The School of Chemical Engineering

Process Control & Instrumentation

with special thanks to Manta Controls
Last Lecture
Defined process modelling
Qualitative; differential and algebraic equations
Process models derived from conservation equations
Assumptions are necessary
Non-linear equations can be linearised for easier solution
f f f
y yss x1 ' x2 '... xn '
x1 ss x2 ss xn ss

where xi ' xi xi ,ss

Deviation variables simplify the maths
Must remember the form youre working with!

University of Adelaide 2
 Tutorial
How do you get started?
Read the whole question
Labelled Diagram Assumptions Conservation Equations
Q2: Obtain deviation form by subtracting the steady-state
balance from the linearised dynamic balance
Make sure you answer the question!
Last question:
D(s)

M(s) + 1 Y(s)
+
3s 1

Please put all group members names and student IDs on the cover sheet
University of Adelaide 3
 M(s) Y(s)
G(s)

Topic 2: Developing Open-Loop Transfer Functions

Laplace Transforms
Block Diagram Algebra
Transformations
View the same system from a different perspective
Moving from Cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates
( x, y) (r , )
Navigating a ship by latitude and longitude instead of
astronomical reference points, i.e. by the stars
Viewing a football game from above instead of from the sidelines

An inverse transform refers to returning to the original

perspective
LT ( y(t )) Y ( s) LT 1 (Y ( s)) y (t )
Laplace Transform Inverse Laplace Transform

University of Adelaide 5
Laplace Transforms
Offer a very simple and elegant method of solving linear
or linearised differential equations
Reduce linear differential equations to algebraic
equations
Combined with block diagrams, they allow:
Simple development of input-output models, which are very
useful for control purposes
Straightforward qualitative analysis of how chemical processes
react to external influences

University of Adelaide 6
Definition

LT ( y (t )) Y ( s) 0 y (t )e st dt t [0, )

Need to distinguish between deviation variables and true

variables
y' is the deviation of y in time domain
Y is the deviation of Y in s-domain
Note convention with lower case and upper case
Not always possible; may need to write domain explicitly, e.g.
T(t) and T(s)
s is considered a parameter in the definition
What is the dimension of s?
Allows you to continue to check dimensional homogeneity

University of Adelaide 7
Example
Say y (t ) e at

Y ( s) 0 y (t )e dt 0 e at e st dt
st

1 ( s a ) t
Y ( s) 0 e ( s a ) t
dt e 0
sa

1 1
Y ( s) 0
sa sa
In this example, an exponential function in the time
domain is transformed to a fraction in the s-domain

University of Adelaide 8
Other Examples
A
Step function y (t ) A Y ( s)
s
A
Ramp function y (t ) At Y ( s) 2
s
Trigonometric functions

y (t ) sin(t ) Y ( s) 2
s 2
s
y (t ) cos(t ) Y ( s) 2
s 2

University of Adelaide 9
Other Examples
n!
Power function y (t ) t Y ( s) n 1
n

s
Impulse function
0 t 0
y (t )
t 0
0 y (t )dt 1

1
Y ( s) 1

y(t)

t=0 t
University of Adelaide 10
Laplace Transform Properties
Linearity

LT ( y(t ) g (t )) LT ( y(t )) LT ( g (t )) Y ( s) G( s)

NOT multiplicative!

LT ( y(t ) g (t )) LT ( y(t )).LT ( g (t ))

This is why you need to linearise equations before transforming
Convolution

LT y(t ) g ( )d LT ( y(t)).LT ( g (t)) Y (s).G(s)

0
t

University of Adelaide 11
Laplace Transform Properties
Translation (delay of t = a)
as 0 ta
LT ( y(t a)u (t a)) e Y ( s) u (t a)
1 t a
Derivatives
n 1
dny n n 1 n2 dy d y
LT n s Y ( s) s y (0) s ... s 0
n 1
dt dt t 0 dt t 0

