Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Stanley H. Ward
Earth Science Laboratory
University of Utah Research Institute
Salt Lake City, Utah 84108
and
Department of Geology and Geophysics
University of Utah
Salt Lake City, Utah 84112
1. Introduction
*The final revised manuscript for this chapter was received in December, 1985.
265
METHODS OF EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS Copyright 0 1987 by Academic Press, Inc.
Vol. 24. Part B All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
266 STANLEY H. WARD
2.1. Introduction
I now present theory sufficient only for the purpose of this presentation.
Throughout, mks units will be used and time dependence eiotwill be invoked.
and
a
--(V*D) = V.J
at
V * D= 0 (9)
Equation (9) does not apply to inhomogeneous regions; at the interface
between two different media a surface charge accumulates.
' 1
. Pm
V x E(r, t ) = -
7T
3
rm
-m
V x E(r, w)eiw'd o
=-
6
1
R
1
"
--o
iwB(r, o)e'"' d o
Insofar as Eqs. (22) and (23) apply to arbitrary functions, E(r, o)and
H(r, o),provided they satisfy the existence conditions for Fourier trans-
formation, these equations must apply to each element of the integral. Thus
we find that
V x E(r,o) + ioB(r,w) = 0 (24)
and
V x H(r, o)- iwD(r, w ) = J(r, w ) (25)
270 STANLEY H. WARD
These are the frequency-domain versions of the first two Maxwell equations.
If we now substitute, in Eqs. (24) and (25), the constitutive relations of Eqs.
(13)-( 1 3 , we obtain, after dropping the functional dependences,
V xE + ipwH = 0 (26)
and
V x H - (a + iew)E = 0
These are now two coupled differential equations. In Eq. (27), the term
J = aE is conduction current density and the term aD/at = $oE is displace-
ment current density, so V x H must represent total current density. It is
customary to make the following shorthand identifications (Harrington,
1961) :
i = ipo (impedivity ) (28)
and
9 = a + i&w (admittivity) (29)
so that Eqs. (26) and (27) may be rewritten
VXEXLH=O
and
VXH-PE=O
V x (V x E) +Vx );( =0
(32)
r:>
From (2)
and V x ( V x H ) - V X - = V X J
and V xV xH -Vx
[:t
-(EE)
1 = V x (aE) (33)
Provided the vector functions H and E are piecewise continuous and have
continuous first and second derivatives, the operators V x and a/at may be
interchanged so that Eq. (34) becomes
0
a
x V x E + p (V x H)= 0
and V xV xH + pe-a2H
at2
+pa-
aH
at
=0 (36)
These are wave equations for the electric and magnetic fields, stated in the
time domain. A one-dimensional Fourier transformation of Eq. (38) leads to
V2E + ( p m 2 - ipao)E = 0 and V2H + ( p & 0 2 - ipao)H = 0
(39)
or
VZE+ k2E = 0 and V2H + k2H = 0 (40)
in which
k2 = p&w2 - ipoo = -29 (41)
Equations (40) are the wave equations in the frequency domain or, more
commonly, the Helmholtz equations in E and H. In Eqs. (39), p&o24 paw
for earth materials at frequencies less than lo5Hz; that is, displacement
currents are less than conduction currents. Thus Eqs. (38) and (39) may be
rewritten as
aE aH
V2E - p a - = 0 and V2H - pa- =0
at at
and
"I
FIG. 1 . Uniform plane waves : (a) electric and magnetic fields vary sinusoidally with time,
(b) electric and magnetic fields vary sinusoidally with distance, and (c) 'electric and magnetic
vector amplitudes and phases are uniform over a plane normal to the direction of propagation.
3. In any plane, the Evector (or theHvector) will exhibit the same phase;
i.e., at each point over the plane, E (or H)will reach its positive peaks, zero
crossing, or negative peak at identical times. Any such plane is therefore
referred to as a plane of constant phase.
