraphy is regarded as stemming out of seismic

stratigraphy, of the 1970s but in fact the evolution of sequence stratigraphy dates back
to 18th century when James Hutton first recognized the concept of geologic cycle
(Catuneanu 2006). The concept of base level and sequence were originally introduced
8
by Barrell (1917) and Sloss et al. (1949) respectively. Sloss defined the sequence as
strata bounded by unconformities which was expanded laterally by Mitchum (1977)
as genetically related, strata bounded by, unconformities or their, correlative
conformities. The former sequence of Sloss was also integrated into vertical
packages called parasequences by Pettijohn (1975).
Seismic stratigraphy surfaced with the work, of Vail et ,al. In 1970s which
was published with the global, sea level cycle, chart in 1977 (Catuneanu, 2006). This
new method was, based on the, assumption that eustacy, is the main driving force,
behind sequence, formation. However the global eustacy model originally proposed
by Vail et al. Was challenged by conventional stratigraphers (Posamentier et al.,
1988; Posamentier and Vail, 1988; Van Wagoner et al., 1990; Hunt and Tucker,
1992) as it excludes the allogenic controls on sedimentation. This debate took a
positive turn around in early 1990s when most of the sequence stratigraphers switch
to relative sea level change (base level) from sea level change.
Most of the former work on the sequence stratigraphic analysis of Cretaceous

rocks of Lower Indus Basin only incorporates the Lower Cretaceous/Lower Goru
Sands. In 2004, Ahmad et al. presented the sequence stratigraphic analysis of Lower
Goru Sands and divided them into A, B, C and D sequences. Munir et al. (2011) used
seismic stratigraphy as a tool to map the productive sands of Lower Goru.
Recently the important work on the effects of tectonics on the Lower Goru
play of the Lower Indus Basin is done by Kamran Aziz in 2013. In 2015, Kamran
Aziz addressed the challenges in exploring stratigraphic and subtle traps in the
Middle Indus Basin.
9
CHAPTER # 03
Regional Geology and Tectonics 2012-14
Chapter # 03
Regional Geology and Tectonics
3.1 Historical Evolution
Geological history of Indian Plate goes back to 1.1 Ga ago when all the continents
coalesced to form a Supercontinent Rodinia (Patriat, 1984). A little is known about the
position of Indian Plate at that time as most of the Continental Drift evidence comes from
the Fossiliferous Sedimentary rocks and Paleomagnetic data of Oceanic Crust which
consumed through time.. The second most clearly recorded episode of Continental
accretion was 300 Ma ago when a Supercontinent Pangaea, Surrounded by a Proto-
Pacific ocean Panthalassa, developed (Stocklin, 1977). At that time Indian Plate was
adjacent to Africa near South Pole as part of the Sub-Supercontinent Gondwanaland.
Breakup of Pangaea started 100 Ma after its accretion in Late Paleozoic (Windley
1984). Paleo-tethys sea developed on the eastern margin of Pangaea and separated from
Laurasia in the north and Gondwanaland in the south. During Late Permian rifting along
the northern margin of Gondwanaland produced smaller continental blocks. These
Cimmerian microcontinents gradually drifted northward with the opening of Neo-Tethys
and eventually colloided with Eurasia in Late Triassic, resulting in the closure of Paleo-
Tethys (Kazmi et al, 1997).
Indian Plate separated from Gondwanaland 130 Ma ago and drifted northward
relative to Australia and Antarctica. Intra-Oceanic subduction generated Kohistan-
Ladakh magmatic arc during Cretaceous (Searle 1991, Khan et al. 1993).
The collision between India and Eurasia started 65 Ma ago which eventually
resulted in the closure of Neo-tethys. The northward, movement of, India slowed, down
from 15-25, cm/year to 4.5cm/year after the collision (Patriat and Achache 1984; Powel
1979). This continent-continent collision produced spectacular Himalayas and East
10
Baluchistan Fold and Thrust Belt along the northern and western margins of Indian Plate
respectively (Bender, 1995).
3.2 Regional Geological Framework
On the, basis of its, historical evolution, Pakistan can be, divided into two, main
geological provinces referred to as Tethyan domain and Gondwanian domain (Stocklin
1977; Kazmi and Jan 1997). Tethyan domain includes Cimmerian Continents ( Karakram
Block and Chagai, Kharan and Makran regions) and Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc
while the Gondwanian domain includes Himalayas, East Blochistan Fold and Thrust Belt,
Indus plain, Thar and Cholistan Deserts.
From north to south the main Tectonostratigraphic Zones are (Kazmi, 2008):
1. Karakoram Block
2. Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc
3. NW Himalayan Fold and, Thrust Belt
4. Indus Plateform, and fore-deep
5. East Blochistan, Fold and Thrust, Belt
6. Kakarkhorasan flysch, and molasses, basin
7. Chagai-Ras Koh magmatic arc
8. Makran accretionary zone and Kharan basin
9. Pakistan Offshore
3.2.1 Karakoram Block
Karakoram Block is one of the Cimmerian blocks derived from Gondwanaland.

This crustal plate is 70 to 120 wide and 1400 long and hosts the tallest mountain peak of
Pakistan K2. In the North, the Karakoram Block is separated from Pamir Block by
Southern Pamir Fault. MKT marks its southern boundary. The most significant feature in
the Karakoram Block is Karakoram Batholith.
11
3.2.2 Kohistan-Ladakh Magmatic Arc
An island arc of Intra-Oceanic origin exists between MKT and Indus suture zone
(MMT). Nanga Parbat Massive separates the western Kohistan Island Arc from eastern
Ladakh magmatic arc. Kohistan Island Arc is mainly composed of batholith of mafic to
intermediate composition. Geophysical data suggest that the Indian Plate is overlain by
the island arc (Fineti et al. 1979).
3.2.3 NW Himalayan Fold and Thrust Belt
NW Himalayas occupies a 250km wide and 560 km long mountainous region

extending from Nanga Parbat Haramosh Massive and Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis in the
east to the Afghan border in the west. Main Mantle Thrust (MMT) marks its northern
boundary while Salt Range Thrust (SRT) marks its southern boundary. All the major
thrusts as observed in the Central Himalayas can also be traced in NW Himalayas
including Main Central Thrust (MCT) which separates higher Himalayas in its north from
lower Himalayas in its south (Kazmi et al. 1997).
3.2.3.1 Salt Range Thrust and Kohat Potwar Fold Belt
Salt Range Thrust (SRT) and Kohat-Potwar Fold and Thrust Belt is the
southernmost extension of NW Himalayan, Fold and, Thrust Belt. It is, bounded by, Main
Boundary, Thrust (MBT) in the north, by Jehlum, Fault in the, east, Kuram, Fault in the
west and Salt, Range, Thrust to the south.
Eocambrian to recent sedimentary sequence is exposed along this belt. The

Eocambrian evaporites provided a decollement zone for Salt Range Thrust and this zone
may exist beneath kohat and potwar Plateau (Jadoon, 1991).
12
3.2.4 Indus Platform and Foredeep
Platform areas are the eastern most features of Lower Indus Basin. These areas
are relatively stable where gently dipping strata rest on top of the basement rocks.
Westward sedimentary strata thicken to form Sulaiman and Kirthar foredeeps.
The Indus plateform and foredeep can be divided into following structural zones
(Kazmi and Rana 1982):
Buried ridges
Sargodha-Shahpur ridge
Nagar Parker ridge
Structural highs
Mari-Kandhkot high
Jacobabad-Khairpur high
Thatta-Hyderabad high
Tharparkar high
Zones of downwarp and platform slope
Nothern Punjab monocline

Southern Punjab monocline
Cholistan shelf
Panno Aqil graben
Nawabshah slope
Lower Indus trough
Nabisar slope
Foredeeps
Sulaiman foredeep
Kirthar foredeep
13
Basement is extensively traversed by extentional faults (Kazmi and Rana 1982).

Most of the basement faults are of late-Cretaceous likely to be associated with
detachement of Indian Plate from Gonwanaland. Late Cretaceous basement faults
straddle major structural highs like Jackobabad-Khairpur high and Sargodha-Shahpur
ridge (Farah et al. 1977). Some of the basement faults in foredeep zones and Jacobabad-
Kandkot zone are of tertiary age (Ahmed et al. 1992) likely to be associated with plate
collision and rebound relief tension.
3.2.4.1 Sedimentary Cover
Indus platform and fordeep is covered by a thick sedimentary sequence of

Eocambrian to Paleogene (Bender, 1995). This sedimentary cover is thickest in foredeep
areas and thins out towards east. The variation in thickness and facies association of
sedimentary rocks is present throughout the platform and is directly related to the
basement topography and structure. The basement topography is highly effected by the
shield elements and tectonic forces active during disruption of Pangea. The Precambrian
and Paleozoic rocks are restricted to the northern part and thin out towards south.
Sandstone of Mesozoic and carbonates of Cenozoic are among the most hydrocarbon
producing rocks of this region (Kadri, 1995).
3.2.5 East Baluchistan Fold and Thrust Belt
This zone of folds and faults extends from Waziristan through Quetta and down to
Karachi bounded by Suleiman and Kirthar foredeeps on its eastern side, Ghazaband and
Ornach Nal faults on its western side, Himalayan fold and thrust belt on its northern side
and by Arabian sea on its southern side. East Baluchistan Fold and Thrust Belt can be
divided into inner Suleiman and kirthar fold belt and outer Bela-Zhob ophiolite and thrust
belt (kazmi and Rana 1982).
3.2.6 Kakar khorasan Flysch and Molasse Basin
The Kakar Khorasan basin lies to the east of Chaman transform fault and is filled
by thick sequence of flysch and molasse type sediments. Chaman transform fault divides
14
the Kakar Khorasan Basin in northeast from the Makran Basin in southwest. Beneath the
Kakar Khorasan Basin oceanic crust has been thrust under the afghan block (Jadoon et al.
1992).
3.2.7 Chagai-Ras Koh Magmatic Arc
Chagai volcanic arc is a subduction associated feature exposed in Pakistan. It is

