CONTENTS

1. SAFETY RULES 2

2. EFFECT OF FREQUENCY ON R, L AND C CIRCUITS 4

3. PHASE SHIFT BETWEEN V AND I IN SERIES R-C CIRCUIT 9

4. VERIFY IMPEDANCE (Z) RELATION FOR SERIES R-C CIRCUIT 12

5. PHASE SHIFT BETWEEN V AND I IN SERIES R-L CIRCUIT 15

6. VERIFY IMPEDANCE (Z) RELATION FOR SERIES R-C CIRCUIT 18

7. RC LOW PASS AND HIGH PASS FILTERS 21

8. RL LOW PASS AND HIGH PASS FILTERS 25

9. SERIES RESONANCE 28

10. PARALLEL RESONANCE 32

11. 3WATTMETER METHOD OF 3PHASE POWER MEASUREMENT 36

12. 2WATTMETER METHOD OF 3PHASE POWER MEASUREMENT 38

13. POEWR FACTOR CORRECTION 40

1
 Lab Experiment # 01
SAFETY RULES
Name: __________________________________________ Roll No: _______________________
Score: ___________________ Signature of the Lab Tutor: _________________ Date: _________

TO UNDERSTAND THE ELECTRIC SHOCK HAZARDS ON HUMAN BODY AND SAFETY

PRECAUTIONS FOR THE SAFE PRACTICE IN AN ELECTRICAL LAB

PERFORMANCE OBJECTVE
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the student will be able to:
(i) Hazards of electric shock on human body
(ii) Rules for safe practice to avoid electric shock

Electric Shock
When a person comes in contact with a live wire, electric current starts to flow through the body
to earth. Although it is current which causes a shock and various physiological effects, but current
depends on voltage and resistance. Therefore as voltage increases the current also increases. In
most cases a voltage up to 50 volts is safe.
Three human physiological conditions can result from electric shock, depending on the circuits
route through the body and the amount of current transmitted. Muscular contraction results from a
through body circuit, and, if lungs are involved, voluntary respiration can be halted and
asphyxiation takes place. If the heart is involved in the circuit, irregular heartbeats can occur and
ultimately heart failure can result. Electrocution means death by electrical shock.

Rules for safe practice and to avoid Electric Shock

1. Be sure of the conditions of the equipment and the dangers present before working on the
piece of the equipment. Many technicians are killed by supposedly dead circuits.
2. Never rely on safety devices, such as fuses, relays and interlock systems to protect you.
They may not be working and may fail to protect when most needed.
3. Never remove the ground wire of three wire input plug. This eliminates the grounding
feature of the equipment making it a potential shock hazard.
4. Do not work on cluttered bench. A disorganized mess of connecting leads, components and
tools only leads to careless thinking, short circuits, shocks and accidents. Develop habits of
systemized procedure of work.
5. Do not work on wet floors. Your contact resistance to ground is substantially reduced. Work
on rubber mat or an insulated floor.
6. Do not work alone. It is better to someone around to shunt of the power to give artificial
respiration and to call a doctor.
7. Work with one hand behind you or in your pocket. A current between two hands crosses
your heart and can be more fatal than a current from hand to foot. A wise technician always
works with one hand.
8. Never talk to anyone while working. Do not divert your mind by talking to anyone. Also do
not talk to anyone, if he/she is working on dangerous equipment.
9. Always move slowly when working around electrical circuits. Violent and rapid
movements lead to accidental shocks and short circuits.

2
10. If you have to modify the circuit connections, first switch of the power, take out power
plugs/wires and only then modify it.

Keep the following values of electric current in consideration to avoid an electric shock.
0.001A = 1 milliamperes; Tingles (cause a stinging or tingling sensation)
0.01A = 10 milliamperes; Severe Shock
0.1A = 100 milliamperes; Death

REVIW QUESTIONS

1. To avoid an electric shock, values of electric current are of more importance as compares to
voltage, why?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Why electrical appliances and equipments at homes and industries are grounded?
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3
 Lab Experiment # 02
EFFECT OF FREQUENCY ON R, L AND C CIRCUITS
Name: __________________________________________ Roll No: _______________________
Score: ___________________ Signature of the Lab Tutor: _________________ Date: _________

TO EXPERIMENTALLY OBSERVE THE EFFECT OF FREQUENCY ON RESISTIVE (R),

INDUCTIVE (L) AND CAPACITIVE (C) CIRCUITS

PERFORMANCE OBJECTVE
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the student will be able to:
(i) Verify the effect of frequency on resistance (R)
(ii) Verify the effect of frequency on inductive reactance (XL)
(iii) Verify the effect of frequency on capacitive reactance (XC)

EQUIPMENTS
Function Generator
Digital Multimeter
Resistor, 1K
Inductor, 2mH
Capacitor, 1F
Connecting leads/wires

NOTE
Before making any connection to the circuit makes sure that the power supply is off.
Take care of the equipments they can be damaged by misuse.
Before switch on the supply, get it checked by your teacher.