4. The peaks of the E or Hfield which occur at t = 0, z = 0, will occur
downstream at t = t l , z = z1. That is, a plane of constant phase will
propagate in the z direction if we set a/az = Way = 0 as appropriate to a
uniform plane wave.
5 . A plane of constant phase is described by
E= = ~-iC
+E~~-~(CLZ-O )
(58)
where C is the phase, i.e., description of the amplitude of the sine wave, as
a function of z and 1.
If
crz - o t = c (59)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAI. PROSPECTING 275
then
dz/dt = o / a = ?&= phase velocity (positive) (60)
Similarly, for
E= -bei(uz+Wt)'=iC
(61)
dz/dt = - w / a = V
pVp
h = phase velocity (negative) (62)
This explains why we used +Eoand -Eo.
2.6.Boundary Conditions
Electromagnetic problems arising in the physics of the solid earth generally
deal with the resultant current, field intensity, or potential in response to an
impressed or primary field. The primary field gives rise to a secondary
distribution of charges and currents and, hence, to a secondary field. The
resultant field is the sum of the primary and secondary fields. Each of the
fields must satisfy Maxwell's equations, or equations derived therefrom, plus
appropriate conditions to be applied at boundaries between the homo-
geneous regions involved in the problem, e.g., at the air-earth interface. The
problems we meet most frequently, therefore, are referred to as boundary-
value problems.
Boundary conditions are readily derived from the integral forms of
Maxwell's equations (e.g., Stratton, 1941, p. 34). We shall merely state them
here.
Normal B. The normal component Bn of B is continuous across an
interface separating medium 1 from medium 2. This is written
Bni = Bnz (63)
NormalD. The normal component Dn of D is discontinuous at an interface
due to the accumulation of a surface charge density p s , i.e.,
Dn1 - Dnz = ps (64)
Tangential E.The tangential component Et of E is continuous across an
interface, i.e.,
4,
= Et, (65)
Tangential H . The tangential component Ht of H is continuous across an
interface, i.e.,
Ht, = Htz (66)
276 STANLEY H. WARD
E=-VV (68)
n = -vu (69)
are continuous across an interface, i.e.,
J4=& (70)
u1 = u2 (71)
We note from the above that of the quantities considered, only one is
discontinuous across an interface. It is essential to explore the nature of this
discontinuity at an interface separating media of different conductivities.
Equation (64) may be rewritten as
En1 - En2 = ~ s / e o
and Eq. (67) as
En1 - ( 0 d ~ d E n z= 0 (73)
Combining Eqs. (72) and (73) results in
ps = EO[(~I - ~ ~ Y o l l E n z (74)
which informs us that a surface charge ps occurs at the boundary between
media of different conductivities 01 and 0 2 . Although the surface charge
density is small because EO = 8.854 x faradlm, its electrical field E is
not necessarily small, as we can deduce from
in which ds is an element of the surface over which the charge occurs. In the
case of two adjacent plane boundaries separating a region of 0 2 from a
background of 01 the charge accumulation is as depicted in Fig. 2 for the case
02 > 01.
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 277
ai>ai
FIG. 2. Charges associated with boundaries representing discontinuities in electrical
conductivities.
'Ex,-Ex , ..., -Hy are complex constants and combine to form the complex
vector amplitudes. Hence we may write
E = + E e - i ( k Z - w t ) + -Eei(kz+ot) (83)
H = +He-i(kZ-of) + -Hei(kZ+ot)
(84)
Not all eight amplitude given in Eqs. (79)-(82) are independent, according
to Eqs. (77) and (78). If we now substitute Eqs. (79) and (82) in the second
of Eqs. (77) we obtain
- ik+E, - i(kz- O t ) + ik-Exei(kZ+@f)
= - t + ~ ~ ~ - i ( k z --
o t?) - ~ ~ ~ i ( k z + ~ f )
(85)
The coefficients of the exponentials eikz and e-ikz must vanish indepen-
dently, and hence we obtain
Similarly, we find
I
II
zi- 1
zi 1
I
FIG.3. An n-layered earth on which a uniform plane wave is normally incident. E, and ff,,
electric and magnetic fields ; k vector wave number; ui and hi, conductivities and thicknesses
of layer i.
where ki is the wave number in the ith layer, POthe permeability of free space,
o the angular frequency, Zi the vertical distance to the bottom of the ith
280 STANLEY H. WARD
layer, z any vertical distance within a layer at which the field is measured ;
'Ei the amplitude of the positive-traveling electric wave in the ith layer, -Ei
the amplitude of the negative-traveling electric wave in the ith layer, and eiot
the harmonic description of the wave.
