Proceedings of the 19th IAHR-APD Congress 2014, Hanoi, Vietnam

ISBN xxx-xxxx-xx-x

IMPACT ANALYSIS OF COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS

ON WATER QUALITY OF URBAN TIDAL RIVERS

SHUZO NISHIDA(1), DAIKI NEI(2), YUSUKE NAKATANI(3) & DAICHI IMAFUKU(4)

(1) Osaka University, Department of Civil Engineering, Osaka, Japan,

e-mail nishida@civil.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp
(2) Osaka University, Department of Civil Engineering, Osaka, Japan,
e-mail nei@civil.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp
(3) Osaka University, Department of Civil Engineering, Osaka, Japan,
e-mail nakatani@civil.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp
(4) Osaka University, Department of Civil Engineering, Osaka, Japan,

e-mail imafuku@civil.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp

ABSTRACT
Combined sewer overflows (CSOs) have a major impact on the water and benthic environment of rivers in urban areas.
Osaka City is located at the head of Osaka Bay, and many tidal rivers and channels are located around the city environs.
Eutrophication due to the inflow load from rivers is a serious problem in Osaka Bay. Most of the sewage system in Osaka
City is a combined system; hence, CSO loads greatly affect the water in the rivers and the bay. To clarify the influence of
CSO on the water quality of the Osaka City urban tidal river system, we conducted field surveys and laboratory analyses
of water and sediments. Water samples were collected in and after rainfall events using an autosampler at the riversides
near the CSO outlets. Analyses of PO4-P, NH4-N, NO2-N, NO3-N, TP, TN, and TOC in the water were performed using an
autoanalyzer. We also measured river velocity, water level, temperature, salinity, turbidity, and chlorophyll a using
memory-type instruments. Numerical simulations were performed using a three-dimensional hydrodynamic model to
understand the behavior of the CSO pollution in the rivers. The flux calculation suggested that dissolved matter of CSO
loads exhibits storage stability, whereas particle matters delivered with CSO are deposited immediately near the CSO
outlet. The numerical results suggested that the suspended sediment in the CSO load was immediately deposited near the
CSO outlet, causing hypoxia and the degradation of the channel water quality.

Keywords: Combined sewer overflow; Urban tidal river; Pollution load; Nutrients; Numerical simulation

discharges, and (3) to prevent the outflow of pollutants.

1. INTRODUCTION
Local government are promoting the attainment of these
Combined sewer systems are sewers that are designed to improvement goals.
collect rainwater runoff and wastewater in the same pipe.
Significant research into CSOs has been conducted. The
During the periods of heavy rainfall, the wastewater
main purpose of much of the previous research has been
volume in a combined sewer system can exceed the
to quantify CSO pollutant loads. The quantification of
capacity of that sewer system. Therefore, combined sewer
CSO pollutant loads is potentially useful in evaluating
systems discharge excess wastewater directly to rivers
impacts on water quality in the receiving rivers and in
and channels. These overflows, called combined sewer
assessing pollutant contributions to help local government
overflows (CSOs), are a serious environmental concern in
conduct management functions. However, there are a few
cities with a combined sewer system. During a CSO event,
studies of CSO characteristics, especially nutrient
large amounts of nutrients, organic matter, heavy metals,
compositionalthough many studies have examined
contaminants, pathogens, debris, etc. flow into the
biochemical oxygen demand and pathogenic bacterium.
receiving rivers. This causes immediate and long-term
There is also a gap in the knowledge of the influence of
damage (e.g., micro-pollutant accumulation inside living
tides for substance behaviors both temporally and
species, and the degradation of water resources
spatially in urban tidal rivers. In many urban cites in
eutrophication) to the receiving water ecosystem.
Japan, CSOs discharge into tidal rivers directly, because
In Japan, beginning around the 1920s, the maintenance of the cities are developed in low plains.
sewage lines was promoted across urban areas, where the
The objectives of this study are to clarify the behavior of
population and industry are concentrated. Many cities
CSO pollutant load discharged into tidal urban rivers. We
adopted combined sewer systems, and 191 cities
carried out field surveys and numerical simulations to
throughout Japan are currently drained by combined
analyze the impact of CSO on the water and benthic
sewer systems. To cope with this situation, the order for
environment of receiving rivers.
the enforcement of the sewerage law was modified in
2003. The improvement goals are as follows: (1) to reduce
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
CSO loads to the same levels associated with separate
sewer systems, (2) to reduce by half the frequency of CSO
2.1 Description of study site
1
 The study site is the Furukawa River, located center of
Osaka, and a pump station that discharges CSO into the
river during heavy rain (Figure 1).
Most of this basin, including the study site, has low
ground and high bedded river. Therefore, CSO is
discharged into the river through pump stations. The
pump station we studied is the largest one in this basin
(the catchment area is about 830 hectares).
Japan
Yodo River
the behavior of CSO after it was discharged into the river
(conducted November 1112, 2012), and (c) surveys of
sediment (conducted on January 27, 2013 and August 9,
2013). Due to space limitations, only Survey (b) and
Survey (c) are described in this paper.
CSO water samples were collected in and after rainfall
events using an autosampler just before the overflow weir
at the pump station (Figure 1.). The time interval was 30
minutes for 12 hours. CSO discharges were measured
every 10 minutes. Water samples were also collected at St.
1, St. 5, and St. 6 using a plastic bucket. The time interval
was about 60 minutes during rainfall events. In addition,
at St. 1 and St. 6, we measured the river velocity,
temperature, salinity, turbidity, and chlorophyll a using
memory-type instruments (Compact series, JFE
Advantech Co.).