DISCUSSION
The resistance of resistor is unaffected by frequency which can be seen mathematically through
Law of resistivity as;
R= L/A
The reactance of an inductor is linearly dependent on the frequency applied. That is, if we double
the frequency, the reactance gets doubled, as determined by;
XL = 2fL
For low frequencies, the reactance is correspondingly very small, while for increasing
frequencies, the reactance will increase to a very large value. For DC conditions, we find that X L
= 2 (0) L is zero Ohms, corresponding with short circuit representation that we used in our DC
analysis. For very high frequencies, XL is so high that we can often use an open circuit
approximation.
As far as reactance is concerned, capacitor behaves in a manner opposite to that of the inductor.
The capacitive reactance is non-linearly dependent on the frequency, as can be seen by the
following mathematical relation;
Xc = 1/(2fC)

4
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Connect the equipments according to figure 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3.
2. For each circuit, select the sine wave on the function generator and set its voltage at 4V (p-p).
3. For each circuit, set the frequencies as shown in their respective tables.
4. Use multimeter as a milli-ammeter to measure the current through each circuit.
5. Switch on the supply (i.e. function generator) and record the readings in Table 2.1.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3

5
OBSERVATION TABLES

Table 2.1 (For Resistive Circuit)

Sr. # Voltage, Vpp (V) Frequency, f (Hz) Current, I (mA)
1. 4 1000
2. 4 2000
3. 4 3000
4. 4 4000
5. 4 5000

Table 2.2 (For Inductive Circuit)

Sr. # Voltage, Vpp (V) Frequency, f (Hz) Current, I (mA)
1. 4 1000
2. 4 2000
3. 4 3000
4. 4 4000
5. 4 5000

Table 2.3 (For Capacitive Circuit)

Sr. # Voltage, Vpp (V) Frequency, f (Hz) Current, I (mA)
1. 4 1000
2. 4 2000
3. 4 3000
4. 4 4000
5. 4 5000

6
GRAPH: R () v/s F (Hz)

GRAPH: XL () v/s F (Hz)

GRAPH: XC () v/s F (Hz)

7
REVIW QUESTIONS

1. What is the shape of graph between resistance and frequency? What does this shape of graph
show?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What is the shape of graph between inductive reactance and frequency? What does this shape
of graph show?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. What is the shape of graph between capacitive reactance and frequency? What does this shape
of graph show?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

FINAL CHECK LIST

1. Before you leave, clean all your equipments/materials and workbenches.
2. Set all equipments and materials to their proper storage area.
3. Submit your answers to questions, together with your data, calculations and results before the
next laboratory.

8
 Lab Experiment # 03
PHASE SHIFT BETWEEN V AND I IN SERIES R-C CIRCUIT
Name: _________________________________________ Roll No: _______________________
Score: ___________________ Signature of the Lab Tutor: ________________ Date: _________

TO OBSERVE THE PHASE SHIFT BETWEEN VOLTAGE AND CURRENT IN A SERIES R-C
CIRCUIT FOR AN AC SUPPLY

PERFORMANCE OBJECTVE
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the student will be able to:
(i) Observe the phase shift in a series RC circuit
(ii) Verify the behavior of RC circuit for an ac supply

EQUIPMENTS
Function Generator
Oscilloscope
Resistor, 1.5K
Capacitor, 1F
Connecting leads/wires

NOTE
Before making any connection to the circuit makes sure that the power supply is off.
Take care of equipments they can be damaged by misuse.
Before switch on the supply, get it be checked by your teacher.
For oscilloscope do not connect the ground of channel A with the positive lead of channel B
and vice versa.

DISCUSSION
When we applied a dc voltage to a resistor and capacitor in series, the capacitor charged to the
applied voltage along an exponential curve, and then just set there. This is not the case when an
ac voltage is applied to this combination as shown in the diagram. Here, the input voltage is
constantly changing, so the capacitor will constantly charge and discharge as it continually tries
to oppose the changes.
Essentially, R and C in this circuit now form a voltage divider for ac. We can expect that part of
the applied voltage will appear across R, and part will appear across C. But how much voltage
will appear across each component?
As a practical example of such a circuit, assume VAC = 10 vrms at a frequency of 60 Hz. C =
100f and R = 5. If we were to build this circuit with an accurate audio frequency generator,
we would measure a voltage of 1.8523 vrms across the resistor, and 9.8269 vrms across the
capacitor. This of course adds up to considerably more than the 10 vrms supplied by the
generator. How is this possible?
The question is compounded by the fact that C will cause a phase shift between voltage and
current. Since this is a series circuit, the current must necessarily be the same everywhere in the
circuit. Therefore the voltage across the capacitor will lag that current by 90, while at the same
time the voltage across the resistor will be in phase with the current.

9
 Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Connect the equipments according to figure 3.3.
2. Select the sine wave on the function generator.
3. Check that the ground of the function generator is different from that of the oscilloscope. If
the grounds are connected to each other, disconnect the ground of the generator.
4. Set the signal frequency to 1 KHz and its amplitude to 4 Vpp.
5. Connect the ground of the oscilloscope to the point B and the channels 1 and 2, respectively to
the points A and C; then invert the input of the channel 2.
6. Observe the phase shift between VC and VR.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

C Figure 3.3

10
REVIW QUESTIONS

1. Why VC lags behind the current, I (or VR) in an RC circuit?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. How we compute the total voltage across the series RC combination and phase shift between
the supplied voltage and current? Reply in terms of mathematical relations.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

FINAL CHECK LIST

1. Before you leave, clean all your equipments/materials and workbenches.
2. Set all equipments and materials to their proper storage area.
3. Submit your answers to questions, together with your data, calculations and results before the
next laboratory.