At this juncture, for convenience, we note that selection of E, only and
Hx only assumes that the electric vector is normal to the plane of incidence.
Over the plane z = Zi we find
Eyi = 'Ei + -Ei
and
Hxj = (-Ei - 'Ei)(l/Zi)
in which
Zj = wpo/ki
is the intrinsic impedance of the ith layer.
Equations (96) and (97) yield
+Ei = &Eyi - ZiHxi)
-Ej = i(Eyi + ZiHi)
At z = zi-1, continuity of tangential E and H demands that
Hxi = Hxci-1)
Eyi = Ey(i-1)
Therefore we may write
Ey(i-1) = +E.l e- i k i ( z i - l - Z i ) + -Eieiki(Zi-i-Zi)
(1/ z i ) (l e+ ~ . L - Z i ) - -Eieiki(Zi-l-Zi)
-iki(zi-
Hx(i-1) =- )
Now if we let
Zi - zj-1 = hi
and substitute Eqs. (99) and (100) in Eqs. (103) and (104), we find
Ey(i-1) = Eyi cosh(ikihi) - ZiHxi sinh(ikih;) (106)
Hx(i-1) = H,i cosh(ikihi) - (1/Zi)Eyi sinh(ikihi) (107)
where use has been made of the identities
coshx = (e" + e-")/2 (108)
sinhx = (e" - e-X)/2 ( 109)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 28 1
[ Ey(i- 1)
Hx(i-lJ = [-
cosh(ikihi) - Zi sinh(ikihi)
l/Zi sinh(ikihi) COsh(ikihi)I ' [21 (1 10)
and symbolically by
The matrix i7 is referred to as the transfer matrix of the ith layer. For n
layers we can find a succession of Z from Zi through Tn each transfer matrix
permitting us to write the fields in one layer in terms of the fields in the next
layer. Thus, we can readily find the matrix relationship between the fields
in the (i - 1)th layer and those in the infinite medium terminating the nth
layer.
in which
Then the impedance Zj-1 looking into the n-layered medium from the
surface of the ith layer, is
We have used the notation 2j to denote the impedance at the top of the ith
layer and the notation Zi to denote the characteristic impedance of the ith
layer.
2.8.2.Oblique Incidence. The previous development may be gener-
alized to accommodate an arbitrary angle of incidence. As it turns out, the
impedance contrast between the air and the earth is so large that regardless
of the angle of incidence of a plane wave in the air, the wave in the earth will
travel vertically. This is readily seen from Snells law
kl sin 0i = k2 sin 8r (126)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 283
in which k~ is the wave number of air, k2 the wave number of the earth, 8i
the angle of incidence, and el the angle of transmission relative to the vertical.
When k2 % kl in (126) then 8t = 0 and this always holds at an air-earth
interface when displacement currents are neglected.
3.1. Introduction
Bulk resistivities from the surface to in excess of 15 km depth in a normal
crust are controlled by aqueous electrolytic conduction via pores, fractures,
and faults. A slight increase in resistivity with depth in this region is the result
of decreasing pore, fracture, and fault porosity due to increased hydrostatic
load. Fractures and faults are known to remain open to depths in excess of
5 km due to departures from hydrostatic loading. From about 15 km to the
Moho, mineral semiconduction dominates and the resistivity decreases
downward. Semiconductionwill remain the dominant conductionmechanism
in excess of 100 km into the normal upper mantle.