Water samples were kept in a cool box and taken back to

the laboratory. The samples were analyzed for suspended
Osaka Bay solids (SS), ammoniumnitrogen (NH4N), nitrate
Yamato River
nitrogen (NO2N)nitritenitrogen (NO3N)dissolved
inorganic nitrogen (DIN), dissolved organic nitrogen
(DON), total dissolved nitrogen (TDN), particulate
nitrogen (P-N), total nitrogen (T-N), phosphate
phosphorus (PO4-P) dissolved organic phosphorus
(DOP), total dissolved phosphorus (TDP), particulate
: Survey (b)&(c) phosphorus (P-P), total phosphorus (T-P), dissolved silica
Yodo River : Survey (c) only (SiO2Si), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), particulate
Furukawa River organic carbon (POC), and total organic carbon (TOC). SS
were determined on glass fiber filters (GS-25, JFE
Advantech Co.). 50-1000 mL of water was filtered
St.10 depending on the solid load.
St.9
St.8 Water level data at 10-minutes intervals was monitored by
St.7 the local authority. The data at two points near St. 1 and St.
Pump Station St.6 6 were used for the analysis.
St.5
3.2 Survey of sediments
St.4
St.3 Sediment samples were collected at St. 1 through St. 10
St.2 using a grab sampler and transported in a cool box to the
To Osaka Bay
St.1 1km laboratory. A grab sampler was used to collect sediment
Neya River samples. The samples were analyzed for ignition loss (at
600 for 2 hours) and particle size distribution (LA-920,
Horiba). We also measured the stable isotopes of
Figure 1. Study site (orange zone is catchment of the pump sediments and CSO for 13C and 15N.
station)
In addition, we collected sediment core and water column
The Furukawa River is a typical urban river and its flow at St. 6 near the pump station in order to estimate the
and level is influenced by tide.. It meets the Neya River oxygen consumption rate in the laboratory. We performed
and runs across the Osaka City area into Osaka Bay (a the oxygen consumption experiment under the
distance of approximately 7.3 kg). Its flow rate is very temperature in situ (at 30 ).
small (about 2.4 m3/s), and water is supplied from the
Neya River in the upstream portion (around St. 10) to 4. RESULTS OF FIELD SURVEY
improve the water quality. It provides ideal conditions to
observe the behavior of CSO discharged into a tidal river, 4.1 Results of survey in wet weather
because it has a single outlet of CSO.
4.1.1 CSO characteristics
3. SURVEY METHOD
Figure 2(a) shows precipitation intensity and CSO
discharge measured at the pump station during the
3.1 Survey in wet weather
rainfall event (November 11, 2012). It started to rain at
This study methology consisted of field surveys and 09:00 and continued for about 10 hours. The total
laboratory experiments. We conducted three types of field precipitation for this rainfall event was 25.5 mm/hour,
surveys: (a) a survey in dry weather to clarify the basic and the largest precipitation intensity was 9.0 mm/hour.
characteristic of river flow and water quality (conducted No rain fell four days before this rainfall event. CSO
October 22, 2012), (b) a survey in wet weather to clarify occurred from 16:10 to 20:00 and lasted as long as 4 hours.