comprised of Cretaceous to Tertiary sediments and volcanics. Due to the assimilation of
basaltic magma, the composition of these volcanics is andesitic. In the south Chagai
volcanic arc is in tectonic contact with Ras Koh Range. Both these features convex
toward south and truncated by chaman transform fault in the east.
3.2.8 Makran Accretionary Zone and Kharan Basin
Kharan basin lies in the south of Ras Koh Range and is filled with recent deposits.
On the basis of gravity and geological data, Raza et al. (1991) have proposed that it is a
forearc basin. Makran accretionary zone lies in the south of Kharan basin and is part of
vast arc trench system where the Arabian plate is being subducted beneath the Eurasian
plate. Under the influence of this, subduction; an accretionary, wedge of, deformed
sediments, piled up at, an oceanic, subduction margin.
3.2.9 Pakistan Offshore
Murray ridge divides the Pakistan offshore into two main zones. Makran offshore
in the west and Indus offshore in the east of murray ridge. Makran offshore as part of the
Arabian plate consists of early Miocene and younger sediments that are horizontally
disposed in the abyssal plain but abruptly deformed shoreward (Kazmi et al. 1997). Indus
offshore is comprised of the vast Indus fan and characterized by wide shelf and slope.
15
3.3 Indus Basin
Indus basin is a major sedimentary fill across the western margin of the Indian
Shield. The tectonic forces active during the collision of India with Eurasia deformed the
northern and western margins of the basin into fold and thrust belts. The Indus basin is
filled with sediments as old as Eocambrian Salt Range Formation to tertiary post-
collisional siwaliks as shown in figure 3.2. The absence of Ordovician to Carboniferous
sediments and well developed Jurassic sediments throughout the basin are among the
characteristic features of this basin. The northwest trending promontories of Indian Shield
in the Indus basin played an important role in controlling the sediments throughout the
development of Indus basin (Kadri, 1995).
3.3.1 Subdivisions
Indus basin can be divided into two main tectonostratigraphic zones on the basis
of basement topography during the initial development of Indus basin. Sargodha high
played an important role in controlling the sedimentation in proto-Indus basin and is
considered to be a divide between Upper and Lower Indus Basin (Kazmi, 2008).
Disruption of Pangaea in early Mesozoic disturbed the equilibrium and the tectonic forces
active during the disruption of supercontinent created structural highs like Mari-
Kandhkot and Khairpur Jackobabad highs. These structural highs controlled the
sedimentation during late Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras and divided the Lower Indus
Basin into Central (Middle) and Southern, Indus Basin, (Kadri 1995).
3.3.2 Upper, Indus, Basin
This basin is located in north eastern Pakistan and is bounded by Main

Boundary, Thrust (MBT) in the north and Sargodha, high in the, south. Upper Indus,
Basin (UIB) is characterized by Precambrian, to recent sediments which are exposed, in
Salt, Range and Tras-Indus, Ranges. This basin can further be, subdivided into Kohat
sub basin in the west and Potwar, sub basin in the east. These sub, basins shows,
16
important facies variations but represent a common unconformity between Cambrian and
Permian sediments.
3.3.3 Lower Indus Basin
Lower Indus Basin (LIB) differs from Upper Indus Basin (UIB) in facies
association and basement structure. Oldest rocks exposed in lower Indus Basin are of
Triassic age (Bender, 1995). Lower Indus basin is filled with a thick succession of
Mesozoic sediments but lacks Paleozoic strata. The structure of this basin is highly
affected by the rifting of Indian plate from Gondwanaland and consequent volcanic
activity during Cretaceous. The Lower Indus Basin is further divided into two classes:
(a) Central, Indus Basin

(After Raza et al, 1989)
(b) Southern Indus Basin
(After Quadri & Shuaib, 1986)
The Sukkar rift acted as a divide between Central and Southern Indus Basins
since Jurassic time (Raza et al, 1989). Kadanwari area lies in Lower Indus Basin east of
Khairpur high.
3.3.3.1 Geological Description of Lower Indus Basin
Tectonically Pakistan lies in north western part of Indian shield and is bounded by
Eurasian plate in the north, Afghan craton in the west and Arabian plate in the south
(Jadoon, 1994). The northwestern part of Indian Plate deformed due to plate collision
during tertiary convergence. The structure of the lower Indus basin is affected by the
western deformation but it decreases in intensity as we move from west to east. The
effect of deformed western part of Pakistan is limited in the study area.
The oldest rocks exposed and penetrated in Lower Indus Basin are of Jurassic age.
These Jurassic sediments are overlain by Cretaceous sequence through an unconformity
in most of the areas. These Cretaceous deep marine to marginal marine sediments are
17
overlain by Tertiary rocks with variable time gaps. In Kadanwari area Lower Cretaceous
sediments are directly overlain by Paleocene rocks (Zaigham, 2000).
The Lower Indus Basin is characterized by Late Jurassic, early Cretaceous en

echelon extentensional faults. These faults are cross cutting through basement rocks
which represents the rifting of Indian Plate from Gondwanaland in Mesozoic time. This
new basin created through rifting was flooded with sea water. Zaigham and Malik
proposed a structural model for the evolution of southern Indus basin.
3.4 General Geology and Structure of Kadanwari Area
Kadanwari area is located in the south east of Jachobabad-Khairpur high in Lower

Indus basin as shown in figure 3.1. This area analogous to the entire Lower Indus basin is
characterized by basement associated extensional faults. These faults, generated during
Mesozoic rifting of Indian plate from Gondwanaland, extend to Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary and the Paleocene sediments are not affected by these extentional faults.
Although, the Tertiary tectonics has a prominent effect on Paleocene rocks (Jadoon,
1994).
The Kadanwari area is characterized by a series of horst and graben structure

present almost below the base Paleocene. Kadanwari area represents the eastward dipping
basin margin dissected into horst and graben structures by basinward extending step
faults (Zaigham, 2000). The faults extend to the basement which resulted in basin
subsidence. As the rifting stopped, these faults terminate at the Base Tertiary boundary
and the younger formations are not effected by them.
. During the development of these faults, no major compressional forces acted.

Thin to medium bedded cyclic lithologies provide an excellent trap mechanism for
hydrocarbons near the fault lines. After the deposition of Late Jurassic Chiltan Limestone
the depocenter of sediments moved toward east during Early Cretaceous. The area is
represented by basin margin facies.
18
Figure 3.1: Location, regional geology and structure of the study area, (modified
after Ahmed et al., 2013).
3.5 Early Cretaceous Paleogeography of the Lower Indus Basin
Throughout the Cretaceous, marine deposition continued in the Lower Indus

Basin, progressing from mainly fine clastics with some carbonates, upward to limestone
and marls with local sandstone and conglomerates (Bender 1995).
19
The facies distribution during Early Cretaceous reveals a steadily subsiding basin
parallel to, and west of, the assumed basin edge, with a coal bearing deltaic sandstone
belt north of 30 latitude (Bender 1995).
3.6 Stratigraphy of the Area
3.6.1 Introduction
One of the most important breaks in deposition during Mesozoic Era took place
near the top of the Middle Jurassic which can be correlated with a major global
regression event. Contrary to this, there is no noticeable unconformity in the Aptian times
during, another, global sea level regression. The Cenomanian transgression, however,
deepened the basin and resulted in deposition of thick carbonate and argillaceous facies
during the Cretaceous time (Kadri, 1995).
3.6.2 Rocks of the Cretaceous System
Rocks of the Cretaceous system are of a more heterogeneous composition and include
sedimentary and volcanic facies in parts of the Axial Belt and Lower Indus Basin as
shown in Figure 3.2.
The Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary is marked by a major, unconformity

throughout the Indus Basin. It is very unlikely that continued sedimentation through this
boundary occurred in Lower Indus Basin. As compared to Mesozoic time, the
depocenters for Tertiary rocks gradually shifted eastward, rendering the Axial Belt region
as an important sediment-supply source by the close of Eocene time. Another notable
characteristic of the Tertiary system is that distinct sedimentary package. (=equivalent of
Group) are of comparatively short-duration, separated by widespread unconformities.
These unconformities are present at the end of the Paleocene, Early Eocene, Middle
Eocene and the Early Oligocene (Shah, 2009).
20
Figure 3.2: Generalized stratigraphy of Lower Indus Basin (modified after Shah 1977).
3.6.3 Lithostratigraphic Units of the Area
Following are the rocks encountered in Kadanwari and surrounding areas.
21
3.6.3.1 Chiltan Limestone/Takatu Formation
It is the Massive Limestone of Vredenburg (1909), the Takatu Limestone and

uppermost formation of the Sulaiman Group of Williams (1959) and Woodward (1959)
respectively, and Chiltan Limestone of HSC (1961).
In Sulaiman and Kirthar fold and thrust belt, Chiltan Limestone contains a wide
variety of limestone, coarse pelletal, lumpy, skeletal and oolitic limestone comprise the
bulk of the formation. Colour varies from dark to very light grey and brown to brownish
grey. Beds are usually thick to very thick. Intra formational conglomerates have been
found in the Takatu Range and in the vicinity of Morghi Nala (Shah, 2009). The Chiltan
Limestone crops out in the northern fold belt near Quetta, forming high hill in the area
and extended southward up to the vicinity of Kalat. It is present in the Sulaiman Range
and beneath the Marri-Bughti hills. The thickness of the Chiltan Limestone at the type
section is 800 m and in between 600 and 980 m elsewhere.
The Chiltan Limestone is also encountered in the subsurface in Jandran well near
Kohlu, Giandari well Jhatpat and Khairpur wells. The Chiltan formation was drilled in
wells including Nabisar, Digh, Patar, and Talhar. A thickness of 420 m in the Nabisar
well comprised of Chiltan shelf limestone with pisolitic to oolitic texture, increased to
more than 983 m in the Digh well (OGDC-TSD, 1984). In the eastern part of the Central
Indus basin Jurassic was encountered in the Bahawalpur East, Karampur, Tola, Sarai
Sidhu, Budhuana, Kamiab, Nandpur, and Panjpir wells. It is comprised of sandstone,
shale, limestone, and dolomite with a maximum thickness of 321 m. In the central part of
the basin it is comprised of limestone interbedded with with shale, as encountered in the
Khairpur, Jacobabad, Jhatpat, Giandari, Tadri, and Jandran wells with the maximum
thickness of 2,112 m drilled in the Jhatpat well (Quadri., et al, 1996).
The Chiltan Limestone overlies the Shirinab Formation with a gradational

contact. In some areas, the upper limestone is not developed and the Chiltan Limestone
has, a disconformable, contact with the overlying Sembar, Formation.
22
3.6.3.2 Sembar Formation
The former names are Belemnite Beds of Oldham (1892), Belemnite Shales
of Vredenburg (1909) and basal parts of Parh series (Cretaceous Period) of Hunting
Survey Corporation (1961).
The Sembar Formation consists mainly of silty shale of black colour. It is

interbedded with siltstone and nodular argillaceous limestone layers. The presence of
substantial amount of glauconite imparts greenish hue to weathered surface of the
formation. Pyrite and phosphatic nodules with sandy and silty shales are present locally.
The shales of Sember Formation are proven hydrocarbon source as non-conventional
paly.
3.6.3.3 Goru Formation
Goru Formation, outcropped in western part of the basin, consist mainly of

interbedded limestone, shales and siltstone. The limestone is light grey in color and is
thin bedded. The interbedded shale is generally thin, irregularly bedded and dark
coloured, but in some location it is calcareous, hard, splintery and grey to olive green. In
the upper part of the Goru Formation, the amount of limestone increases and it resembles
the overlying Parh Limestone. The basal part of the Goru Formation commonly consists
of limestone with minor shale intercalations.
The Goru Formation drilled in Kadanwari area of Lower Indus Basin commonly
contains a high percentage of sandstone which has not been recognized in the folded belt
where in subsurface, the lower Goru is predominantly sand of light grey colour , fine to
coarse grained and alternates with siltstone, with hard beds of grey, sandy, carbonaceous
shale.
Most of the Petroleum exploration companies have introduced their own

classification for the lower Goru Facies. One of them from Oil and Gas Devalopment
Company (OGDCL) is shown below.
23
Lower Goru shale Unit