Archies law,
F = p,/pw = 4-m (128)
usually is satisfied for aqueous electrolytic conduction. In Eq. (128), F i s the
formation factor, prthe resistivity of the rock, pwthe resistivity of the saturat-
ing electrolyte, 4 the porosity, and m the cementation factor, which varies
between 1.0 and 3 ; m = 2 is the value usually taken for sandstone while
m = 1 satisfies conduction in rocks in which fracture porosity dominates.
3.2.2. Effect of Clays on Rock Resistivity. A clay particle acts as a
separate conducting path in addition to the electrolyte path. The resistance
of this added path is low. The origin of this abnormally high clay mineral
conductivity lies in the double layer of exchange cations, as shown in Fig. 4.
The cations are required to balance the charge due to substitution within the
crystal lattice and to broken bonds (Grim, 1953). The finite size of the cations
prevents the formation of a single layer. Rather, a double layer is formed,
consisting of a fixed layer immediately adjacent to the clay surface and a
diffuse layer which drops off in density exponentially with distance from the
fixed layer.
The diffuse layer, in contrast to the fixed layer, is free to move under the
influence of an applied electric field. The cations of the diffuse layer add to
the normal ion concentration and thus increase the density of charge carriers.
The net result is increased surface conductivity. Although clay minerals
exhibit this property to a high degree because of their large ion exchange
capacity, all minerals exhibit it to some extent. All rocks containing clay
minerals have an abnormally high conductivity for this reason.
- - - ---- - -
CLAY PARTICLE
@ ABSORBED CATIONS
t NORMAL CATIONS
- NORMAL ANIONS
FIG.4. Schematic representationof ions adsorbed on clay particle. (After Ward and Fraser,
1967.)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 285
-
=- + ) + +
+ + t
- _x
+
o + I +
(a)
--I= +I + t
o=t;+ +
+
w =
= + 1 + + t
J
-h
I 'FIXED LAYER
-
4
I-
(b)
DlSTA N C E
FIG. 5. (a) Hypothetical anomalous ion distribution near a solid-liquid interface; (b)
corresponding potential distribution. (After Ward and Fraser, 1967.)
of the ions, and dielectric constant of the medium. Most of the anomalous
charge is contained within a plane distance d from the surface (Grahame,
1947) :
d= (EO KekT/2ne2~2)"2 ( 130)
where n is the normal ion concentration of the electrolyte, 1) the valence of
the normal ions, e the elementary charge, Ke the dielectric constant of the
medium, k Boltzmann's constant, and T temperature.
The thickness is, therefore, governed by the balance between the attraction
of unlike charges at the solid surface and the thermal redistribution of ions.
Obviously, increasing n, the salinity, or u, the valence, decreases the thick-
ness of the diffuse layer.
Returning now to polarization at electrodes, there are two paths by which
current may be carried across an interface between an electrolyte and a metal
(Fig. 6). These are called the faradaic and nonfaradaic paths. Current passage
in the faradaic path is the result of an electrochemical reaction such as the
oxidation or reduction of some ion and may involve diffusion of the ions
toward or away from the interface. The charge is carried physically across
the interface by an electron transfer. In the nonfaradaic case, charged
particles do not cross the interface; rather, current is carried by the charging
and discharging of the double layer. The nonfaradaic component, thus, may
be represented by a simple capacitance insofar as the variation of its
impedance with frequency is concerned.
16. ELECTRICALMETHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL. PROSPECTING 287
WARBURG
REACTION IMPEDANCE
RE S I STAN C E
F A R A D A I C PATH
NO N- FAR A D A l C PATH
11
I DOUBLE
LAYER
CAPACITANCE
FIG. 6. Circuit analog of interfacial impedance. (After Ward and Fraser, 1967.)
In the faradaic path, the impedance associated with the electron transfer
is represented by the reaction resistance. The ion diffusion process is not
representable in so simple a fashion and, in fact, may not be adequately
represented by any combination of fixed capacitors and resistors. It is
customarily referred to as the Warburg impedance W and its magnitude
varies inversely with the square root of the electrical frequency.