11
 Lab Experiment # 04
VALIDATE IMPEDANCE (Z) RELATION FOR SERIES R-C CIRCUIT
Name: _________________________________________ Roll No: _______________________
Score: ___________________ Signature of the Lab Tutor: ________________ Date: _________

TO VERIFY EXPERIMENTALLY THAT THE IMPEDANCE (Z) FOR A SERIES RC

CIRCUITIS GIVEN BY THE RELATION Z = R2 + X2

PERFORMANCE OBJECTVE
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the student will be able to:
(i) Verify the impedance relation for RC circuit

EQUIPMENTS
Function Generator
Digital Multimeter
Resistor, 1K
Capacitor, 1F
Connecting leads/wires

NOTE
Before making any connection to the circuit makes sure that the power supply is off.
Take care of equipments they can be damaged by misuse.
Before switch on the supply, get it be checked by your teacher.

DISCUSSION
The total opposition to current flow in a circuit is known as impedance .It is the opposition to
current flow due to the circuit's resistance, capacitance, and inductance.
If it is assumed that the capacitor (C) through which alternating current flows has zero resistance,
the current is impeded only by the XC of the capacitor. That is, Z = XC.
For the case, when C = 1 F and f = 50 Hz,
XC = 1/2fC = 1/(6.28 50 110-6) = 3,183
How much current I will there be in the circuit if V= 10 V? Apply Ohm's law,
I = V/Xc
Where I is in amperes, V in volts, and XL is in ohms.
Therefore, I = 10/3183 = 3.142 mA.

Figure 4.1

12
If there is resistance R associated with the capacitance C, or if C is in series with a resistor of 2500
, figure 4.1, there will be less than 3.142 mA of current. Assuming the same XC as previously
computed, how much current will flow? Measurement shows that there is 2.47 mA in the circuit.
It is evident that the total impedance of the resistor R connected in series with C is not simply the
arithmetic sum of R and XC. It can be demonstrated mathematically that impedance Z is the result
of the vector sum of XC and R.
In figure 4.2, the vector diagram shows that R and XC are at right angles to each other and that XC
lags R by 90. We say that there is a 90 phase difference between R and XC. Z is seen to be the
hypotenuse of the right triangle of which XC and R are the legs. Applying the Pythagoras theorem
to this right triangle, we note that
i.e. Z = R2 + X2

Figure 4.2

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Connect the equipments according to figure 4.1. R is 1.5K and C is 1F.
2. Use function generation for 50 Hz sinusoidal AC waveform generation.
3. Adjust the output of the ac supply until the meter measures 2 mA. Measure the rms voltage
across C (i.e. VC) and across R (i.e. VR) and record in observation Table 4.1. Also measure the
rms value of total voltage supplied Vs. Compute XC = VC/I and Z = VS/I and record in
observation Table 4.1.
4. Substitute the value of R and computed value of XC in the equation
Z = (R2 + X2)
Find Z and record in Table 4.1.
5. Compare the measured value of Z with that of computed value.

OBSERVATION TABLE
Table 4.1
Supplied Voltage Voltage across Voltage across
Current, I (mA) XC = VC/I ()
VS (V) R, VR (V) C, VC (V)

Z = VS/I () Z = R2+X2 ()
Measured Calculated

13
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Do the computed and measured values of Z differ? The formula Z = (R2 + X2) verified?
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What will be power factor of the circuit for the given values of R and C?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

FINAL CHECK LIST

1. Before you leave, clean all your equipments/materials and workbenches.
2. Set all equipments and materials to their proper storage area.
3. Submit your answers to questions, together with your data, calculations and results before the
next laboratory.

14
 Lab Experiment # 05
PHASE SHIFT BETWEEN V AND I IN SERIES R-L CIRCUIT

Name: _________________________________________ Roll No: _______________________

Score: ___________________ Signature of the Lab Tutor: ________________ Date: _________

TO OBSERVE THE PHASE SHIFT BETWEEN VOLTAGE AND CURRENT IN A SERIES R-L
CIRCUIT FOR AN AC SUPPLY

PERFORMANCE OBJECTVE
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the student will be able to:
(i) Observe the phase shift in a series RL circuit
(ii) Verify the behavior of RL circuit for an ac supply

EQUIPMENTS
Function Generator
Oscilloscope
Resistor, 1K
Inductor, 2mH
Connecting leads/wires

NOTE
Before making any connection to the circuit makes sure that the power supply is off.
Take care of equipments they can be damaged by misuse.
Before switch on the supply, get it be checked by your teacher.
For oscilloscope do not connect the ground of channel A with the positive lead of channel B
and vice versa.

DISCUSSION
When we apply an ac voltage to a series RL circuit as shown in figure, the circuit behaves in
some ways the same as the series RC circuit, and in some ways as a sort of mirror image. For
example, current is still the same everywhere in this series circuit. VR is still in phase with I,
and VL is still 90 out of phase with I. However, this time VL leads I and is at +90 instead of -
90. For the circuit of R = 560, L = 100mH, and VAC = 10Vrms, 7.464 V is the voltage across
L, and 6.656 V across R. As it is expected that this exceeds the source voltage by a substantial
amount and the phase shift is the reason for it.