2
 (a) (c)
4 0.0 5

Precipitation intensity mm/10 min)

CSO Discharge103 m3/10 min
PO4-P PP
4
3 1.0

PO4-P , P-N (mg/L

3
2 2.0
2

1 CSO Discharge 3.0

Rainfall Depth 1

0 4.0 0
(b) (d)
40 0.6 80
NH4-N PN [NO2+NO3]-N DOC POC
0.5

[NO2+NO3]-N mg/L
NH4-N , P-N (mg/L

DOC , POC (mg/L

30 60
0.4

20 0.3 40

0.2
10 20
0.1

0 0.0 0
9:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00 21:00 9:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00 21:00
Novermber 11 Novermber 11
Figure 3. CSO discharge and rainfall depth at the upper left. Others are vatriations of sewage concentrarions including the
CSO event (SS, nitrogen, phosphrus, organic carbon)

Total CSO volume was about 45,900 m3. The event mean NH4N, and P-N increased because the concentration of
flow rate of CSO was about 3.2 m3/s equivalent to 1.8 these parameters in CSO was higher than in river water.
times the average flow rate of the Furukawa River in dry Conversely, the concentrations of [NO2+NO3]-N
weather (which is about 1.8 m3/s). decreased because the concentration of these parameters
in CSO was lower than in river water.
Figure 3 shows the variations of the concentrations of
nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic carbon during the CSO Among the parameters we analyzed, NH4-N shows the
event. Almost all concentration were decreased with time impact of CSO most clearly, since the difference in NH4N
as rainwater with lower concentrations (compared to concentration in river water and CSO is extreme. To
CSO) was discharged into the local waterways. The other compare the NH4N variations at St. 5 and St. 1, we could
water qualities, except [NO2+NO3]-N, also tended to read an advection diffusion process of CSO in the river
decrease with time. The second sample shows a peak, channel which reduced the value of peaks and extended
especially in particulate matter (i.e., PN, PP, and POC), at the affected time.
initial rainfall. Only [NO2+NO3]-N increased until it
4.2 Sediment characteristics
reached about 0.5 mg/L. The average concentration of the
rainfall is about 0.29 mg/L in this area. These data Figure 4 shows the particle size distribution for the 10
indicate the existence of a source of [NO2+NO3]-N other observation points. The riverbed material was
than rainfall, such as sewer sediment resuspension and heterogeneous. Some sections between St. 2 and St. 9
urban surface wash-off. However, the exact causes were consist of finer material, whereas the areas around St. 1
not determined by our survey. and St. 10 consist mainly of sand. Particle size distribution
at the sections between St. 2 and St. 9 peaks in the range
We compared the flux between average flow in dry
from 10 to 20 m and again in the range from 100 to 200
weather and CSO to estimate the CSO impact. Nutrient
m.
flux in dry weather was calculated using data from
Survey (a). CSO flux was converted to per hour data for Figure 5 shows the ignition loss of sediment. The ignition
comparison. The CSO fluxes for NH4N and paticulate loss was high between St. 2 and St. 9 (7.6%18.4%) but
matter were several dozens to several hundreds larger lower at St. 1 and St. 10 (1.1%1.8%). This result indicates
than the average river flux. This implies that CSOs may that sediment rich in organic matter exists in a wide range
have a significant impact on the environment of rivers. of the Furukawa River. It was assumed that CSO greatly
affects the organic contamination of the river sediment.
4.1.2 River water characteristics during rainfall event
Figure 6 shows the stable isotope ratio of sediment and
Figure 3 shows the variations of river water concentration CSO for 13C and 15N. The value of the riverbeds
at each water sampling point during the CSO event. The sediment for 15N was less than 4 between St. 2 and St.
CSO discharge is also shown. All analyzed parameters 8, whereas the samples at the upper and lower end sites
showed rapid change between 22:00 and 03:00 at St. 1, (St. 1, St. 9, and St.10) were more than 5.0. The sample
between 18:00 and 21:00 at St. 5, and at 17:30 at St. 6. Such of CSO showed lower value of 15N (0.55). There is a
a rapid variation of river water quality was explained by possibility that CSO deposited near the CSO outlet
CSO inflow into the river because a rapid concentration influences the benthic environment of rivers. However,
change was observed just after the overflow, starting at St. there was no apparent trend for 13C.
5 and St. 6 near the pump station. The concentrations of