Sand Above Basal Sand
Shale Unit
Basal Sand
Talhar shale
Massive Sand
The Goru Formation is widely exposed in Kirthar Province, Sulaiman Province,

and adjoining areas of Calcareous Zone of Axial Belt. At the type section, the Goru
Formation is 600 m thick the vicinity of Quetta, it is only about 70 m thick while in the
extreme southern part of the Kirthar Province and in wells drilled in the areas, its
thickness exceeds 1000 m. In Kadanwari area Upper Goru Formation is about 500m thick
and Lower Goru Formation is about 1200m thick.
3.6.3.4 Ranikot Group
The Ranikot Group consists of all the Paleocene formation in the Lower Indus
Basin. For proper appreciation of various facies variations in the Sulaiman Province and
parts of the Axial Belt, another set of three formation follow which includes in
descending order, Khadro formation , Rakhi Gaj Formation and Dungan Formation.
Rehman Dhro (Lat. 26 04 06 N ; Long. 67 55 40 E) in Lakhi Range for the

Kirthar Province and the Rakhi Nala (Lat. 29 57 14 N; Long 70 01 30 E) in the
D.G Khan District, for the Sulaiman facies.
In the Sulaiman province, the lower part of the Group consists of medium to light
grey shales, olive grey and fine grained sandstone and limestone of medium light grey
with yellowish orange stains (Khadro Formation). It is followed by shales with
subordinate amount of sandstone and with some bands of limestone (Rakhi Gaj
Formation. The rocks of the Ranikot Group are well developed in the Kirthar and
Sulaiman Provinces and the adjoining parts of the Axial Belt. Bara and Lakhra formation
are confined to the Kirthar Province. Khadro is well developed in both the provinces. The
RanIkot Group at the type locality in Rahman Dhoro is 820 m thick. In the Kirthar
24
Province, the maximum thickness of about 1740 m is reported from the drill hole at Sari
sing. About 600 m thickness of the Group is reported from the Rakhi Nala. The average
thickness of the Ranikot Group in the Sulaiman Province and adjoining Axial Belt is 370
m.
The Group unconformably overlies various Late Cretaceous Formation in

different parts of the Lower Indus Basin, it is overlain unconformably, in the kirthar
Province by Lakhi Formation. In the rest of the areas, it is generally conformable with the
overlying Eocene units.
3.6.3.5 Sui Main Limestone
It is the Eocene Limestone with thin bands of shale and marl. Sui Main Limestone
is 70m thick in Kadanwari area. Mostly, this productive limestone is present in the
subsurface.
Limestone is off white to white, light grey, soft to medium hard, microcrystalline,
chalky in nature and argillaceous. Shale is Light greenish grey, light olive grey,
moderately hard, sub-fissile, laminated, splintery and calcareous
3.6.3.6 Ghazij Group
The term Ghazij was introduced by Oldham (1890) for the shale formation
between the Dungan Formation and Spintangi limestone in areas southeast of Harnai. The
stratigraphic committee of Pakistan renamed the unit as Ghazij Group and approved it
with four of its constituent formations; namely: Shaheed Ghat, Drug, Toi, and Baska
formations. Ghazij Group consists mainly of gypsiferous shale, claystone, gritty
limestone, friable sandstone and gypsum of commercial interest. It is almost 600m thick
in Kadanwari area.
3.6.3.7 Nari Gaj Siwalik and Alluvium Formation
The remaining Formation of Cenozoic era is considered as remnants. The

formations have not any importance in term of oil and gas (Gilbert Killing et al, 2002).
25
3.7 Hydrocarbon Potential of the Area
The Lower Goru sands of Lower Cretaceous especially the middle and upper
sands are producing in full swing since 1954, the first discovery in Sindh. The trapping
mechanism is usually combined structural and stratigraphic. The mixed lithology of shale
and sandstone has played a useful role in the formation of seal and reservoir respectively.
The en echelon extensional faults with horst and graben structures between them are the
main structural features of the area. The petroleum play properties are as follows;
Figure 3.3: Generalized stratigraphy and petroleum play properties of Lower Indus Basin
(modified after Ahmed, 2013)
26
The shales of Sembar and Lower Goru Formation are the main source rocks of the
area
The Lower Goru sands with high effective porosity in upper part are the main
reservoir rocks of the area.
The alternating shale beds covering the detached sandstones of Lower Goru and
the thick carbonaceous shales of Upper Goru are the main lateral and vertical
seals of the area.
27
CHAPTER # 04
Subsurface Structural Analysis of Kadanwari Area 2012-14
CHAPTER # 04
Subsurface Structural Analysis of Kadanwari Area
4.1 Review of Seismic Method

Geophysical methods respond to differences in the physical properties of rocks. Figure
4.1 is a schematic illustration of a geophysical survey. Over the area of interest,
instruments are deployed in the field to measure variations in a physical parameter
associated with variations in a physical property of the subsurface. The measurements are
used to infer the geology of the survey area. The seismic method is an active form of
geophysical surveying that uses elastic waves to investigate the subsurface. The waves
are created by a source and propagate through the subsurface before being recorded by
Detectors that measure deformation of the ground.
Figure 4.1: Illustration of seismic exploration method.
28
4.2 Wave Types
The waves used in the seismic method are of short duration; they are actually
wavelets rather than continuous waves. A wavelet can be defined in terms of the
interference of a series of waves of different amplitude, frequency and phase. There are
two main types of seismic waves;
Body waves
Surface waves
4.2.1 Body Waves
There are two types of body wave. The first type is like sound waves. As they
propagate, the rocks undergo a series of uniaxial compressions and tensions causing a
point in the subsurface to oscillate along the direction of propagation. These waves travel
more quickly than other kinds of seismic wave; they are thus the first to be detected and
are called primary (or P-) waves.
In the second kind of body wave, the strain associated with the passage of the
wave is a shear strain oriented perpendicular to the direction of propagation with
individual points oscillating in planes normal to the propagation direction. These waves
arrive after the primary waves and, being secondary, are commonly known as S-waves.
4.2.2 Surface Waves

The most important surface wave in seismic surveying is the Rayleigh wave,
informally called ground roll. During the passage of a Rayleigh wave, the motion of a
point is elliptical in the plane containing the vertical and the direction of wave
propagation. The associated deformation involves shear strain, so these waves cannot
exist in a fluid. The amplitude of Rayleigh waves decreases exponentially with depth
below the surface. In this respect they are similar to water waves; a swimmer can easily
dive under the surf at the beach.
29
4.3 Seismic Velocity
The velocity of seismic P waves in a homogeneous solid is a function of elastic

constants and the density of the solid (W.M. Telford, 1990).
Speedbodywave =
The density of the rocks generally increases with depth, while elastic constants
are relatively insensitive to pressure. A high value of elastic constant indicates a greater
resistance to deformation. Birch (1966) shows wide ranges in the velocity of any given
rock type, as illustrated in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: Measurement of velocity in different rock types reported by Birch (1966).
Whereas most rocks are mixtures of different minerals, even if we consider a rock
of same mineral such as sandstone composed mainly of quartz, we would encounter a
30
wide range of velocity values. Thats because sedimentary rocks differ from
homogeneous solids. The sedimentary rocks possess granular structure with voids
between the grains. These voids are responsible for the porosity of rocks which is the
important factor in determining velocity (Sheriff & Geldart, 1983). Apart from that, age
of the rock is also an important factor in determining velocity. An older would have a
higher velocity, having been subjected for a longer time to pressures and other factors
that might increase its velocity (Faust, 1951). The presence of oil or gas in pore spaces
also effects velocity as gas is more compressible than oil and same is the case of oil with
water. Even a small amount of gas may lower the velocity appreciably (Domenico, 1977).
The seismic velocity increases systematically with depth in areas of moderately

uniform geology, such as the Punjab platform which shows relatively little lateral
variation in velocity from area to area. Contrary to that, areas subjected to structural
deformation and uplift such as marginal fold and thrust belts of Indus basin, exhibit rapid
horizontal variation of velocity from area to area.
The velocity of S waves is much less (about half) than that of P waves, the factor
that varies with the lithology and is used to determine lithology (Domenico, 1984). The
velocity of S waves is insensitive to pores fluid in contrast to that of P waves. Thus a
variation in P wave to S wave velocity ratio is used to indicate hydrocarbons.
4.9 Seismic Data Acquisition And Processing

4.9.1 Survey design
For 2D surveys, recordings are made using a linear spread along one or more
traverses, ideally forming a regular dip- and strike-line network of perpendicular lines.
For a straight line traverse and an end-on spread source, the reflection points form a
straight line and are spaced at half the distance between the individual detectors. When a
3D seismic survey conducted on land, ideally the spread comprises parallel detector-lines
and sources located along a perpendicular line.
31
4.4.2 Seismic Sources
The ideal seismic source creates a wavelet that has short duration and high
energy. Short duration improves survey resolution, and higher energy produces a wavelet
with higher amplitude making it easier to detect the seismic signal within background
noise. The greater the distance the waves must travel from the source to the detectors
(equating to greater depth penetration for reflection surveys), the greater is the energy
required to counter the effects of attenuation and energy partitioning.
A seismic sources ultimate function is to deform the Earth and generate elastic
waves. The most common seismic sources for land surveys are explosives, impact
devices and a vibrating impact technology known as Vibroseis. Explosives and impact
devices produce a short duration pulse of energy. The widespread use of explosives has
led to the seismic source often being referred to as the shot, and the term fired meaning
activation of the source. Impact devices range from a sledge hammer to mobile
machinery incorporating a heavy mass which is dropped to the ground. Vibroseis
introduces seismic energy into the ground via a vehicle-mounted vibrating base plate.
4.4.3 Seismic Detectors
Land-based seismic detectors are known as geophones. These are a form of

microphone which converts the velocity of the ground motion associated with the passage
of a seismic wave into a voltage response. Large-scale land surveys require hundreds to
thousands of detectors, so logistics and survey economics require that these are cheap,
small, light and easy to deploy. Normally only the vertical component of ground velocity
is measured since this corresponds with the direction of motion of the ground for P-waves
travelling steeply upwards. The position of the detector is taken as the centre of the group
and their spacing is known as the group interval.
4.4.4 Data Processing
The three operations fundamental to the processing of seismic reflection data are
stacking, deconvolution and migration. All other processing operations are designed to
32
improve the effectiveness of these three operations, either by attenuating noise or by