Figure 5.1

15
 Figure 5.2

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Connect the equipments according to figure 5.3.
2. Select the sine wave on the function generator.
3. Check that the ground of the function generator is different from that of the oscilloscope. If
the grounds are connected to each other, disconnect the ground of the generator.
4. Set the signal frequency to 10 KHz and its amplitude to 4 Vpp.
5. Connect the ground of the oscilloscope to the point B and the channels 1 and 2, respectively to
the points A and C; then invert the input of the channel 2.
6. Observe the phase shift between VL and VR.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure 5.3

REVIW QUESTIONS

1. Why VL leads the current, I (or VR) in an RL circuit?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. How we compute the total voltage across the series RL combination and phase shift between
the supplied voltage and current? Reply in terms of mathematical relations.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

16
FINAL CHECK LIST
1. Before you leave, clean all your equipments/materials and workbenches.
2. Set all equipments and materials to their proper storage area.
3. Submit your answers to questions, together with your data, calculations and results before the
next laboratory.

17
 Lab Experiment # 06
VALIDATE IMPEDANCE (Z) RELATION FOR SERIES R-L CIRCUIT
Name: _________________________________________ Roll No: _______________________
Score: ___________________ Signature of the Lab Tutor: ________________ Date: _________

TO VERIFY EXPERIMENTALLY THAT THE IMPEDANCE (Z) FOR A SERIES RL

CIRCUITIS GIVEN BY THE RELATION Z = R2 + X2

PERFORMANCE OBJECTVE
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the student will be able to:
(i) Verify the impedance relation for RL circuit

EQUIPMENTS
Function Generator
Digital Multimeter
Resistor, 1K
Inductor, 2mH
Connecting leads/wires

NOTE
Before making any connection to the circuit makes sure that the power supply is off.
Take care of equipments they can be damaged by misuse.
Before switch on the supply, get it be checked by your teacher.

DISCUSSION
The total opposition to alternating current in an ac circuit is called the impedance of the circuit. If
it is assumed that the choke coil (L) through which alternating current flows has zero resistance,
the current is impeded only by the XL of the choke. That is, Z = XL.
For the case, when L = 8 H and f = 50 Hz,
XL = 2fL = 6.28 (50) (8) = 2,512
How much current I will there be in the circuit if V= 10 V? Apply Ohm's law,
I = V/XL
Where I is in amperes, V in volts, and XL is in ohms.
Therefore, I = 10/2512 = 3.98 mA.

Figure 6.1

18
If there is resistance R associated with the inductance L, or if L is in series with a resistor of 2500
, figure 6.1, there will be less than 3.98mA of current. Assuming the same XL as previously
computed, how much current will flow? Measurement shows that there is 2.82 mA in the circuit.
It is evident that the total impedance of the resistor R connected in series with L is not simply the
arithmetic sum of R and XL. It can be demonstrated mathematically that impedance Z is the result
of the vector sum of XL and R.
In figure 6.2, the vector diagram shows that R and XL are at right angles to each other and that XL
leads R by 90. We say that there is a 90 phase difference between R and XL. Z is seen to be the
hypotenuse of the right triangle of which XL and R are the legs. Applying the Pythagoras theorem
to this right triangle, we note that
Z = R2 + X2

Figure 6.2

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Connect the equipments according to figure 6.1. R is 1K and L is 2mH.
2. Use function generation for 50 Hz sinusoidal AC waveform generation.
3. Adjust the output of the ac supply until the meter measures 2mA. Measure the rms voltage
across L (i.e. VL) and across R (i.e. VR) and record in observation Table 6.1. Also measure the
rms value of total voltage supplied Vs. Compute XL = VL/I and Z = VS/I and record in
observation Table 6.1.
4. Substitute the value of R and computed value of XL in the equation
Z = (R2 + X2)
Find Z and record in Table 6.1.
5. Compare the measured value of Z with that of computed value.

OBSERVATION TABLE
Table 6.1
Supplied Voltage Voltage across Voltage across
Current, I (mA) XL = VL/I ()
VS (V) R, VR (V) L, VL (V)

Z = VS/I () Z = R2+X2 ()
Measured Calculated

19
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Do the computed and measured values of Z differ? The formula Z = (R2 + X2) verified?
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What will be power factor of the circuit for the given values of R and L?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

FINAL CHECK LIST

1. Before you leave, clean all your equipments/materials and workbenches.
2. Set all equipments and materials to their proper storage area.
3. Submit your answers to questions, together with your data, calculations and results before the
next laboratory.

20
 Lab Experiment # 07
RC LOW PASS AND HIGH PASS FILTERS
Name: _________________________________________ Roll No: _______________________
Score: ___________________ Signature of the Lab Tutor: ________________ Date: _________

TO VERIFY THE OPERATION OF RESISTIVE CAPACITVE (RC) SERIES CIRCUIT AS A

LOW PASS AND HIGH PASS FILTERS

PERFORMANCE OBJECTVE
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the student will be able to:
(i) Verify the operation of RC circuit as a Low Pass Filter
(ii) Verify the operation of RC circuit as a Low Pass Filter
(iii) Prototype Low Pass and High Pass Filter circuits

EQUIPMENTS
Function Generator
Digital Multimeter
Resistor, 100
Capacitor, 1F
Connecting leads/wires

NOTE
Before making any connection to the circuit makes sure that the power supply is off.
Take care of equipments they can be damaged by misuse.
Before switching on the supply, get it be checked by your teacher.