The interfacial impedance of many metal-electrolyte interfaces may be
described roughly as follows. Above 1000Hz most of the electric current is
carried across the interface by the nonfaradaic path ; hence, the interfacial
impedance varies with frequency as approximately f-.As the frequency is
lowered, more and more current is carried via the faradaic path, so the low-
frequency impedance varies with frequency in the range f - 2 to fo,
depending on the magnitude of the impedance ratio W / R .
The discussion above applies to an ideal electrode in a pure electrolyte. The
concepts, however, are important in understanding the processes occurring
when current is passed through a rock. Any rock sample is dirty from the
viewpoint of the physical chemist, since the electrodes (semiconducting
mineral grains) and electrolytes (pore solutions) are anything but pure.
Nevertheless, perhaps we are justified in using equivalent circuits based on
pure systems since a phenomenological explanation for rock behavior
results. With this caution, one might suggest the equivalence of the elemen-
tary rock system of Fig. 7a with the equivalent circuit of Fig. 7b, where W
is the Warburg impedance [= k(l - i ) / f * ;k is a constant], CFthe double-
layer capacitance, CCHthe chemical capacitance, R the reaction resistance,
R the resistance representing a higher-order reaction, Ri the resistance of the
ionic path, and Rm the resistance of metallic vein path or particle.
In noting these circuit elements, it must be appreciated that one chemical
reaction at the interface may lead to a chain of subsequent reactions involving
electrons, ions, and molecules of all reaction products present. At each point
---
288 STANLEY H. WARD
-
>IONIC PATHS
(a)
LM
E T A LL I C P A R T I CL E
R, and R,
R i and R,
Ri and R,
..
R1
( c ; " i b
v
EXCITING C U R R E N T
t-
VDC' R z I
0
,v ,RIR2 1
Rl+R2
FIG. 8. Simplified analog circuit model of rock. (a) Elementary circuit; (b) frequency
response of elementary circuit-sine wave excitation ; (c) transient response of elementary
circuit-square wave excitation. (After Ward and Sill, 1983.)
of negative charges at any one point in space, or large electric fields would
result. These ion concentration gradients oppose the flow of current, and the
overall mobility of ions is reduced by this process. This reduction in mobility
is most effective for potential variations which are slow (e.g., 0.1 Hz) with
respect to the time of diffusion of ions between adjacent membrane zones.
For potential variations which are fast (e.g., 1000 Hz)with respect to the
diffusion time, the mobility of ions is not substantially reduced. Hence, the
conductivityof a membrane system increases as electricalfrequency increases.
3.4.Semiconduction
The intrinsic conductivity of a solid at temperature T is computed from
rs = lel(nepe + nhph) (131)
where n e and n h are the electron and hole equilibrium concentrations, ,ueand
,uhthe mobilities of electrons and holes, respectively, and e the elemental
charge.
290 STANLEY H. WARD
NORMAL ELECTROLYTE
CHARGE CARRIERS
NEGATIVE CHARGE
ZONE OF ION DEFICIENCY
ZONE OF ION
UGH
(b)
+
FIG.9. Depiction of ions in a pore space forming an ion concentrationbarrier which creates
membrane polarization: (a) pore path before application of an electric potential; (b) pore path
after application of a potential. (After Ward and Fraser, 1967.)
TABLEI. Values of uo and E as the Temperature Ranges of Importance for the Extrinsic
Electronic, Instrinsic Electronic, and Ionic Mechanisms'
Range of importance
Type of semiconduction uo Wrn) E (eV) ("C)
'Semiconduction follows the formula u = uoe-"T but uo and E are different for each
conduction mechanism.
through the crystal lattice as a result of defects in it. The simplest imperfec-
tion is a missing atom or lattice vacancy (Schottky defect). Diffusion of the
vacancy through the lattice constitutes transport of charge. The conduction
mechanism above 1100C is recognized as ionic because, when an iron
electrode is used in contact with a magnesium orthosilicate, iron diffuses into
the silicate, replacing the magnesium.