making the data better conform to the assumptions inherent in the operations.
Deconvolution is a means of manipulating the characteristics of the signal wavelet, in
particular reversing some of the detrimental consequences of its passage through the
subsurface. Stacking combines traces recorded at finite sourcedetector offsets into a
much smaller number of equivalent zero-offset recordings and in so doing improves the
signal-to-noise ratios. Migration is a process that moves features in the seismic section so
that they are in their correct relative positions.
4.5 Geological controls on Seismic properties
The important conclusions to be drawn from the above descriptions of the geological
controls on seismic velocity and density are:
When porosity is small, seismic properties are mainly controlled by

mineralogy/lithology.
When porosity exceeds about 10% it becomes the dominant control on seismic
properties.
In porous rocks, the type and state of the pore contents are important controls on
seismic properties. Important factors include differential pressure and whether the
pore contents are liquid, gaseous or solid.
Serpentinisation significantly reduces the velocity and density of mafic and
ultramafic rocks.
Most kinds of metallic and sedimentary mineralization (coal, evaporites) have
seismic properties that contrast with their host rocks, with the pyrite content of
metallic mineralization being an important factor.
Faults and fault rocks may be associated with seismic property contrasts.
Complex variations in seismic properties are to be expected in the near-surface
owing to the effects of varying amounts of clay minerals and, in particular,
variations in porosity.
Attenuation is less in crystalline rocks.
33
It is essential to interpret seismic data in the context of these observations, and when
making comparisons with geological data to acknowledge that lithology has only a partial
control on seismic responses.
4.6 Data Presentation
The data is acquired from the student domain of LMKR with the help of
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Sargodha. The types of data used are
Navigation files, SEGY files, scanned seismic lines and well data in the form of LAS
format.
4.6.1 Navigation Data

Two navigation files which contain the co-ordinates of the lines TJ88-207, TJ89-
508, TJ89-510 and TJ89-512 were acquired. The line TJ88-207 is the strike line while
TJ89-508, TJ89-510 and TJ89-512 are the dip lines. These lines were acquired on the
Kadanwari Field of Lower Indus Basin by Lasmo Oil during seismic survey in 1988 and
1989.
4.6.2 SEG Y Data

The seismic lines used are in SEG Y format. The Migrated Seg Y data of the lines
TJ88-207, TJ89-508, TJ89-510 and TJ89-512 is used for the study area. Table 4.1
illustrates the detail of seismic lines used in this study.
34
Sr.NO Line Name Shot Points Direction Type Quality
1 TJ88-207 99-1047 NNE-SSW Strike Fair
2 TJ89-508 105-310 N-E Dip Poor
3 TJ89-510 105-335 N-E Dip Poor
4 TJ89-512 105-380 N-E Dip Fair
Table 4.1 Seismic lines and their information of the study area
4.6.3 Well Data
The well data is acquired in LAS format with their formation tops. The totals of
four wells (Kadanwari-01, Kadanwari-03, Kadanwari-10 and Kadanwari-11) were
originally acquired from LMKR but only three wells are used due the poor quality data of
Kadanwari-03.
4.6.4 Scanned Sections of the Seismic Lines
The printouts of the seismic lines were used for manual interpretation and velocity
time analysis. The results of the manual interpretation were correlated with software
generated results to make any correction if any.
4.6.5 Tying Seismic Lines
For the purpose of correlation and clear interpretation, all the dip lines are tied
against the strike line. The lines acquired in different parameters such as stacking
velocity, processing and tools used during acquisition, can have misties during
intersection. These misties can be accommodated by shifting time values during
intersection.
35
Line No Intersection Shift (Time)
TJ89-508 TJ88-207 -26
TJ89-510 TJ88-207 70
TJ89-512 TJ88-207 95
TABLE 4.2 Time shift applied to different lines during intersection to remove misties.
4.6.6 Methodology for Interpretation

Interpreting a 2D geophysical dataset in terms of geology is, in many ways,
similar to interpreting geology from an aerial photograph; both involve pattern
recognition and geological inference based on limited information. In both cases, the
resultant map is an approximation of the actual geology. The geological data are primary,
but they are limited to areas of outcrop and perhaps drilling. Although the geophysical
data are secondary, they usually have the distinct advantage of being continuously
sampled across the area and are, therefore, a valuable aid when interpolating the geology
between outcrops. Of course they also contain information about the geology at depth.
In this study Petrel Software is used for the following steps;
Target horizon demarcation

Fault picking
Velocity-Time Analysis
Time and depth contour maps of the horizons
4.7 Stratigraphic Analysis
Stratigraphic analysis involves the subdivision of seismic sections into sequences

of reflections that are interpreted as the seismic expression of genetically related
sedimentary sequences.
36
Basic principle in the seismic stratigraphic analysis is that reflections are taken to
define chronostratigraphic units because interfaces that produce them are the stratal
surfaces. Unconformities can be mapped from the divergence pattern of reflections on a
seismic section. The presence of unconformable contacts on a seismic section provides
important information about the depositional and erosional history of the area and on the
environment existing during the time, when the movements took place. The success of
seismic reflection method in finding stratigraphic traps varies with the type of trap
involved. Most such entrapment features are reefs, unconformities, disconformities,
facies changes, pinch-outs and other erosional truncations (Sheriff, 1999).
A Jurassic massive carbonates horizon is marked to differentiate rocks of our

interest. Chilton Formation is found to be disturbed by basement associated extensional
faults. Basement observed in seismic line TJ88-207 shows some disturbance and is cross
cut by two faults.
All the other reflectors are picked on the basis of velocity time analysis of the
seismic lines and correlation of depth converted sections with the formation tops
provided with well data. Formation reflectors marked on the strike line TJ88-207 are
shown in figure 4.4.
Figure 4.3: Trace of seismic line TJ88-207.
37
Figure 4.4: Formation reflectors marked on the strike line.
4.8 Structural Analysis
In structural interpretation main emphasis is on the structural traps and combined

structural and stratigraphic traps in which tectonics play an important role. The emphasis
was also on the role of fault in entrapping hydrocarbons by acting as a seal. Tectonic
setting usually governs which types of structures are present and how the structural
features are correlated with each others, so tectonics of the area is helpful in determining
the structural style of the area and to locate the traps. Structural traps include the faults
anticlines, duplex etc. (Sheriff, 1999). The structural interpretation of the study area is
shown in figures 4.6, 4.8 and 4.10.
38
Figure 4.6: Interpretation of line TJ89-512.
39
Seismic sections can predict the structure that scale up to few tens of kilometers.
For large scale interpretation we have to use the grids of seismic lines. Unmigrated
section is not suitable for structure interpretation, because it creates many problems like
synclines becomes narrows and vice versa. Even a migrated section not fully fit for a
complex area (Badley, 1984).
40
Figure 4.8: Interpretation of line TJ89-510.
The structural interpretation of seismic lines TJ89-512, TJ89-510 and TJ89-508

indicate that two major extensional faults stepping towards west are present in Kadanwari
area. Cretaceous rocks are down warped due to extensional forces near fault boundaries
in both faults. The examination of producing well placement shows that these faults are
acting as a lateral seal in petroleum play.
41
Figure 4.10: Interpretation of line TJ89-508
42
4.8.1 Time Structure Maps
For the preparation of Time contours maps all four lines have been utilized.
Seven Time contour maps have been prepared on five horizons (Top of Ranikot to Top of
Chiltan). Each horizon has its Time contour map which explains its two travel time on
whole study area by making in the form of grids. These maps of each reflector also show
the subsurface structure of that reflector. Different colors show the depth variation and
contours are also computed on them which show the two way arrival time. With the help
of these maps we can interpret the faults, folds and other geological subsurface
structure. All the TWT structure maps are shown in figures 4.11, 4.12, 4.13, 4.14, 4.15,
4.16 and 4.17 respectively.
Figure 4.11: Two way travel time structure map of top Ranikot.
43
Figure 4.12: Two way travel time structure map of top Upper Goru.
Figure 4.13: Two way travel time structure map of top Lower Goru.
44
Figure 4.14: Two way travel time structure map of top Aptian Sand.
Figure 4.15: Two way travel time structure map of top Albian Sand.
45
Figure 4.16: Two way travel time structure map of top Sember Formation.
Figure 4.17: Two way travel time structure map of top Takatu Formation.
46
Figure 4.18: Structure mash from Ranikot Formation to Takatu Formation with faults.
4.8.2 Depth Structure Maps
Depth structure maps represent the subsurface topography and structure of the
selected horizon. For this purpose velocity time analysis is done for relevant horizon and
the TWT maps are converted into depth maps. Figure 4.22 correlates the well tops with
the depth structure maps created through seismic lines. Most of the wells are drilled near
the fault line where the stratum is converged. The depth structure maps are shown in
figures from 4.19 to 4.25.
47
Figure 4.19: Depth structure map of top Ranikot.
Figure 4.20: Depth structure map of top Upper Goru.
48
Figure 4.21: Depth structure map of top Lower Goru.
Figure 4.22: Depth structure map of top Aptian Sand.
49
Figure 4.23: Depth structure map of top Albian Sand.
Figure 4.24: Depth structure map of top Sember Formation.
50
Figure 4.25: Depth structure map of top Takatu Formation.
Figure 4.26: Depth structure maps mosaic with wells and Formation tops.
51
CHAPTER # 05
Well Log Analysis and Sequence Stratigraphy 2012-14
CHAPTER # 05
Well Log Analysis and Sequence Stratigraphy
The classification of stratigraphic units and surfaces in the context of sea level
cycles, termed sequence stratigraphy, is now accepted as an imperative approach to
correlating sedimentary units in depositional settings from marginal marine to the
continental slope and adjacent abyssal plain. Sea level cycles, whether relative or
eustatic, serve to record the passage of time, creating recognizable and more or less
regular time markers in the stratigraphic record. These markers, primarily maximum
flooding surfaces and unconformities, define the maximum and minimum sea level
stands.
Figure 5.1: Basic Cycle of sequence development (after Heinz & Aigner, 2003).
52
5.1 Well Logs Review
The continuous recording of geophysical properties of rocks in subsurface are