DISCUSSION

Low Pass Filter

A Low pass filter is a filter which passes low-frequency signals and blocks, or impedes, high-
frequency signals. In other words, low-frequency signals go through much easier and with less
resistance and high-frequency signals have a much harder getting through, which is why it's a low
pass filter. A simple RC Low Pass Filter (LPF) can be easily made by connecting together in
series a single Resistor with a single Capacitor as shown in figure 7.1. In this type of filter
arrangement the input signal (Vin) is applied to the series combination of both the Resistor and
Capacitor together, but the output signal (Vout) is taken across the capacitor only.

Figure 7.1

21
This type of filter is known generally as a first order filter or one pole filter because it has
only one reactive component, the capacitor, in the circuit.
As the Capacitive Reactance, the reactance of the capacitor varies inversely with frequency, while
the value of the resistor remains constant as the frequency changes. At low frequencies the
capacitive reactance (XC) of the capacitor will be very large compared to the resistive value of the
resistor, R. This means that the voltage potential, VC across the capacitor will be much larger than
the voltage drop VR developed across the resistor. At high frequencies the reverse is true
with VC being small and VR being large due to the change in the capacitive reactance value.

High Pass Filter

A high pass filter is a filter which passes high-frequency signals and blocks, or impedes, low-
frequency signals. In other words, high-frequency signals go through much easier and low-
frequency signals have a much harder getting through, which is why it's a high pass filter.
A High Pass Filter (HPF), is the exact opposite to that of the Low Pass filter circuit, as now the
two components have been interchanged with the output signal (Vout) being taken from across
the resistor as shown in figure 7.2.

Figure 7.2

In this circuit arrangement, the reactance of the capacitor is very high at low frequencies so the
capacitor acts like an open circuit and blocks any input signals. At high frequencies the reactance
of the capacitor will reduced sufficiently and acts more like a short circuit allowing the entire
input signal to pass directly to the output.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Use function generator as the source and set the voltages at 10V.
2. Connect the equipments according to figure 7.1
3. For the given values of frequencies in Table 7.1 measure the voltage across the capacitor (i.e.
Vout).
4. Note down the output voltages in Table 7.1.
5. Interchange the positions of resistor and capacitor and connect the equipments according to
figure 7.2.
6. Now measure the voltage across the resistor (i.e. Vout) and record these readings in Table 7.1.

22
OBSERVATION TABLE
Table 7.1
Supply Voltage, Low Pass Filter High Pass Filter
Sr. # Frequency, f (KHz)
Vs (V) Vout = VC (V) Vout = VR (V)
1. 10 1

2. 10 2

3. 10 10

4. 10 20

5. 10 50

GRAPH: Vout (V) v/s F (Hz) For Low Pass Filter

GRAPH: Vout (V) v/s F (Hz) For High Pass Filter

23
REVIW QUESTIONS

1. For Low Pass Filter, what is the effect of frequency on output voltage?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. For High Pass Filter, what is the effect of frequency on output voltage?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

FINAL CHECK LIST

1. Before you leave, clean all your equipments/materials and workbenches.
2. Set all equipments and materials to their proper storage area.
3. Submit your answers to questions, together with your data, calculations and results before the
next laboratory.

24
 Lab Experiment # 08
RL LOW PASS AND HIGH PASS FILTERS
Name: _________________________________________ Roll No: _______________________
Score: ___________________ Signature of the Lab Tutor: ________________ Date: _________

TO VERIFY THE OPERATION OF RESISTIVE INDUCITVE (RL) SERIES CIRCUIT AS A

LOW PASS AND HIGH PASS FILTERS

PERFORMANCE OBJECTVE
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the student will be able to:
(i) Verify the operation of RL circuit as a Low Pass Filter
(ii) Verify the operation of RL circuit as a Low Pass Filter
(iii) Prototype Low Pass and High Pass Filter circuits

EQUIPMENTS
Function Generator
Digital Multimeter
Resistor, 10
Inductor, 2mH
Connecting leads/wires

NOTE
Before making any connection to the circuit makes sure that the power supply is off.
Take care of equipments they can be damaged by misuse.
Before switching on the supply, get it be checked by your teacher.

DISCUSSION

Low Pass Filter

A simple RL Low Pass Filter (LPF) can be easily made by connecting together in series a single
Inductor with a single Resistor as shown in figure 8.1. In this type of filter arrangement the input
signal (Vin) is applied to the series combination of both the Resistor and Inductor together, but the
output signal (Vout) is taken across the resistor only.

Figure 8.1

At low frequencies, the series inductance has negligible effect on the signal, and we essentially
have a resistor connecting the signal line to ground. This is often designated a shunt resistance,
indicating that it is in parallel with the signal. As the frequency increases, XL also increases,
25
thus increasing the total impedance of the filter. Since R doesn't change, more and more of the
signal is dropped across L at higher frequencies, leaving less and less across R and available at
VOUT.

High Pass Filter

The RL version of the high-pass filter uses a series resistor and a shunt inductor to accomplish its
purpose. At high frequencies, XL is large, so the inductor is nearly an open circuit for such
signals. At low frequencies, XL is very small, and effectively connects those signals directly to
ground.