Table I illustrates the temperature ranges important for extrinsic, intrinsic,
and ionic conduction.
Cook, 1966; Bhattacharya and Patra, 1968; Keller, 1969; Meidav and
Furgerson, 1972; Parasnis, 1973; Telford et al., 1976; Verma et al., 1982;
Ward and Sill, 1982). They are used much less routinely in oil and gas and
deep crustal exploration (Keller, 1968; Eadie, 1981 ; Ward, 1983a, b).
Resistivity surveys are capable of mapping overburden depth, stratigraphy,
faults, fractures, rock units, conductive ore deposits, thermal brines and
associated hydrothermal alteration, and variations in the deep conductivity
of the crust, and may be capable of direct detection of oil and gas.
The induced-polarization (IP) method was developed for detecting small
concentrations of disseminated mineralization in base metal exploration
(Seigel, 1949; Hallof, 1957; Marshall and Madden, 1959; Wait, 1959; Van
Voorhis et al., 1973 ;Wynn and Zonge, 1975 ;Sumner, 1976,1979; Angoran
and Madden 1977; Pelton et al., 1978a; Hohmann and Ward, 1981 ; Ward
and Sill, 1982). Subsequently it has been used experimentally in geothermal
exploration (Ward and Sill, 1982).
Resistivity and induced-polarization surveys are performed in boreholes
and at the earths surface. In the interest of uniformity throughout this
chapter I will limit my discussion to surveys performed at the earths surface.
Dyck (1975) reviewed electrical borehole methods.
FIG.10. Transmitted and received waveforms in the frequency domain. (After Hohmann and
Ward, 1981.)
Impedance can also be measured in the time domain, in which case the
current is periodically turned on and off. As shown in Fig. 11, the output
is the voltage measured at various times when the transmitter current is off.
Note that the input again is periodic, because measurements must be made
for each of several periods and then added together, or stacked, to eliminate
294 STANLEY H. WARD
TRANSMITTER CURRENT
T
(perlod)
V
RECEIVED SIGNAL
* time
FIG. 1 1 . Transmitted and received waveforms in the time domain. (After Hohmann and
Ward, 1981.)
the resistivity of the materials and the scale size of the measurement, electro-
magnetic coupling between transmitting and receiving circuits violates
potential theory, and electromagnetic theory is required.
Measurements are made with a four-electrode array consisting of two
current and two potential electrodes. Resistivity data are always recorded
along with IP data to aid in interpretation. For a homogeneous earth, the
resistivity is given by
p = KAV/I (135)
where Z is the current, A V the measured potential difference, and K a geo-
metric factor that depends on the electrode configuration. When the ground
is not homogeneous, the voltage and current data are reduced in the same
fashion, but the resistivity is called the apparent resistivity. It is the resistivity
of a homogeneous earth that would produce the same measurement.
The potential due to a single electrode on a three-layer earth is given by
(Sunde, 1949)
where
k123 = (1 - +~ ~ 2 3 e - ~ ~ 1 ) (137)
u123 = (el - pZkZS)/(pl -t p2k23) (138)
k 4 ) = (1 - ~23e-~"2)/(1 + ~23e-"~*) (139)
and
U23 = (p2 - pl)/(p2 -t p1) (140)
Jo(1r) is the Bessel function of the first kind of order zero, r the distance from
the current electrode at which the potential is measured, and 1 a Hankel
transform variable. With two current and two potential electrodes in use, as
is customary, the potential difference between the two potential electrodes
is measured as
A V = (6- b) - (K - h) (141)
where the first term is the potential difference due to the positive current
electrode and the second term the potential difference due to the negative
current electrode. An apparent resistivity is then readily derived as
pa - 'I
-K-=-
211
~mki23(A)[J0(1rl)- Jo(Ar2)
0
- JO(Ar3) -k Jo(Ar.)]dA (142)
296 STANLEY H. WARD
WENNER Pa v s a SOUNDING
c1 P1 P2 c2
SCHLUMBERGER
L-@K-l
A MN B
7rn(n+l)a pa vs (nt 1/z)a SOUNDING
Forward solutions involve evaluation of the last integral as the ri are changed
systematically. To illustrate, when conducting field soundings with the
Schlumberger array, the current electrodes of Fig. 12 are expanded about six
times per decade of distance, starting with a current electrode separation of
a few meters, until their separation reaches 1 km or more. The potential
electrodes are left fixed at, say, m apart until the voltage becomes too small,
which occurs as the current electrodes get farther apart. Then the potential
electrodes are expanded to, say, 5 m, and the current electrode expansion
continues. A plot of Pa versus half the current electrode separation (AB/2)
is made as in Fig. 13. This curve may be compared with catalogs of curves
based on Eq. (142).