3
 8.0
0

(103 m3/10min)
CSO Discharge 1
St.10
2 6.0
3
St.9 St.1

15N ()
40
6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00
4.0 St.7
8
St.8
St.1
Water quality mg/L

St.6
6
2.0 St.4 St.5
4 St.2 CSO
St.3
2 0.0
-28.0 -27.0 -26.0 -25.0 -24.0
0
6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 13C ()
8
St.5 Figure 6. Stable isotope ratios of sediments and CSO
Water quality mg/L

6
The oxygen consumption rate was 1.75 g/m2/day in our
4 experiment. The oxidationreduction potential was 223
to 440 between St. 2 and St. 9. This shows a strong
2 reducing state in the surface layer. We observed a rapid
dissolved oxygen (DO) decrease during sampling. It was
0 due to the whirling-up of the sediment and discharged air
6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 bubbles (which may be methane gas) from the riverbed.
8
From these results, it is concluded that organic
St.6
contaminated sediment affects hypoxia and the water
Water qualitymg/L

6
quality. Figure 7 shows the variation in water level, DO,
and turbidity at St. 6. The turbidity increased in flood
4
tides. This was because of the resuspension of the
contaminated sediment in the riverbed. With the rising
2
turbidity, DO decreased.
0
6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 5. BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS OF CSOs
November 11 November 12
5.1 Flow rate calculation of tidal river
NH4-N [NO2+NO3]-N P-N
We calculated the flow rate of the river to quantitatively
Figure 3. Variations in river water quality at each survey point
evaluate the nutrient transport in the river channel during
the CSO event. The calculation method was as follows.
10
St.1 St.2
8 St.3 St.4 5.1.1 Calculation at St. 1 and St. 6
Frequency (%)

St.5 St.6
6 St.7 St.8
St.9 St.10
The calculation was based on velocity data measured by
4
memory-type instruments at 5-minute intervals. We also
2
measured the cross-sections and the flow velocity
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
distribution at each point to find a corresponding
Particle diameter (m) correction factor (one point velocity to average flow
velocity ratio). Then, the flow rate was determined by
multiplying the velocity data by the correction factor and
Figure 4. Particle size distribution
the cross-sectional area. The correction factors at St. 1 and
St. 6 were about 0.90 and 0.88, respectively.
The CSO outlet
20
St.4 5.1.2 Calculation at St. 5
Ignition loss(%)

15 St.7
St.9
St.2 St.6 Because this point had no velocity data, the flow rate was
10 St.5 estimated from the value at St. 6. The evaluation of
St.3 velocity and flow rate between St. 1 and St. 6 showed the
St.8
5
same phase. It appeared that St. 5, which was located
St.1 St.10
0 between them, had the same phase as St. 6. We estimated
0 2 4 6 8 the flow rate at St. 5 from the value at St. 6, incorporating
Distance from the merged position of two rivers (km) the volume change rate that was calculated by
multiplying the water level change rate between St. 5 and
Figure 5. Ignition loss of sediment St. 6 by the surface area. CSO discharge was considered in
the time lag. The time lag was read from Figure 3.