Figure 8.2

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Use function generator as the source and set the voltages at 10V.
2. Connect the equipments according to figure 8.1.
3. For the given values of frequencies in Table 8.1 measure the voltage across the resistor (i.e.
Vout).
4. Note down the output voltages in Table 8.1.
5. Interchange the positions of resistor and inductor and connect the equipments according to
figure 8.2.
6. Now measure the voltage across the inductor (i.e. Vout) and record these readings in Table
8.1.

OBSERVATION TABLE
Table 8.1
Supply Voltage, Low Pass Filter High Pass Filter
Sr. # Frequency, f (KHz)
Vs (V) Vout = VL (V) Vout = VR (V)
1. 10 1

2. 10 2

3. 10 10

4. 10 20

5. 10 50

26
GRAPH: Vout (V) v/s F (Hz) For Low Pass Filter

GRAPH: Vout (V) v/s F (Hz) For High Pass Filter

REVIW QUESTIONS

1. For Low Pass Filter, what is the effect of frequency on output voltage?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. For High Pass Filter, what is the effect of frequency on output voltage?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

FINAL CHECK LIST

1. Before you leave, clean all your equipments/materials and workbenches.
2. Set all equipments and materials to their proper storage area.
3. Submit your answers to questions, together with your data, calculations and results before the
next laboratory.
27
 Lab Experiment # 09
SERIES RESONANCE
Name: _________________________________________ Roll No: _______________________
Score: ___________________ Signature of the Lab Tutor: ________________ Date: _________

TO VERIFY THE RESONANCE CONDITION IN AN RLC SERIES CIRCUIT

PERFORMANCE OBJECTVE
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the student will be able to:
(i) Verify the condition of series resonance condition
(ii) Prototype Series Resonance circuit

EQUIPMENTS
Function Generator
Digital Multimeter
Resistor, 100
Inductor, 2mH
Capacitor, 1F
Connecting wires

NOTE
Before making any connection to the circuit makes sure that the power supply is off.
Take care of equipments they can be damaged by misuse.
Before switching on the supply, get it be checked by your teacher.

DISCUSSION
In ac circuits, resonance is a condition which arises when inductive reactance becomes equal to
the capacitive reactance, i.e. XL = XC. As the inductive reactance increases with the increase in
frequency (from the relation XL = 2fL) and the capacitive reactance decreases with the decrease
in frequency (from the relation XC = 1/2fC), so there must be one frequency (called the resonant
frequency) at which both reactances will be equal. For the series ac circuit with no resistance,
resonant frequency can be computed by using the relation;

Since,

At resonance condition;
i.e.

Hence,

28
Series ac circuit; which contains no resistance, offers minimum (ideally zero) impedance under
resonance condition, meaning that circuit draws maximum (ideally infinite) current from the ac
power source. To reveal this mathematically use the series impedance formula;

At resonant frequency; XL = XC

Hence, for series RLC circuit at resonance frequency (fr) impedance of the circuit will be a
minimum value and is only equal to the resistance of the circuit, i.e.
Zr = R
And current drawn by the circuit at resonant frequency becomes maximum because of less
opposition offered by the circuit. For any value of frequency other than the resonant frequency
impedance will be greater than the resonance impedance and hence the current value will also
reduce.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Connect the elements of desired value according to the figure 9.1.
2. Set the function generator at sinusoidal wave of 4Vpp.
3. Vary the frequency of the function generator with the help of knob and for different values of
frequency (given in observation Table 9.1) measure the amperes and note it down in Table
9.1.
4. Note down the amperes value at resonance condition and compare that with the amperes
values at frequencies other than the resonance condition.
5. Draw the graph of current (mA) against the frequency (Hz).

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure 9.1

29
OBSERVATION TABLE
Table 9.1
F (Hz) R () C (uF) XC () L (mH) XL () Condition I (mA)
2600
2800
3000
3200
3400
3600
3800
4000
4200
4400
4600

GRAPH: Current (mA) v/s Frequency (Hz)

30
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What will be the behavior of series resonance circuit below the resonant condition?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What will be the behavior of series resonance circuit above the resonant condition?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Why the amperes value is large at series resonance condition?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. What are the applications of resonance condition?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

FINAL CHECK LIST

1. Before you leave, clean all your equipments/materials and workbenches.
2. Set all equipments and materials to their proper storage area.
3. Submit your answers to questions, together with your data, calculations and results before the
next laboratory.

31
 Lab Experiment # 10
PARALLEL RESONANCE
Name: _________________________________________ Roll No: _______________________
Score: ___________________ Signature of the Lab Tutor: ________________ Date: _________

TO VERIFY THE CONDITION OF PARALLEL RESONANCE CONDITION

PERFORMANCE OBJECTVE
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the student will be able to:
(i) Verify the condition of parallel resonance condition
(ii) Prototype Parallel Resonance circuit

EQUIPMENTS
Function Generator
Digital Multimeter
Resistor, 100
Inductor, 2mH
Capacitor, 1F
Connecting wires

NOTE
Before making any connection to the circuit makes sure that the power supply is off.
Take care of equipments they can be damaged by misuse.
Before switching on the supply, get it be checked by your teacher.