known as well logs or simply logs. Well logs provide the information, such as natural
radioactivity, spontaneous potential, resistivity and conductivity. Logs fill the gap
between cuttings and cores and contain enough information to put outcrop reality into the
subsurface.
Wireline logs are recorded after the drilling tools are extracted out of the hole as
opposed to LWD (logging while drilling) which record the formation during drilling.
Nowadays most logs are recorded digitally and the data representing each logging run is
fed into the computer. The activity involves the cleaning and stabilizing the hole,
lowering of logging tool to maximum depth and running the logs while pulling the tool
up from the bottom of the hole. Logging tools are designed to work in high pressure and
high temperature environments of the borehole.
5.1.1 Caliper Logs
Caliper tool measure the variations in borehole diameter with depth. The
measurements are made by two articulated arms pushed against the borehole wall.
Caliper log is usually used as a correction to many geophysical logs.
5.1.2 Self-Potential or SP Logs
The SP log measures the natural potential difference between electrodes in the
borehole and at the surface respectively. No external currents are applied to the electrodes
when the tool measures the SP currents created by the salinity difference between mud
filtrate and formation water. SP log is used to measure the formation water resistivity and
shale volume. It also indicates the grain size relationship in facies modeling.
53
5.1.3 Resistivity and Conductivity Logs
Resistivity logs are the pioneer of all the geophysical logs which measure the
formation resistivity usually by measuring the resistivity of formation fluids. Rocks
containing salt water will be less resistant to current flow than the rocks containing fresh
water or hydrocarbons. Former is the case for all rocks except shale with negatively
charged clay minerals. These clay minerals act as a conductor of electricity and can lead
to wrong interpretation. The principle use of resistivity logs analogous to their former use
is to detect hydrocarbons. However, a formation resistivity also provides the information
about lithology, texture and facies. The motifs of deep induction log are used to mark
grain size trends in sequence stratigraphy.
5.1.4 The Gamma Ray Logs
The gamma ray log measures the formations radioactivity. Three elements
Uranium, Thorium and Potassium are the main source of radiations. Shale has the most
Potassium content off all the rocks and gives a high value on gamma ray log. The
principle use of gamma ray log is to evaluate shale volume. In sequence stratigraphy
gamma ray log is used to evaluate grain size relationship and to identify condensed
sections.
5.1.5 Density Logs
Measurement of bulk density is measured through density logs. Bulk density is a

function of the density of the minerals forming a rock and the volume of free fluids which
it encloses. Density log is used to calculate porosity of the formation. The trends of
density log are useful in sequence stratigraphy to develop grain size relationships.
5.1.6 Photoelectric Factor Log (PEF)

The Photoelectric Factor or PEF log is a continuous record of effective
photoelectric absorption cross section index or PE of a formation. The Photoelectric
absorption effect is strongly dependent on the average atomic number of the constituents
of the formation which implies the lithology.
54
Figure 5.2: Photoelectric effect of different minerals.
5.2 Data Set and Methodology
The data used in this research include the wells shown in the following table.
Table 5.1: Kadanwari wells used for interpretation
55
All the log runs are available in Kadanwari-01 from top to bottom. In Kadanwari-
10 and Kadanwari-11 all the logs are available only in the reservoir portion of the well.
So the main focus of this interpretation was on Gamma ray log which is available from
top to bottom in all the wells.
The methodology for sequence stratigraphic analysis from well logs includes the
following steps:
Petrophysical analysis
Lithology reconstruction
Electrosequence analysis
Facies identification
Identification of sequence stratigraphic surfaces
Sequence model
5.3 Petrophysical Analysis
Petrophysics is a set of modern tools that are used in the oil and gas industry to
understand the physical behavior of the rocks that may contain hydrocarbons.
Petrophyscial properties of Kadanwari area in three different wells are described below
and correlation of their petrophysical properties is also discussed at the end.
5.3.1 Cross Plots
For making the cross plots of log signature curves, Kindgom 8 is utilitized by
importing LAS files These LAS files made log response curves in the zones where the
particular tools were run in the wells i.e. if sonic transit time readings are taken in the
interested zone of expected reservoir then log signatures would be shown in that zone
only. After successfully generating the log curves, formation tops giving the depths of the
upper level of the formations encountered in the oil well, are added to the database that
marked the formation boundaries on the log curves. Neutron-Density cross plots are
generated in three different tracks shown in Figures; 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3.
56
Figure 5.3: Neutron-Density cross plot of Cretaceous strata in Kadanwari-01. Yellow

color is representing the Sandstone, Blue color is representing the Limestone and dark
grey color is representing the shale.

57

From the above cross plots it has been observed that the shale and marl content is
decreasing with depth. The main zones of sandstone are at above and below 3400m
depth, interpreted as Aptian Sands on the seismic lines, in all the wells. The massive
sandstones at the base of Lower Goru are only shown in Kadanwari-1 as they were not
drilled in Kadanwari-10 and11. The limestone is only present close to the 3200 depth and
at the top of Upper Goru Formation.
5.3.2 Petrophysical Analysis of Kadanwari-01
The parameters of interest like effective porosity, hydrocarbon content and shale
volume etc. are calculated and the resulted curves are shown in the Figure 5.4. The color
key in the figure aids to find presence and percentage of different factors. First of all
there is a Shale volume curve. During the course of this curve through the reservoir
58
Petrophysical Analysis of Well Logs
reaches the maximum percentage in the zones identified in the manual

interpretation earlier. The middle sandstone zone of Lower Goru Formation contains high
effective porosity and moved hydrocarbons and lies in the measured depth of about 3300-
3400 m. Shaly parts of Lower Goru Formation lies around 2950-3000 and 3400-3500m.
The massive sandstones lies at the base of the Lower Goru are showing no effective
porosity and cannot be suggested for hydrocarbon exploration in this area.
In figure 5.4 different petrophysical curves are shown as log display. Shale
percentage is high at about 3000m and 3130m depth. The sandstone present at about
3150m depth has the highest effective porosity. The thickness of the shale and sandstone
facies of the lower Goru Formation is increasing towards east as we move from
Kadanwari-01 to Kadanwari-10.
The petrophysical analysis of the well using Kingdom 8.6 software does not show
much difference of petrophysical properties between Kadanwari-10 and Kadanwari-11
wells.Effective Porosity varies from mostly 5% to 20% in sandstone units. A
hydrocarbon zone just above a very thin portion of Shale below 3200m is verified with a
hydrocarbon percentage ranging from 10-25% with water saturation of value of 5-20%.
Shales of Lower Goru Formation are also showing absence of any fluid.
5.4 Lithology Reconstruction from Well Logs
Interpretation of lithology from well logs is done by using all the logs registered
that include Gamma ray, Density, Neutron, Resistivity, Caliper, Self-potential and
Photoelectric (PEF) effect of formation. Using digital log records, all the runs from
Kadanwari-01 well are plotted on Kingdom 8.6 to get one composite plot. The final
lithological interpretation is done on this composite plot using all the logs. This
composite log is then transferred to a document with only the logs used for correlation.
Further corrections in lithology are applied by correlating the composite log of
59
Kadanwari-01 with Kadanwari-10 and Kadanwari-11. A check with the literature of local
geology, cross plots and petrophysical analysis of the rocks has been made to get the best
possible indirect lithology of the area. The absolute values of the logging tools response
shown below in Table 5.2 are used to interpret lithology. The most distinct bed
boundaries are drawn on the basis of log motifs of SFL and density logs.
Material Resistivity Gamma tma Density log Neutron PEF

porosity
(ohm ray (s/ft) (g/cm)
units
m/m) API (ma)
Sandstone Up to 1000 18-160 53-100 2.59-2.84 0-45 1.81
Limestone 80-6*10 18-100 47.6-53 2.66-2.74 0-30 5.08
Dolomite 1-7*10 12-100 38.5-45 2.8-2.99 0-30 3.14
Shale 0.5-1000 24-1000 60-170 2.65-2.7 25-75 3.42
Table 5.2: Logging tool response values from Serra (1972, 1979), Dresser atlas (1983),
Gearhart (1983).
5.5 Electrosequence Analysis
This section describes the system used for the identification and analysis of log-
based sequences or electrosequences. An electrosequence is an interval defined on
wireline logs, through which there are consistent or consistently changing log responses
and characteristics, sufficientaly distinctive to separate it from other electrosequences
(Rider, 1995). The objective of an electrosequence is to extract as much geological
information as possible, by identifying vertically continuous, depositional, stratigraphic,
and eventually sequence stratigraphic units. Electrosequence analysis involves all the log
runs and covers the entire well (Serra, 1972).
In this study all the well logs are ploted and depth correlated at the same scale.
The merged data document is then completed with a detailed lithological interpretation,
using the methods previously discussed in section 5.4.
60
5.5.1 Electrofacies Annotation
Electrofacies are defined as a suit of wireline log responses and characteristics

sufficiently distinctive to be able to be separated from other electrofacies. The principle
objective of an electrofacies annotation is to prepare the log set for an ultimate
interpretation of sequence stratigraphy.
Keeping in mind the scope of this study, major trends, shapes and abrupt breaks
are marked on the merged data document. A shale base line is marked on gamma ray log
at 100 API. A vertical sucessionof electrofacies is constructedinto log-based
electrosequences which are interpreted in terms of possible depositional environments,
facies, facies succession and stratigraphic breaks and unconformities.
5.6 Facies Description
Facies has been established by integrating the results from petrophysical analysis,
lithological interpretation and log motifs. Each facies has been given a special code
according to the age and formation, CLG-1. For example, age of formation is Cretaceous
(C), Name of the Formation is Lower Goru Formation (LG) and facies number (1) that
describes difference among facies. The following facies have been developed through
well logs interpretation. Their graphic illustration of facies is represented in the final log
of this chapter.
5.6.1 Shale Interbedded with Sandstone. CS-1
These facies represent the end of base level rise as the continuity of Sembar shales
is disturbed by the sandstone introduction. A little information is extracted about the
lower boundary of these facies due to its closure to the bottom of the well. As shown in
the facies and sequence log of this chapter, the upper boundary of these facies, at about
3800m depth, is represented by a sharp break on the gamma ray log where the value of
the gamma ray API abruptly changes from high to low. This represents a regressive
surface of erosion produced by the slow shoreline regression known as normal
regression.
61
5.6.2 Coarsening upward Massive Sandstone. CLG-1
These facies developed during rapid fall of base level with a high rate of sediment
influx. As shoreline shifts basinward, marginal marine sand facies developed basinward
eroding the previously deposited strata. A sharp break from high to low on gamma ray
log, at the base of these facies, indicates the regressive surface of erosion. These facies
developed during the forced regression of sea level, represented by Early Low Stand
System tract on the facies and sequence log. Random intercalations of shale beds in the
lower part indicate the turbidite deposits. These facies show the lowest effective porosity
on petrophysical analysis.
5.6.3 Shale Interbedded with Sandstone. CLG-2
These facies developed at the start of base level rise when the rate of base level
rise was lower than the rate of sediment supply resulting in an aggrading to prograding
shale-sand sequence. These facies are represented by a sharp break on gamma ray log
from low to high. Late Low Stand System tract of sequence-1 on the facies and sequence
log of this chapter is representing these facies.
5.6.4 Fining upward Shale Facies. CLG-3
These facies developed during the transgressive system tract. Trangressive