4
 3.0
2.5

Water level (m)

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
10
8
DO mg/L

6
4
2
0
600
Turbidity mg/L

400

200

0
0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00
November 11 November 12 November 13 November 14 November 15

Figure 7. Variations in water level, DO, and turbidity at St. 6

a strong possibility that particulate matter delivered with

5.2 Behavior of CSO water mass
CSO deposited immediately near the CSO outlet.
The influence of CSO was observed at St. 6, which is
located on the upstream side of the pump station. The 6. NUMERICAL EXPERIMENT
flow rate was 0.58 cubic m3/s to the upstream direction
when the CSO discharge started (the initial CSO flow rate 6.1 Calculation settings
was about 3.5 m3/s). It is found that CSO water mass can
Numerical simulation using a three-dimensional
run upstream by tide. In this survey, the CSO discharge
hydrodynamic model was conducted to clarify the
started at almost high tide, and the period of rising tide
behavior of CSO pollution load for SS in the river channel.
was short. If CSO had been discharged during flood tide,
The governing equations used in the hydrodynamic
the area of influence in the river channel could expand
model were as follows: continuity equation, conservation
more upstream.
of momentum in horizontal and vertical directions,
CSO discharge started at 16:10, and fluctuation in the temperature, and salinity. Hydrostatic and Boussinesq
water quality had resolved at St. 1 by 06:00 on the assumptions were introduced. The calculation conditions
following day. Therefore, retention time was estimated at are shown in Table 3. We reproduced the flow state
about 12 hours. In the case of CSO discharged into a tidal during CSO discharge and analyzed the accumulation
river, the retention time also depends on tide. If CSO had amount of SS from CSO based on our survey data. It is
been discharged during flood tide, the retention time necessary to consider elementary processes such as
could expand longer. agglomeration and resuspension to analyze CSO load for
5.3 Behavior of CSO loads SS. However, the parameter of SS property in CSO was
insufficient. In this study, simple analysis was conducted
To assess the impact of CSO pollutant loads on the
to consider the processes of sedimentation and deposition.
downstream sections of the river, it is necessary to
calculate (i.e., concentrations of each pollutant in river Table1 River and CSO flux calculated for 12.5 hours (one tidal
cycle). Unit of discharges is cubic meters and other units are kg.
water and corresponding discharge value). Because this
river is affected by a tide, we calculated net flux for a tidal Parameter (a) St.1 (b) St.5 (c) St.6 (d) CSO a/b b/(c+d)
Discharge 230,102 131,709 87,550 45,900 1.75 0.99
cycle of 12.5 hours. Table 1 shows the results. Discharge at SS 4,562 2,850 914 6,083 1.60 0.41
St. 1 was 1.8 times that at St. 5. This is because a normal NH4-N 271 230 38 240 1.18 0.83
NO2-N 18 6 4 3 2.86 1.02
flow component was stronger than a reverse flow NO3-N 880 412 358 10 2.14 1.12
component during the calculated period. The net flux of DIN 1,168 648 400 253 1.80 0.99
PO4-P 35 23 10 10 1.56 1.13
every parameter increased from St. 5 to St.1. In particular, SiO2-Si 1,080 484 436 78 2.23 0.94
the concentration of particulate matters was significant. DON 214 148 54 45 1.44 1.48
This was believed to be due to the resuspension of the DOP 11 10 2 6 1.12 1.19
DOC 986 532 286 332 1.85 0.86
sediment. TDN 1,382 796 455 298 1.74 1.06
TDP 46 33 12 16 1.43 1.15
To calculate a ratio the total flux of St. 6 and CSO to the P-N 142 56 21 130 2.52 0.37
P-P 56 20 5 34 2.87 0.49
flux at St. 5, every dissolved matter without DON hardly POC 909 217 99 521 4.20 0.35
varies and is stored in the river water, valued 80%120%. T-N 1,524 853 476 429 1.79 0.94
T-P 103 52 18 51 1.97 0.77
On the other hand, each particulate matter (e.g., SS, P-N, TOC 1,895 749 384 853 2.53 0.61
P-P, and POC) was valued at 35%49%. Results indicated COD 2,226 1,284 542 - 1.73 -

5
Table 2. Calculation conditions
7.0
6.0 Obs
Cal

5.0

NH4-N (mg/L)
Items Setup Conditions
4.0
Longitudianal direction50150 m
3.0
Model grid Transerve direction1014 morthogonal curvilinear coordinate
2.0
Vertivcal direciton5 layerssigma-coodinate 1.0
Computational domain The reach of 8.3 km upstream from the point where rivers converge 0.0
0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00
Computational periods 9/Nov - 13/Nov , 2012