DISCUSSION
In ac circuits, resonance is a condition which arises when inductive reactance becomes equal to
the capacitive reactance, i.e. XL = XC. As the inductive reactance increases with the increase in
frequency (from the relation XL = 2fL) and the capacitive reactance decreases with the decrease
in frequency (from the relation XC = 1/2fC), so there must be one frequency (called the resonant
frequency) at which both reactances will be equal. For the parallel ac circuit with no resistance,
resonant frequency can be computed by using the relation;

Since,

At resonance condition;

i.e.

32
Hence,

Parallel ac circuit; which contains no resistance, offers maximum impedance (ideally infinite)
under resonance condition, means that circuit draws minimum current (ideally zero) from the ac
power source. To reveal this mathematically use the parallel impedance formula;

At resonant frequency; XL = XC

Hence, for parallel RLC circuit at resonance frequency (fr) impedance of the circuit will be a
maximum value and current drawn from the source at resonant frequency is minimum. For any
value of frequency other than the resonant frequency impedance will be less than that of the
resonance impedance and hence the current will be an increased value.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Connect the elements of desired value according to the figure 10.1.
2. Set the function generator at sinusoidal wave of 4Vpp.
3. Vary the frequency of the function generator with the help of knob and for different values of
frequency (given in observation Table 10.1) measure the amperes and note it down in Table
10.1.
4. Note down the amperes value at resonance condition and compare that with the amperes
values at frequencies other than the resonance condition.
5. Draw the graph of current (mA) against the frequency (Hz).

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure 10.1

33
OBSERVATION TABLE
Table 10.1
F (Hz) R () C (uF) XC () L (mH) XL () Condition I (mA)
2600
2800
3000
3200
3400
3600
3800
4000
4200
4400
4600

GRAPH: Current (mA) v/s Frequency (Hz)

34
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What will be the behavior of parallel resonance circuit below the resonant condition?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What will be the behavior of parallel resonance circuit above the resonant condition?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Why amperes value is small at the parallel resonance condition?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

FINAL CHECK LIST

1. Before you leave, clean all your equipments/materials and workbenches.
2. Set all equipments and materials to their proper storage area.
3. Submit your answers to questions, together with your data, calculations and results before the
next laboratory.

35
 Lab Experiment # 11
3-WATTMETER METHOD FOR 3-PHASE POWER MEASUREMENT

Name: _________________________________________ Roll No: _______________________

Score: ___________________ Signature of the Lab Tutor: ________________ Date: _________

TO MEASURE THE POWER IN A 3 PHASE SYSTEM BY 3 WATTMETER METHOD

PERFORMANCE OBJECTVE
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the student will be able to:
(i) Calculate the power in a 3 phase system by the use of 3 wattmeter method

EQUIPMENTS
Three Phase Supply
Three Wattmeters
Three resistors of 950
Connecting leads/wires

NOTE
Before making any connection to the circuit makes sure that the power supply is off.
Take care of equipments they can be damaged by misuse.
Before switching on the supply, get it be checked by your teacher.

DISCUSSION
If the load is unbalanced and the installation is 4-wire, after that 3 wattmeter are essential. The
connection of wattmeter is displayed in the figure 11.1. Each wattmeter calculates the power in
one phase and the total power will be calculated by

Total power = W1 + W2+ W3

Figure 11.1

Current coils of all the three wattmeters are connected to respective phases marked as Red (R),
Yellow (Y) and Blue (B). Pressure coils of all the three wattmeter are connected to common point

36
at neutral line. Each wattmeter will give reading as product of phase current and phase voltage
which is phase power.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Connect the equipments according to the figure 11.1.
2. Internally connect one side of the current coil with that of the potential coil in each wattmeter.
3. Turn on the supply and measure each wattmeter reading.
4. Add the readings of three wattmeters to get the total power in three phase system.

OBSERVATIONS
Total power in the system can be calculated by using the relation
= _______________
Where

Measured value of power is

W1 + W2 + W3 = _______________

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. In case of lagging load, will this relation of total power measurement (i.e. W 1+W2+W3) be
valid?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Can we use 3 wattmeter method of power measurement for balanced load?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

FINAL CHECK LIST

1. Before you leave, clean all your equipments/materials and workbenches.
2. Set all equipments and materials to their proper storage area.
3. Submit your answers to questions, together with your data, calculations and results before the
next laboratory.

37
 Lab Experiment # 12
2-WATTMETER METHOD FOR 3-PHASE POWER MEASUREMENT

Name: _________________________________________ Roll No: _______________________

Score: ___________________ Signature of the Lab Tutor: ________________ Date: _________

TO MEASURE THE POWER IN A 3 PHASE SYSTEM BY 2 WATTMETER METHOD

PERFORMANCE OBJECTVE
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the student will be able to:
(i) Calculate the power in a 3 phase system by the use of 2 wattmeter method.

EQUIPMENTS
Three Phase Supply
Three Wattmeters
Three resistors of 950
Connecting leads/wires

NOTE
Before making any connection to the circuit makes sure that the power supply is off.
Take care of equipments they can be damaged by misuse.
Before switching on the supply, get it be checked by your teacher.

DISCUSSION
This is most the general method for calculating power in a 3-phase, 3-wire system because it can
be employed for both unbalanced loads (ZR ZY ZB) and balanced (ZR = ZY = ZB) connected in
either star/delta. The current coils are connected to any two of the lines, and the voltage coils are
connected to another line, the one with no current coil connection, as displayed in the below
diagram.