surface, at the base of these facies, is marked by a sharp increase in gamma ray value
from low to high. Minor beds of sandstone to siltstone are developed in the lower part. A
condensed section, very distinctive on the gamma ray, is developed in the upper part of
these facies marking the maximum flooding surface.
5.6.5 Upper Sandstone-Shale Facies. CLG-4
These facies developed at the end of base level rise when the rate of base level
rise was slower than the rate of sediment supply resulting in normal regression as shown
by High Stand System Tract of sequence-1 in the final log. Sandstone beds are present at
62
both ends of the shale sequence. This sandstone has high effective porosity and moved
hydrocarbons on the petrophysical analysis.
5.6.6 Coarsening upward Sandy Shale. CLG-5
These facies starts at a sharp increase in gamma ray value. The sandstone and
siltstone intercalations are evident from the gamma ray log motifs in the facies and
sequence log of this chapter. The upper surface is marked by the introduction of
calcareous shale sequence. These facies developed during the rapid fall of base level
resulting in forced regression.
5.6.7 Coarsening upward Calcareous Shale. CLG-6
These facies developed at the start of base level rise, when the rate of base level
rise was lower than the rate of sediment supply resulting in an aggrading to prograding
sequence. A limestone bed in the lower part is distinctive on the gamma ray log.
Calcareous shale lithology is represented on the gamma ray log and PEF values. The
upper contact of these facies marks the boundary between lower and upper Goru. These
facies are represented by Late LST of sequence-2 in the sequence stratigraphic log.
5.6.8 Marl Interbedded with Limestone. CUG-1
Limestone at the base of these facies marks the contact between Upper and Lower
Goru Formation. These facies developed during the rapid rise of base level, which is
distinctive on the gamma ray curve of the sequence log, when the rate of base level rise
was higher than the rate of sediment supply resulting in an overall transgression of sea
level. The upper boundary is marked by the maximum flooding surface.
5.6.9 Marl Interbedded with Shale.CUG-2
These facies are the last facies developed during the Cretaceous period in
Kadanwari area. Marl deposited during the start of base level rise when the rate of base
level rise was lower than the rate of sediment supply resulting in an overall aggrading
63
sequence as shown in the facies and sequence stratigraphic log. The upper boundary is
marked by the Base Tertiary unconformity.
5.7 Sequence Stratigraphic Surfaces
There are several Stratigraphic surfaces within a sequence that record changes of
base level and sediment supply through time. Each surface is related to the special event
and determines the timing and extent of each depositional system. Each surface can act as
sequence boundary at any scale. Surfaces marked in this study are as follows;
Subaerial Unconformity (SU)

Regressive Surface of Marine Erosion (RSME)
Maximum Regressive Surface (MRS) / Transgressive Surface
Maximum Flooding Surface (MFS)
5.7.1 Subaerial Unconformity (SU)

Subaerial Unconformity (SU) is defined as non-depositional or erosional surfaces
due to exposure of strata. It records the total time missing between the two set of strata. It
can be minor or major depending on the time of exposure and fall of base level. SU is
usually formed during forced regression and extends up to the end of forced regression
(Helland-Hansen and Martinsen, 1996). SU is linked with correlative conformity (CC)
towards center of the basin.
In this study Subarial unconformity is marked between Cretaceous Upper Goru

Formation and Paleocene Ranikot Formation.
5.7.2 Regressive Surface of Marine Erosion (RSME)
This surface was introduced by Hunt and Tucker (1992)for the erosional surface
formed during the rapid sea level fall. During this event the previously deposited strata
becomes highly vulnerable to deltaic channel or estuaries erosion. In well logs, this
surface can be easily identified by a sharp break from high to low in gamma ray values.
This surface is used as a sequence boundary in this study.
64
5.7.3 Maximum Regressive Surface (MRS)
This surface marks the start of transgression during base level rise. In well logs, it
is identified by a sharp increase in gamma ray value and an introduction of fining upward
trend in log motifs is present above this this surface in both sequences of the log.
5.7.4 Maximum Flooding Surface (MFS)
The Maximum Flooding Surface spots the end of transgression and start of new phase
of regression. Hence, this surface separates retro gradational strata below and progradational
strata above. Actually, this surface formed when sediment supply is very low. Unlike
Trangressive surface, MFS is easy to distinguish because of widespread condensed section
during transgressions. It is marked at sharp break from high to low on gamma ray log with
the minimal porosity on neutron log motif.
5.8 System Tracts
System tracts are the basic building blocks of any type of Stratigraphic sequence.
These are bounded by their associated surfaces at both ends or in other words these
surfaces decide the formation of any particular system tract. Each system tract show
special type of depositional pattern, which is a function of shoreline transgression and
regression (Posamentier and Allen, 1999). System Tracts used in this study are described
below.
Early Lowstand System Tract

Late Lowstand System Tract
Transgressive system Tract
Highstand System Tract
5.8.1 Highstand System Tract (HST)
Highstand System Tract is one of the components of depositional sequence

models II and IV which develops during final phase or during late stage of base-level rise
with high sediment supply in normal regression realms. At this stage rate of rise is under
65
sedimentation rate, which produces aggradational and progradational stacking pattern.

Maximum flooding surface lies at below HST. Hydrocarbons and coal reserves are
usually searched in Highstand system tract (Catuneanu, 2006).
5.8.2 Early Lowstand System Tract
A sequence system tract that is formed during rapid regression of shoreline is

called Early Lowstand System tract. It is comprised of shallow and deep-water facies
when SU is developing in non-marine portion of the sedimentary basin. It is bounded by
top with SU and it correlative conformity (Hunt and Tucker, 1992) and base by basal
surface of forced regression or oldest portion of Regressive surface of marine erosion.
5.8.3 Late Lowstand System Tract
Late LST is formed during early stage of base level rise in regressive realms or
during normal regression (Hunt and Tucker, 1992). It is bounded by unconformity and
correlative at the base and Transgressive Surface at the top. Late LST is not confined to
single depositional environment but it formed in all sedimentary environments i.e.
marine, transitional and non-marine systems. Staking pattern are dominated by aggrading
and prograding as it formed by more sediment supply that the rate of creation of
accommodation space.
5.8.4 Transgressive System Tract
Transgressive system tract is easy to interpret because it is bounded at base and

top by Transgressive surface and MFS respectively. This formed during rising sea level
when sedimentation amount is less than accommodation space. It is purely fining upward
sequence and distinguished by retrogradational stacking pattern. In this setting sediment
supply towards basin is stopped (Loutit et al, 1988) simply condensed section and SU are
formed in distal shelf and deep marine setting (Galloway, 1989).
66
5.9 Sequence Stratigraphic Model of Kadanwari Area
Lower Cretaceous rocks of Kadanwari area, Lower Indus Basin, differ from that
of Sulaiman and Kirthar fold belt especially in Lower Goru Formation. Most of the
fluctuations in lithology are only present in eastern part of Lower Indus Basin as it was
the basin margin at that time. The presence of Lower Goru sands in Kadanwari area is
also explained by the former model. The sequence stratigraphic model of this research
only involves the penetrated portion of the Cretaceous rocks.
Two sequences are interpreted in Kadanwari area on the basis of well logs. The
sequence model IV of Hunt and Tucker (1992) and Plint and Nummedal (2000) is applied
in this study. Sequence-I starts at the contact between Sember and Lower Goru where a
rapid base level fall prograde marginal marine deltaic sand facies on open shelf Sember
shales. A condensed section is identified at the top of Transgressive system tract of this
sequence. The upper and lower sequence boundries are marked on the regressive surface
of erosion.
All the sequence boundaries, surfaces and system tracts are illustrated in the final
log of this chapter.
5.10 Hydrocarbon Perspectives
From the petrophysical and sequence stratigraphic analysis it has been observed
that all the sandstone horizons except the basal massive sandstone have the reservoir
potential with a good effective porosity and move hydrocarbons. From these reservoir
sandstones, the sandstone at about 3150m depth is the most economical one. The shale at
about 3500m, 3400m, 3300m and 3100m is the effective seal rock. The percentage of
unmoved hydrocarbons in the Lower Goru Shale indicates a good hydrocarbon source
potential. The fault boundaries between horst and graben structure and step faults provide
the excellent seal in the region. Hydrocarbon play properties are illustrated in the final
log of this chapter.
67
CHAPTER # 06
Conclusion, Discussion & Recommendation 2012-14
Chapter # 06
Conclusion, Discussion and Recommendation
Kadanwari area represents the eastward dipping basin margin dissected into horst
and graben structures by basinward extending step faults. The faults extend to the
basement which resulted in basin subsidence. These faults terminate at the Cretaceous
Tertiary boundary as the younger formations are not effected by them. It concludes that
throughout the development of these extensional faults , post Cretaceous strata was not
deposited. It also concludes that during the development of these faults, no major
compressional forces acted. Thin to medium bedded cyclic lithologies provide an
excellent trap mechanism for hydrocarbons near the fault lines. The dip of the most fault
planes is almost 90 which make it difficult to spot the petroleum trap. On the contrary if
the angle of the fault plane is gentle then the hanging wall of the fault can act as good
seal.
After the deposition of Late Jurassic Chiltan Limestone,, the depocenter of

sediments moved toward east during Early Cretaceous. The Upper Jurassic- Lower
Cretaceous Sembar Formation formed an easterly wedging sequence which is evident on
seismic sections. The shales of sembar Formation absorbed the graben extension towards
Chiltan Limestone. The prograding sands of Lower Goru Formation indicate an overall
regression of shoreline during Early Cretaceous. The small scale well logs fluctuations,
representative of thin to medium bedded cyclic lithological variations, are due to the
deposition during fluctuating energy conditions.
Two sequences are developed on the basis of well logs analysis and the regressive
surface of erosion is used as sequence boundary analgous to Sequece II of Posamentier.
The contact of the Sembar Formation with Lower Goru Formation is marked, as sequence
boundary, at the last shale bed of Sembar Formation which is truncated by massive sands
of Lower Goru through basal erosion. This represents the rapid progradation of shoreline
facies on the basinal facies. It marked the start of regression during Lower Cretaceous
Period. Although, these massive sands lack reservoir properties because of the absence of
effective porosity or permeability.
68
Conclusion, Discussion & Recommendation 2012-14
From the well logs trends and facies analysis it has been observed that the
episodes of shoreline regression during Early Cretaceous were much higher than the
transgression episodes.
After the deposition of massive sandstone base level rises but the influx of
sediments was still high which resulted in aggrading to prograding shale-sandstone
sequence. The sandstone in these facies maintains high effective porosity and moved
hydrocarbons in petrophysical analysis. As the rate of base level rise overcame the rate of
sediment supply, shoreline transgressed and a fining upward thick shale facies developed.
A condensed section on top of these shale facies developed during the maximum
flooding. This condensed section is represented by a sharp increase in gamma ray log
motif.
The HST of the sequence I is represented by overall coarsening upward sand-