Equation (136) is one member of a Hankel transform pair, the other
member of which is
Thus all the information about the earth that is present in the kernel klz3(A)
is available on effecting the Hankel transform of Eq. (143). Attempts to use
this technique were made by Slichter (1933) and Vozoff (1958). Unfor-
tunately, the technique seldom works because it demands a range of r from
zero to infinity, which is never available in practice.
Today, a least-squares fit is performed between observed values of pa
versus AB/2 and values calculated from Eq. (142). Severalinversion methods
are available for performing this operation and they will be referenced
later.
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 297
.-
35.9 __
6.0
4.3 4.82ll.S 5.41 2.0
--
115.0 123.0? 7.0%
9.0
2000.0
-
132.0
62.1
14.0
65.5f4.4% 684
*FIXED VALUE5
1 3 5 10 3 5 l o o 3 5 1 0 0 0
LEGEND A812
SOIL CLAY 1- f SANDSTONE
SAND AND GRAVEL
SILT (AQUIFER)
FIG.13. Six-layer interpretation of Schlumberger sounding. The table gives best estimates for
layer thicknesses (meters) and resistivities (ohm-meters) as well as low and high estimates
corresponding to 1 standard deviation departure in log parameter space. The section at the
bottom compares estimated resistivity and depth with geological information from a well. (After
Rijo e t a / . , 1977.)
When performing combined sounding and profiling, that is, when search-
ing for both lateral and vertical variations in resistivity, the dipole-dipole
array of Fig. 12 is most commonly used. Referring to Fig. 14, the transmitting
dipole is established between stations 1 and 2; that is, electrodes are placed
at 1 and 2 and are connected to a source of low-frequency current. Fre-
quencies in the range 0.03-3 Hz are used most commonly. The receiving
dipole is first connected to electrodes at stations 3 and 4, and the current I,
298 STANLEY H. WARD
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
voltage V, and geometric factor Kare entered into Eq. (135) to compute an
apparent resistivity. This resistivity is plotted at the intersection of lines
drawn at 45" as in Fig. 14. Then the receiving dipole is moved to stations 4-5,
5-6, 6-7,7-8, and 8-9. This expansion of the array provides information
mostly on the vertical variation of resistivity. Then the transmitting dipole
is moved to stations 2-3 and the expansion process repeated. With, say, 10
or 20 transmitter locations established along a traverse line, a whole field of
apparent resistivity data points will appear as in Fig. 14. These data are
contoured to produce what is known as a pseudosection. It is not a true
representation of the distribution of resistivities in the subsurface. Theoretical
pseudosections are computed iterativeIy until one is found which reasonably
matches the observed one. Figure 15 contains an observed pseudosection, a
computed one, and a two-dimensional model on which the computed
pseudosection is based. Three-dimensional earths may also be modeled, as
will be discussed subsequently.
For induced-polarization surveys, both the amplitude pa of apparent
resistivity and the phase shift 4 between the transmitted current and the
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 299
FIELD DATA
-5 -4 -3 -2 -I 0 I 2 3 4 5
I
(a)
COMPUTED RESULTS
-5 -4 -3 -2 -I 0 I 2 3 4 5
I
OU
(b) \,
0 133' 56
63 52
202' 56 60
4 5 53 58
%oo\o' 00 51/
9O
I I 1
FIG. IS. (a) Observed pseudosection from dipole-dipole field survey; (b) computed pseudo-
section using two-dimensional finite-element algorithm ; (c) model of the subsurface used in
producing the computed pseudosection. (After Hohmann, 1982.)