1st derivative LT
dy
sY ( s ) y (0)
dt
d2y 2 dy
2nd derivative LT 2 s Y ( s) sy (0)
dt dt t 0
University of Adelaide 12
Laplace Transform Properties
Integration Integrator

t 1

LT 0 y (t )dt Y ( s)
s
Final value theorem
Used to predict steady-state
lim y (t ) lim sY ( s)
t s0
at 1
e.g. lim e lim s 0
t s0 s a

Initial value theorem

lim y (t ) lim sY ( s) at
lim s
1
1
t 0 s e.g. lim e
t 0 s s a
University of Adelaide 13
Stirred Tank: Mass Balance
Linearised and in deviation form:
dh' k
A Fi ' h'
dt 2 hss
Laplace Transform
dh'
A.LT LT ( Fi ' )
k
LT (h' )
dt 2 hss
k
AsH ( s) h' (0) Fi ( s) H ( s) Transfer
2 hss function
Only if height
initially at hss! 1
H (s) Fi ( s ) SISO
k
As
2 hss
University of Adelaide 14
Stirred Tank: Energy Balance
Linearised and in deviation form:

Ti , ss Tss Fi ' Fi , ssTi ' Fi , ss
dT ' U ss A st T '
Ahss
dt C p

U ss Ast
Tst '
Ast
Tst ,ss Tss U '
C p C p
Any variables that remain at steady-state can be removed
Laplace Transform

Ahss s Fi , ss U ss A st T ( s) Ti , ss Tss Fi ( s) Fi , ssTi ( s)
C
p

U ss Ast
Tst ( s )
Ast
Tst ,ss Tss U (s)
C p C p
University of Adelaide 15
 Stirred Tank: Energy Balance
Arrange so the output is the subject
Ti,ss Tss Fi , ss
T ( s) Fi ( s) Ti ( s)
U ss Ast U ss Ast
Ahss s Fi , ss Ahss s Fi , ss
C p C p

U ss Ast Ast Tst , ss Tss

Tst ( s) U ( s)
U A U A
C p Ahss s Fi , ss ss st
C p Ahss s Fi , ss ss st

C p C p
MISO: Multiple Input, Single Output

University of Adelaide 16
Generalised Representation
Mass balance
1 Kp
H (s) Fi ( s ) Fi ( s ) G ( s ) Fi ( s )
As
k ps 1
2 hss

2 hss 2 A hss
Here, K p and p
k k

Process gain Process time constant

MV PV*
Fi (s) H (s)
G(s)

University of Adelaide 17
Generalised Representation
Energy balance

T ( s) G1 ( s) Fi ( s) G2 ( s)Ti ( s) G3 ( s)Tst ( s) G4 ( s)U ( s)

In this case, each transfer function can be generalised to
the same form
K pi
Gi ( s )
ps 1
Process gains are all different
Same time constant for all transfer functions
Ahss
p
U ss Ast
Fi , ss
C p
University of Adelaide 18
Generalised Representation
Block diagram

T ( s) G1 ( s) Fi ( s) G2 ( s)Ti ( s) G3 ( s)Tst ( s) G4 ( s)U ( s)

Fi (s)
G1(s)

Ti (s)
G2(s) +
T (s)
+
Tst (s)
+
G3(s) +

U (s)
G4(s)

University of Adelaide 19
Block Diagrams
Represent the inputs, outputs, transfer functions and the
structure of the process and control systems
Basic elements:
X(s) +/- Z(s)
Y(s)
Y(s)
+/- Y(s)
X(s) G(s)
Y(s) Y(s)

Signal Block Summing Point Pickoff Point

(Comparator)

Cannot multiply signals as that would be non-linear

Layout is generally not unique: Can rearrange
University of Adelaide 20
Block Diagrams
Equivalent representations:
X(s) Y(s)
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)

X(s) Y(s)
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)

X(s) + Z(s)
G1(s)
-
X(s) + Z(s)
G1(s)
- 1/G1(s)