shale sequence. The sandstone of these facies has highest of effective porosity and
hydrocarbon content and is a proven good quality reservoir. Base level started to fall and
the Sequence boundary is marked at the top of these facies. Sequence II repeats itself
with same manner as sequence I except the sand influx was gone.
The contact between Upper and Lower Goru Formation is gradational and is
marked at the base of Upper Goru limestone bed. The percentage of limestone in Lower
Goru Formation is very low while the marl content increases as we move from Lower
Goru to Upper Goru.
Recommendations
This study is done by utilizing limited resources. Basinal scale study is required to
enhance the understanding of Cretaceous paleogeography and synchronous units. Due to
high lithology variations in Lower Goru Formation petroleum potential vary place-to-
place, so high resolution geophysical study of Cretaceous rocks is recommended to
understand all dimensions of Cretaceous sequence. High resolution geophysical study
will help to understand sand bodies geometry in basin scale because it may encompass
stratigraphic traps.
69
References
Abdel-Gawad, M., 1971. Wrench movements in the Baluchistan arc and relation to
Himalayan-Indian Ocean tectonics. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 82:1235-1250.
Ahmed N, Fink P, Sturrock S, Mahmood T, Ibrahim M (2004) Sequence stratigraphy as

predictive tool in Lower Goru Fairway, Lower and Middle Indus Platform,
Pakistan. PAPG, ATC
Ahmed, R. & Ahmad, J., 1991. Petroleum geology and prospects of Sukkur Rift Zone,
Pakistan with special reference to Jaisalmer, Cambay and Bombay High
Basins of India. Pak. J. hydrocarbon Res., 3(2): 33-42.
Ahmed R. & Ali, S. M., 1991. Tectonic and structural development of the eastern part of
Kirthar Fold Belt and its hydrocarbon prospects. Pak. J. Hydrocarbon Res.,
3(2): 19-32.
Ahmed R. & Ali, S. M. & Ahmad, J., 1992. Structural styles and hydrocarbon prospects
of Sibi foreland basin, Pakistan. Pak. Jr. Hydrocarbon Res., 4(1): 31-40.
Ahmad, S., Alam, Z., and Khan, A.R., 1996, Petroleum exploration and production
activities in Pakistan: Pakistan Petroleum Information Service, 72 p.
Ahmed, W., Azeem, A., Abid, M., Rasheed, A., and Aziz, K., 2013 Mesozoic structural
architecture of the Middle Indus Basin, Pakistan-control and implication, p2-
12, PAPG-SPE 2013.
Balakrishnan, T. S., 1977. Role of geophysics in the study of geology and tectonics.
Geophysical case histories of India, AEG, 1:9-27.
Badley, M. E., (1985), Practical Seismic Interpretation, D. Riedel Publishing Company

& International Human Resources Development Cooperation Dordrecht,
Holland.
70
Banks C. J. & Warburton, J., 1986. Passive-roof duplex geometry in the frontal
structures of the Kirthar and Suleiman mountain belt, Pakistan. J. Struc. Geol.,
8:229-237.
Blanford, W. T., 1876. On the geology of Sind. Geol. Surv. India, Rec. 9(1): 8-22.
Blanford, W. T., 1878. On the geology of Sind (Second notice) Geol. Surv. India, Rec.
11: 161-173.
Blanford, W. T., 1879. The geology of Western Sind. Geol. Surv. India, Mem. 17(1): 1-
210.
Bannert, D., A. Cheema, A. Ahmed and U. Schffer, 1992. The structural development of
the Western Fold Belt, Pakistan. Geologisches Jahrbuch, Vol. B80, p.3-60.
Courtillot, V., Besse, J., Vandamme, D., Montigny, R., Jaeger J. J. & Capetta, H., 1986.
Deccan flood baasalts at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary? Earth Planet. Sci.
Lett., 80: 361-374.
Catuneanu, O., 2006, Principles of sequence stratigraphy: Elsevier, Amsterdam, 375p.
Chris Ebdon, M.Wasimuddin, Arif H. Malik and Shakeel Akhter, 2004. Sequence
stratigraphy of the B Sand (Upper Sand, Lower Goru Formation) in the Badin
area: Implications for development and exploitation. PAPG-SPE Annual
Technical Conference proceedings special publication, pp. 179-196.
Cowards, M. P., Butler, R. W. H., Chambers, A. F., Graham, R. H., Izatt, C. N., Khan, M.
A., Knipe, R. J., Prior, D. J., Treloar, P. J. & Williams M. P., 1988. Folding
and imbrication of the Indian crust during Himalayan collision. Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. Lond., A 326: 89-116.
Davis, G. a. (1996). Structural Geology of Rocks and Regions (Vol. 2nd Ed.). New Yark:
John Wiley and sons Inc.
Frere, H. B. E., 1853. On the geology of a part of Sind. Quart. J. Geol. Soc. Lond., 9:
349-351.
71
Farah, A., Abbas. G., DeJong, K. A. & Lawrence, R. D., 1984. Evolution of the
lithosphere in Pakistan. Tectonophysics, 105: 207-227.
Farah, A. & DeJong, K. A. (eds.), 1979. Geodynamics of Pakistan. Geol. Surv. Pakistan.,
Quetta, 361p.
Farah, A. & Jafree, S. A. A., 1966. Regional gravity Survey of Thatta district, Hyderabad
division, West Pakistan. Geol. Surv. Pakistan, Rec., Vol. 18, pt. 2, 10p.
Farah, A., Mirza, M. A., Ahmad, M. A. & Butt, M. H., 1977. Gravity field of the buried
shield in the Punjab Plain, Pakistan. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 88: 1147-1155.
Fasset, J. E. & Durrani, N. A., 1994. Geology and coal resources of the Thar coal field,
Sindh Province, Pakistan. U. S. Geol. Sur. Open File Report, 94-167. 74p.
Fatmi, A. N., 1977. Mesozoic, In: Ibrahim Shah, S. M. (ed.): Stratigraphy of Pakistan.
Geol. Surv. Pak. Mem. 12: 29-56.
Fatmi, A. N., Hyderi, I. H., Anwar, M. & Mengal, J. M., 1986. Stratigraphy of Zidi
Formation (Ferozabad Group) and Parh Group (Mona Jhal Group),
Khuzdar District, Baluchistan, Pakistan. Geol. Surv. Pak., Rec. 75: 32p.
Fineti, I., Giorgetti, F. & Poretti, G., 1979. The Pakistani segment of the DSS-profile
Nanga Parbat- Karakul (1974-75). Boll. Geofis. Teorica ed Applicata, 21:
159-169.
Hedley, R., J. Warburton and J.D. Smewing, 2001. Sequence stratigraphy and tectonics in
the Kirthar Foldbelt, Pakistan. Proceedings of the SPE-PAPG Conference,
Islamabad, Pakistan, 2001, p. 1-11.
Humayun, M., Lillie, R. J. & Lawrence, R. D., 1991. Structural interpretation of eastern
Sulaiman fold belt and foredeep, Pakistan. Tectonics, 10: 299-324.
Hunting Survey Corp. Ltd. (HSC), 1960. Reconnaissance Geology of part of West
Pakistan. A Colombo Plan Co.operative Project, Toronto, 550p. (Published for
Govt. of Pakistan by Govt. of Canada).
72
I.E.D.S., 1995, A sequence stratigraphic study of the Lower Goru Sembar Formations
of Lower and Middle Indus Basins of Pakistan and Rajasthan. Multiclient
study.
Iqbal, M. W. A. & Shah, S. M. I., 1980. A guide to the stratigraphy of Pakistan. Geol.
Surv. Pak., Rec. 53: 34p.
Jadoon, I. A. K., 1991. Style and evolution of foreland structures: an example from the
Sulaiman lobe, Pakistan. Pak. J. Hydrocarbon Res., 3: 1-17.
Jadoon, I. A. K, & Khurshid, A., 1996. Gravity and Tectonic model across the Sulaiman
fold belt and the Chaman fault zone in western Pakistan and eastern
Afghanistan. Tectonophysics 254: 89-109.
Jadoon, I. A. K., Lawrence, R. D. & Lillie, R. J., 1992. Balanced and retrodeformed
geological cross section from the frontal Sulaiman Lobe, Pakistan: Duplex
development in thick strata along the western margin of the Indian plate. In:
McClay, K. (ed.) Thrust Tectonics. Chapman Hall, London, 343-356.
Jadoon, I. A. K., Lawrence, R. D. & Lillie, R. J., 1994. Seismic data geometry, evolution,
and shortening in the active Sulaiman fold-and-thrust belt of Pakistan, south
of the Himalayas. AAPG Bulletin 78(5): 758-774.
Jadoon, I. A. K., Lawrence, R. D. & Lillie, R. J., 1994. Balanced structural cross-section
of the sulaiman Lobe, Pakistan: Evolution, geometry, shortening and
hydrocarbon prospects of a thrust system at the western terminus of the Indian
Plate. Pak. J. Hydrocarbon Res., 5 (1 & 2): 15-36.
Johnson, B. D., Powell, C. M. A. & Veevers, J. J., 1976. Spreading history of the eastern
Indian Ocean, and Greater Indias northward flight from Antarctica and
Australia. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 87: 1560-1566.
Kendall, CG.St.C., 2003, USC Sequence Stratigraphy Well Log Interpretation.
Keary, P., Brooks, M. & Hill. I., (2002), An Introduction to Geophysical Exploration,
(third Edition), Blackwell Science, Oxford.
73
Kadri, I. B., 1995, Petroleum Geology of Pakistan. Pakistan Petroleum Limited., 275p.
Kadri, I. B., and Khan, J. M., 1972, Subsurface occurrence of volcanic rocks in southern
and offshore areas. Symposium in present status of geology in Sindh. Geol.
Deptt. Sindh Univ. Jamshoro, Sindh.
Kazmi, A.H., and Jan, M.Q., 1997, Geology and Tectonic of Pakistan: Graphic
Publishers, Karachi, Pakistan.
Kazmi, A. H., 1985. Geology of the Thar Desert, Pakistan. Acta Mineral. Pak., 1: 64-67.
Kazmi, A. H. & Rana, R. A. 1982. Tectonic map of Pakistan Geol. Surv. Pak., Quetta.
Scale 1:2,000,000.
Kazmi, A. H. & Iftikhar, A. A. 2008. Stratigraphy & Historical Geology of Pakistan.
Khan, M. A., Jan, M. Q. & Weaver, B. L., 1993. Evolution of the lower arc crust in
Kohistan, N. Pakistan: temporal arc magmatism through early, mature and
intra-arc rift stages. In: Treloar, P. J. & Searle, M. P. (eds.) Himalayan
Tectonics. Geol. Soc. Lond., Spec. Publ. 74: 123-138.
Khan, M J., Moghal, M. A. and Jamil, M. A., 1999, Evolution of shelf margin and
distribution of reservoir facies in Early Cretaceous of Central Indus Basin
Pakistan: PAPG-SPE ATC 1999, p. 1-23.
Khurshid, A., Nazirullah, R. & Lillie, R. J., 1992. Crustal structure of the Sulaiman
Range Pakistan from gravity data. Pak. J. Hydrocarbon Res., 4(1): 9-31.
Krois, P., T. Mahmood, and G. Milan, 1998, Miano Field: A case history of model driven
exploration: Pakistan Petroleum Convention 98, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Milan, G. and Rodgers, M., 1993, Stratigraphic evolution and play possibilities in the
Middle Indus Area, Pakistan: Presented at SPE Pakistan Seminar, Islamabad,
January 19, 1993.
74
Malik, Z., Kamal, A., Malik, M. A. & Bodenhansen, J. W. A., 1988. Petroleum potential
and prospects in Pakistan. In: Raza, H. A. & Sheikh A. M. (eds.) Petroleum
for the Future. Hydrocarbon Devol. Inst. Pak. 71-100.
Munir, K., Iqbal, M. A., Farid, A. & Shabih, S. M., 2011, Mapping the productive sands
of Lower Goru Formation by using seismic stratigraphy and rock physical
studies in Sawan area, Southern Pakistan: a case study. J. Petrol. Explor. Prod.
Technol. (2011) 1:3342.
OGDC-TSD, Oil and gas prospects of southern Indus basin, OGDC archives, Islamabad,
1984.
Oldham, R. d., 1893. A Manual of the Geology of India. Govt. India Press, 2nd Ed.
Patriat, P. & Achache, J., 1984. India-Eurasia collision chronology and its implications
for crustal shortening and deriving mechanism of plates. Nature, 311: 615-
621.
Powell, C.M.A., 1979, A speculative tectonic history of Pakistan and surroundings; some
constraints from the Indian Ocean, in Farah, Abdul, and Dejohn, K.A., eds.,
Geodynamics of Pakistan: Geological Survey of Pakistan, p. 524.
Quadri, V.N., and Quadri, S.M.G.J., Reefal petroleum prospects possible in Pakistan,
OGJ, Mar. 25, 1996, pp. 85-90.
Quadri, V. N. & Shuaib, S. M., 1986. Hydrocarbon prospects of southern Indus Basin,
Pakistan. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., 70: 730-747.
Qureshi, M. J., Tariq, M.A. & Abid, Q. Z., 1993. Geological Map of Pakistan
(1:1,000,000). Geological Survey of Pakistan, Quetta.
Qureshi, M.N., 2005. Geophysical Framework of India, Bangladesh and Pakistan, Norosa
Pub., New Delhi.
Raza, H. A., Ahmed, R., 1990. Hydrocarbon potential of Pakistan. J. Canada-Pakistan