Meteorological conditions AMeDAS Osaka data (Wind : calm

Figure 8. Variations of river water concentration for NH4N

DischargeConstant value
Upstream boundary The CSO outlet
TemperatureSalinityConstant value(Our observation data) 20

Deposition amount (%)

TideMeasured data by Osaka Prefercture Case1 Case2 St.5 St.6
Downstream boundary 15
TemperatureSalinityConstant value Case3 Case4
Initial condition Static , TemperatureSalinityConstant value 10
St.1 St.2 St.3 St.4
5

0
Table 3. Parameter of CSO load for SS in each calculation case 0 1 2 3 4
Distance from at the merged position of two rivers (km)

Particle diameter Particle density Setting velocity
Case number
(m) (g/cm3)
Case1 150 1.1
Case2 150 2.6
Case3 15 1.1
Case4 15 2.6
The CSO load for SS includes many types of matter, such
as soil particle delivered from roads and organic matter,
which formed a floc. Therefore, it is difficult to determine
the unique setting velocity. In our analysis, we assumed
four cases that changed particle diameter and density of
SS in CSO (shown in Table 3). Setting velocity was
determined using Stokes Law.
Two patterns of particle diameter were employed 15 and
150 micrometers, which values were the peaks of the
frequency in Figure 4. The values of particle density
employed were 1.1 and 2.6 g/cm3. The former was the
case of a particle that formed a floc, and the latter was the
case of a soil particle.
6.2 Results and discussion
If an analysis is for short-term phenomena to ignore
biochemical reactions, NH4N can be used as a tracer,
because the difference in its concentration in river water
and CSO is extreme. Figure 8 shows the observed and
calculated variation of NH4N concentrations in river
water. Though the concentration at the peak is a little
different in the two cases, the calculated results are in
good agreement with the observed results. It can be
assumed that this model appropriately reproduces an
advection diffusion process of CSO in the river channel.
The result of the deposition distribution of SS from CSO is
shown in Figure 9. In Case 1 and Case 2 for larger particle
diameters, more than 90% of the SS is deposited within
the 500 meter range downstream of the CSO outlet. In
Case 3 and Case 4 for smaller particle diameter, SS is
deposited over a wide area downstream.
Figure 9. Deposition distributions of SS from CSO
(m/h)
According to the results of the ignition loss of sediment
4.2 distribution (Figure 4), sediment rich in organic matter
3
exists in a wide range of the riverbed. Moreover, Figure 5
1.6 10 shows that large and small size particles exist in a wide
4.2 10
2 range. Considering these facts and the calculated results,
it appears that the larger particles of SS in the CSO load
2.6 are immediately deposited near the CSO outlet and
resuspended by the tidal flow after that.
7. CONCLUSIONS
The main results of this study are as follows:
(1) The concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, and
organic carbon except [NO2+NO3]-N were decreased
with time as rainwater was discharged.
(2) The CSO flux for NH4N and particulate matter were
several dozens to several hundreds larger than the
average river flux. This result indicated CSO had a major
impact on not only the water but also the and benthic
environment of rivers
(3) The water quality of receiving river changed rapidly
during the CSO event. NH4-N shows the impact of CSO
most clearly, because of the extreme difference in NH4N
concentration in river water and CSO.
(4) It is concluded that organic contaminated sediment
affects hypoxia and the water quality. In flood tide, the
resuspension of the contaminated sediment in the
riverbed. With the increasing turbidity, DO level
decreased.
(5) The flux calculation suggested that dissolved matters
of CSO loads hardly vary and are stored in the receiving
river water, whereas particulate matters delivered with
CSO are deposited immediately near the CSO outlet.
(6) The numerical results show that the larger particles of
SS in the CSO load are immediately deposited near the
CSO outlet and resuspended by the tidal flow after that.
This process explains the observation result that sediment
rich in organic matter exists in a wide range of the
Furukawa River.

6
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to thank the Osaka Prefecture Eastern Sewerage
Works Office for their assistance in field surveys of CSO.
Generous support was provided by Osaka Bay Regional
Offshore Environmental Improvement Center and Japan
Sewage Works Association.

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