Y(s)
Y(s)

University of Adelaide 21
Transfer Functions
Every block represents a transfer function

Output Y ( s ) M(s) Y(s)

G(s) G(s)
Input M ( s)
Shows how the output is related to the input
Input and output must be in the s-domain
Includes dynamics
Represents the system, e.g. tank size, controller algorithm
Includes units to convert from input to output
Often inputs and outputs are normalised by their respective ranges
so G(s) is dimensionless

%span
i.e. G (s )
%span
University of Adelaide 22
Transfer Functions
Many different processes can be represented by the same
transfer function form, particularly:
Kp
G( s)
ps 1
Often the process transfer function is unknown
Identify by sending in a known input, say a step change, and
evaluating the response
Good practice to verify a derived model with a test
Design controller to suit the model and ideally the plant
Need to invert the output function back to time domain!

University of Adelaide 23
Laplace Transform Inversion- Option 1
Look up the inverse transform in a table
Stirred tank mass balance example:
Say we choose to input a unit step in inflow rate:

Fi (s) H (s)
G(s)

1 Kp
H ( s) Fi ( s )G ( s ) .
s ps 1
1
LT ( H ( s)) h' (t ) K p 1 e t
p

h(t ) hss K p 1 e
t
p

University of Adelaide 24
Laplace Transform Inversion- Option 2
What if the inverse transform is not available in a table?
1. Use partial fractions expansion to split the transform into
fractions that are:

an s n an 1s n 1 ... a0 C1 C2 C3
Y ( s) m 1
...
bm s bm1s ... b0 R1 ( s) R2 ( s) R3 ( s)
m

where Ci are constants and Ri(s) are 1st or 2nd order polynomials in s

2. Invert the individual terms and apply the linearity property:

1 C1
1 1 C2 1 C3
LT (Y ( s)) LT LT LT ...
R1 ( s) R2 ( s) R3 ( s)
University of Adelaide 25
Partial Fractions Expansion- Case 1
Say we have:
s2 s 6
Y ( s) 3
s 2s 2 s 2

The denominator can be factorised to three distinct

real roots:
s2 s 6
Y ( s)
( s 1)( s 1)( s 2)
We can write:
s2 s 6 C1 C2 C3
Y ( s)
( s 1)( s 1)( s 2) s 1 s 1 s 2
University of Adelaide 26
Partial Fractions Expansion- Case 1
To solve for the constants, can cross-multiply and equate
numerators:
s 2 s 6 C1 ( s 1)(s 2) C2 ( s 1)(s 2) C3 ( s 1)(s 1)

s 2 s 6 C1 ( s 2 s 2) C2 ( s 2 3s 2) C3 ( s 2 1)

s 2 : C1 C2 C3 1
s : C1 3C2 1
s 0 : 2C1 2C2 C3 6

Solve this set of linear equations

University of Adelaide 27
 Partial Fractions Expansion- Case 1
Or can multiply by a factor and set s equal to the root of
the factor:
( s 2 s 6)( s 1) C1 ( s 1) C2 ( s 1) C3 ( s 1)

( s 1)( s 1)( s 2) s 1 s 1 s 2 s 1

( s 2
s 6)
C1 3
( s 1)( s 2) s 1
Similarly:

( s 2 s 6) 2 ( s 2 s 6) 4
C2 and C3
( s 1)( s 2) s 1 3 ( s 1)( s 1) s 2 3

University of Adelaide 28
Partial Fractions Expansion- Case 1
Invert to time domain:

1 3 11 2 1 4
LT (Y ( s)) LT LT LT
s 1 3( s 1) 3( s 2)

2 t 4 2 t
y (t ) 3e e e
t

3 3

University of Adelaide 29
Partial Fractions Expansion- Case 2
Say we have:
s 1
Y ( s) 2
s 2s 5