Cooperation, 4(1): 9-27.
75
Raza, H. A., Ahmed, R., Alam, S. & Ali, S. M., 1989b. Petroleum zones of Pakistan. Pak.
J. Hydrocarbon Res., 1(2): 1-19.
Raza, H. A., Ahmed, R., Ali, S. M. & Ahmad, J., 1989c. Petroleum prospects: Sulaiman
Sub Basin, Pakistan. Pak. J. Hydrocarbon Res., 1(2): 21-56.
Raza, H. A., Ahmed, R., Ali, S. M., Sheikh, A. M. & Shafique, N. A., 1989a. Exploration
performance in Sedimentary zones of Pakistan. Pak. J. Hydrocarbon Res.,
1(1): 1-7.
Raza, H. A., Ali, S. M. & Ahmed, R., 1990a. Petroleum geology of Kirthar Sub-basin and
part of Kutch basin. Pak. J, Hydroc. Res., 2(1): 29-74.
Raza, H. A., Ali, S. M. & Ahmed, R., 1991. A new concept related to structural and
tectonic behavior of Blochistan Basin, Pakistan and its implication on
hydrocarbon prospects. Pak. Hyroc. Res., 3(1): 1-18.
Robinson ES, & Coruh, c., (1988), Basic Exploration Geophysics, John Wiley & Sons,
New York.
Rider, M. H. The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs. New York: Blackie and sons,
1986.
Schlager, W. (2005). Carbonate Sedimentology and Sequence Stratigraphy. SEPM

Concepts in Sedimentology and Paleontology #8, p. 200.
Searle, M. P., 1991. Geology and Tectonics of the Karakoram Mountains. J. Wiley &
Sons, New York, 358p.
Shah, S.M.I., Ahmed, R., Cheema, M.R., Fatmi, A.N., Iqbal, M.W.A., Raza, H.A., and
Raza, S.M., 1977, Stratigraphy of Pakistan: Geological Survey of Pakistan,
Memoirs, v. 12, 137 p.
Shah, S.M.I., 2002. Lithostratigraphic Units of the Sulaiman and Kirthar Provinces,
Lower Indus Basin, Pakistan. Records of the GSP Vol.107. Geological Survey
of Pakistan, Quetta.
76
Shah, S.M.I., 2009, Stratigraphy of Pakistan: Pakistan Geological Survey Memoir, Vol.
22.
Shuaib, S. M., Hasnain, S. M. & Alam, S. S., 1993. Geology and hydrocarbon potential
of central Indus Basin, Pakistan. Pak. J. Hydrocarbon Res., 5(1&2):37-52.
Smewing, J.D., J. Warburton, T. Daley, P.Copestake and N. ul-Haq. Sequence

stratigraphy of the southern Kirthar Fold Belt and Middle Indus Basin,
Pakistan. Geological Society, London, Special Publication 195, in press.
Stocklin, J., 1977. Structural correlation of the Alpine ranges between Iran and Central
Asia. Mem. H. Ser. Geol. Fr., 18: 333-353.
Talent, J. A. & Mawson, R. (1979): Paleozoic-Mesozoic biostratigraphy of Pakistan and
the coalescene of asia. In: Farah, A. & Dejong, K. A. (eds.): Geodynamics of
Pakistan, p. 81-102, 8 figs.; Geol. Surv. Pak.; Quetta.
Teleford, W. M., Geldart, L. P., & Sheriff, R. E. (1990). Applied Geophysics (Vol. 2nd
Edition). Cambridge: Cambridge Univeristy Press.
Vail PR, Mitchum RM, Thompson S (1977) Seismic stratigraphy and global changes of
sea level. Part 3: relative changes of sea level from coastal onlap, applications
to hydrocarbon exploration. AAPG Memoir.
Wandrey, C.J., Law, B.E., and Shah, H. A., 2004 Sembar Goru/Ghazij Composite Total
Petroleum System, Indus and Sulaiman-Kirthar Geologic Provinces, Pakistan
and India. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2208-C.
Williams, M. D., 1959, Stratigraphy of the Lower Indus Basin, West Pakistan. World
Petroleum Cong., 5th, New York, Proc., Sec, 1, Pap. 19, pp. 377-390.
Windley, B. F., 1984. The Evolving Continents. Wiley, New York, 399p.
77
Zaigham, A. and Mallick, K.A. (2000), Prospect of hydrocarbon associated with fossil-
rift structures of the southern Indus basin, Pakistan. American. Assoc. Petrol.
Geol.Bull. 84.
78

Structural and Sequence Stratigraphic Analysis of Cretaceous Sequence

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Structural and Sequence Stratigraphic Analysis of Cretaceous Sequence

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

STRUCTURAL AND SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC

ANALYSIS OF CRETACEOUS SEQUENCE , KADANWARI

AREA, LOWER INDUS BASIN, PAKISTAN.

Under the Supervision of

Mr. Abdul Hannan

A thesis submitted to Department of Earth Sciences University of

DEPARTMENT OF EARTH SCIENCES

This thesis titled STRUCTURAL AND SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC

Mr. Muhammad Imran

Department of Earth Sciences

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Mr. Abdul Hannan

Certificate of Originality of Research Work i

Declaration Certificate iii

List of Tables xii

3.6 Stratigraphy of the Area 20

5.6 Facies Description 61

Tectonically, the area lies in extensional regime affected by Late Jurassic-Early

Sequence stratigraphic tool in predicting stratigraphic traps is becoming a

The sequence stratigraphic approach is independent of scale (Schlager, 2005;

facies changes, discontinuities studies and by subsurface structural analysis of

1.2 Location of the Area

The landscape is dominated with sand dunes and hardgrounds. Stabilized

1.4 Aims and Objectives

1.4.1 Subsurface Structural Interpretation

Subsurface structural interpretation is a prerequisite for stratigraphic analysis

1.4.2 Facies Analysis

Facies analysis is necessary to mark the sequence stratigraphic surfaces and to

1.4.3 Sequence Stratigraphic Analysis

The application of sequence stratigraphy in petroleum exploration especially

1.4.4 Source and Reservoir Rock Potential

Reservoir properties like effective porosity, shale volume and moved

1.4.5 Identification of Petroleum Plays

Figure 1.2: Base Map created in 42N zone of UTM system.

Manual interpretation of seismic sections to identify subsurface structure and

The major steps of this research are as follows:

After the partition of India, Pakistan Government founded the

The introduction of geophysical techniques in exploring subsurface

Although sequence, stratigraphy is regarded as stemming out of seismic

Most of the former work on the sequence stratigraphic analysis of Cretaceous

Regional Geology and Tectonics

3.1 Historical Evolution

3.2 Regional Geological Framework

3.2.1 Karakoram Block

Karakoram Block is one of the Cimmerian blocks derived from Gondwanaland.

3.2.2 Kohistan-Ladakh Magmatic Arc

3.2.3 NW Himalayan Fold and Thrust Belt

NW Himalayas occupies a 250km wide and 560 km long mountainous region

3.2.3.1 Salt Range Thrust and Kohat Potwar Fold Belt

Eocambrian to recent sedimentary sequence is exposed along this belt. The

3.2.4 Indus Platform and Foredeep

Zones of downwarp and platform slope

Nothern Punjab monocline

Basement is extensively traversed by extentional faults (Kazmi and Rana 1982).

3.2.4.1 Sedimentary Cover

Indus platform and fordeep is covered by a thick sedimentary sequence of

3.2.5 East Baluchistan Fold and Thrust Belt

3.2.6 Kakar khorasan Flysch and Molasse Basin

3.2.7 Chagai-Ras Koh Magmatic Arc

Chagai volcanic arc is a subduction associated feature exposed in Pakistan. It is

3.2.8 Makran Accretionary Zone and Kharan Basin

3.2.9 Pakistan Offshore

3.3 Indus Basin

3.3.2 Upper, Indus, Basin