Total power = W1+ W2

Figure 12.1

38
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Connect the equipments according to the figure 11.1.
2. Internally connect one side of the current coil with that of the potential coil in each wattmeter.
3. Turn on the supply and measure each wattmeter reading.
4. Add the readings of two wattmeters to get the total power in three phase system.

OBSERVATIONS
Total power in the system can be calculated by using the relation
= _______________

Measured value of power is

W1 + W2 = _______________

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. In case of lagging load, will this relation of total power measurement (i.e. W1+W2) be valid?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Can we use 2 wattmeter method of power measurement for unbalanced load?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

FINAL CHECK LIST

1. Before you leave, clean all your equipments/materials and workbenches.
2. Set all equipments and materials to their proper storage area.
3. Submit your answers to questions, together with your data, calculations and results before the
next laboratory.

39
 Lab Experiment # 13
POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
Name: _________________________________________ Roll No: _______________________
Score: ___________________ Signature of the Lab Tutor: ________________ Date: _________

TO IMPROVE THE POOR POWER FACTOR OF A CIRCUIT/SYSTEM/EQUIPMENT

PERFORMANCE OBJECTVE
Upon successful completion of this experiment, the student will be able to:
(i) Improve the power factor of a circuit/system/equipment
(ii) Prototype Power Factor Improvement circuit

EQUIPMENTS
220V, 50Hz AC Power Supply
Wattmeters
Single Phase Capacitor Start Induction Motor
Fixed Capacitor of 1uF, 2 uF and 4uF
Connecting wires

NOTE
Before making any connection to the circuit makes sure that the power supply is off.
Take care of equipments they can be damaged by misuse.
Before switching on the supply, get it be checked by your teacher.

DISCUSSION
At the simplest level, we could say that an electrical or electronic devices power factor is the
ratio of the power that it draws from the mains supply and the power that it actually consumes. An
ideal device has a power factor of 1.0 and consumes all the power that it draws. It would present
a load that is linear and entirely resistive: that is, one that remains constant irrespective of input
voltage, and has no significant inductance or capacitance. Figure 14.1 shows the input waveforms
that such a device would exhibit. Firstly, the current waveform is in phase with the voltage, and
secondly both waveforms are sinusoidal.

Figure 13.1: Input voltage and current waveforms for a device with PF = 1.0

40
In practice, some devices do have unity power factors, but many others do not. A device has a
poor power factor for one of two reasons; either it draws current out of phase with the supply
voltage, or it draws current in a non-sinusoidal waveform. The out of phase case, known as
displacement power factor, is typically associated with electric motors inside industrial
equipment, while the non-sinusoidal case, known as distortion power factor, is typically seen
with electronic devices such as PCs, copiers and battery chargers driven by switched-mode power
supplies (SMPSs).

Power Factor Improvement

The term power factor comes into picture in AC circuits only. Mathematically it is cosine of the
phase difference between source voltage and current. It refers to the fraction of total power
(apparent power) which is utilized to do the useful work called active power.

Need for Power Factor Improvement

Real power is given by P = V.I.Cos. To transfer a given amount of power at certain voltage,
the electrical current is inversely proportional to Cos. Hence higher the power factor lower
will be the current flowing. A small current flow requires less cross sectional area of
conductor and thus it saves conductor and money.
From above relation we saw having poor power factor increases the current flowing in
conductor and thus copper loss increases. Further large voltage drop occurs in alternator,
electrical transformer and transmission & distribution lines which gives very poor voltage
regulation.
Further the KVA rating of machines is also reduced by having higher power factor as,

Hence, the size and cost of machine also reduced. So, electrical power factor should be
maintained close to unity.

Power Factor Calculation

In power factor calculation, we measure the source voltage and current drawn by using a
voltmeter and ammeter respectively. A wattmeter is used to get the active power.
We know that
P = V.I.Cos Watt
From this,

Hence we can get the electrical power factor. Now we can calculate the reactive power
Q = V.I.Sin VAR
This reactive power can now be supplied from the capacitor installed in parallel with load in local.
Value of capacitor is calculated as per following formula;

41
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Connect the equipments according to the figure 13.2.
2. Turn on the 220V, 50Hz ac power supply and note down amperes, wattages and power factor
readings across the digital meters.
3. Now first insert three capacitors of 1F in parallel with the given circuit and note down the
wattages, amperes and power factor of the circuit.
4. Now further insert three capacitors of 2F and three capacitors of 4F in parallel and note
down the readings in Table 13.1.
5. Finally compare the final values of the watts, amperes and power factor with the starting
values.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

Figure 13.2

OBSERVATIONS
Table 13.1
Supply Voltage, Capacitance value Power, P (W) Current, I (A) Power Factor
VS (V) in parallel (F)
170 0
170 4
170 6
170 7
170 11
170 13
170 14
170 18
170 20
170 21

42
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the disadvantages of low power factor?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What are the various methods to improve the power factor of an electrical system?

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

FINAL CHECK LIST

1. Before you leave, clean all your equipments/materials and workbenches.
2. Set all equipments and materials to their proper storage area.
3. Submit your answers to questions, together with your data, calculations and results before the
next laboratory.

43