The denominator can be factorised to two distinct

complex roots:
s 1
Y ( s)
s 1 2 j s 1 2 j
We can write:
s 1 C1 C2
Y ( s)
s 1 2 j s 1 2 j s 1 2 j s 1 2 j
University of Adelaide 30
Partial Fractions Expansion- Case 2
Can multiply by a factor and set s equal to the root of the
factor:
( s 1)s 1 2 j C1 s 1 2 j C2 s 1 2 j

s 1 2 j s 1 2 j s 1 2 j s 1 2 j s 1 2 j
s 1 1 j
C1
s 1 2 j s 1 2 j 2

s 1 1 j
Similarly: C2
s 1 2 j s 12 j 2
Note that C1 and C2 must be complex conjugates

University of Adelaide 31
Partial Fractions Expansion- Case 2
Invert to time domain:

1 1 j 1 1 1 j
LT (Y ( s)) LT LT
2s 1 2 j 2s 1 2 j

1 j 1 2 j t 1 j 12 j t
y (t ) e e
2 2

y (t )
et
2
(1 j ) e 2 jt
(1 j ) e 2 jt

University of Adelaide 32
Partial Fractions Expansion- Case 2
Applying Eulers identity, e j cos j sin

et
y (t ) (1 j )cos 2t j sin 2t (1 j )cos 2t j sin 2t
2
y (t ) e cos 2t sin 2t
t

This is also equivalent to y (t ) et 2 sin( 2t 4 )

Therefore in this case the output oscillates!

(Can complete the square instead and avoid complex
numbers)

University of Adelaide 33
Partial Fractions Expansion- Case 3
Say we have:
1
Y ( s)
( s 1)3 ( s 2)

The denominator has repeated real roots

We can write:

1 C1 C2 C3 C4
Y ( s)
( s 1) ( s 2) s 1 ( s 1) ( s 1) s 2
3 2 3

University of Adelaide 34
Partial Fractions Expansion- Case 3
Can multiply by a factor and set s equal to the root of the
factor:
( s 2) C1 ( s 2) C2 ( s 2) C3 ( s 2) C4 ( s 2)

( s 1) ( s 2)
3
s 1 ( s 1) 2
( s 1) 3
s 2 s 2

1
C4 1
( s 1) s 2
3

1
Similarly: C3 1
( s 2) s 1
Cannot use this method for C1 and C2!

University of Adelaide 35
Partial Fractions Expansion- Case 3
Multiply Y(s) by the highest order factor, differentiate
both sides and set s equal to the root of this factor:

d 1 d C ( s 1) 3

C1 ( s 1) C2 ( s 1) C3
2 4

ds s 2 s 1 ds s 2 s 1

1 C4 ( s 1) 2 (2s 5)
2C1 ( s 1) C2 C2 1
( s 2) 2 s 1
( s 2) 2
s 1

2
Differentiate again to solve for C1: 2C1 2
C1 1 ( s 2) s 1
3

University of Adelaide 36
Partial Fractions Expansion- Case 3
Invert to time domain:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
LT (Y ( s)) LT LT 2
LT 3
s 1 ( s 1) ( s 1)

1
LT
1

s 2
2
t t t t 2t
y (t ) e te e e
2

University of Adelaide 37
Laplace Transform Inversion- Option 3
Apply the convolution theorem:

LT y(t ) g ( )d LT ( y(t)).LT ( g (t)) Y (s).G(s)

0
t

Say two invertible transfer functions are identified

multiplied together:

1 K p 1 Kp
F ( s ) Y ( s ).G ( s ) ; Y ( s) , G( s)
s p s 1 s ps 1
t t K p
LT ( F ( s)) 0 y (t ) g ( )d 0
1
e d p

p
1
LT ( F ( s )) K p e K 1 e
p t
0 p
t
p

University of Adelaide 38
Next Lecture
Investigate the properties of 1st order systems and pure
integrators with or without dead time (delay)

Think about how we might control these systems

intuitively

University of Adelaide 39