Frequency domain
0.001 to 2000 Hz in 1,2,3.3,5 steps
Sequence
Automatic gain ranging
Automatic S.P. buckout
Sample at M PTS per cycle
M = 5 1 2 , f l 10 Hz
Decreasing to 4 for f = 2000 Hz
Stack 2" cycles
n = 0 to 6 , f s 0.33 Hz
n = 4 to 6, 0.5 S f < 10 Hz
Increase to n = 10, 20 5 f -C 2000 Hz
Compute (paland extrapolate phase
Compute running std. dev. for f d 0.33 Hz
Full phase and amplitude calibration
is applied before and after emplacing the aluminum foil. The salt solution
effectively increases the area of the electrode, especially if the electrode is not
used for 24 hours after its emplacement. One hopes to obtain impedances of
a pair of electrodes of order 100 hz if current of the order of 10 A are sought,
as is usual. Several electrodes in parallel, placed 1-2m apart, will lower
impedances where required.
Potential electrodes, on the other hand, are not required to be of low
impedance. Rather, they must be of low noise. Nonpolarizing Cu-CuSO4
electrodes are usually employed (Sumner, 1976).
Dipole lengths used in dipole-dipole surveys range from 30m to 1 km.
Current from the transmitter will range from 1 A to 20 A, depending on the
application, but also depending on how low the impedance of the trans-
mitting electrodes can be made. Receiving dipole wires are typically 18 or
20 AWG, while transmitting dipole wires are typically 8 to 12 AWG.
4.5,Arrays
The most common arrays used in resistivity surveys are the Wenner,
Schlurnberger, dipole-dipole , pole-dipole, and bipole-dipole arrays. If
induced-polarization surveys are to be conducted, either the pole-dipole or
the dipole-dipole array is used in order to minimize electromagnetic
coupling. The bipole-dipole array was used extensively after the success that
Risk et af. (1970) experienced with it at the Broadlands geothermal region in
New Zealand. It has been used much less in recent years because the apparent
resistivity contour plans obtained with it are complicated, difficult to
interpret, and vary significantly with bipole orientation and position.
Because of these problems, I will not discuss it further, but refer the reader
to articles by Dey and Morrison (1977), Hohmann and Jiracek (1979), and
Frangos and Ward (1980) for evaluations. The remaining four arrays are
304 STANLEY H. WARD
illustrated in Fig. 12. Of these, the Wenner array has largely been replaced
by the Schlumberger array because the latter is least affected by near-surface
inhomogeneities beneath the array (Kunetz, 1966). The dipole-dipole array
has largely replaced the pole-dipole array in conductive environments (e.g.,
geothermal) because it exhibits less electromagnetic coupling.
Table IV lists seven factors to consider when selecting an array for
resistivity or induced-polarization surveys. Time-domain and frequency-
domain operations are equivalent but equipment convenience may dictate
one or the other. In either domain, one would prefer three decades of
spectrum from about 0.1 to 100 Hz for IP surveys to permit determination
of the polarization spectrum. Table V provides an evaluation of the last five
factors of Table IV. Where 1 is entered in a box it indicates the preferred
array ;where 3 is entered it indicates the least desired array, for that particular
factor. Signal-to-noise ratio is superior for the Schlumberger array because
the transmitting and receiving electrode pairs are nested. For the same
reason, electromagneticcoupling is greatest, i.e., worst, for the Schlumberger
array. Dipole-dipole techniques are always superior to other techniques for
lateral resolution of two adjacent steeply dipping bodies. Vertical resolution
of adjacent beds in a horizontally layered sequence depends on the range and
density of measurements laterally ; the Schlumberger array is worst in this
regard (Oldenburg, 1978).
The depths of exploration of resistivity arrays are given by Roy and
Apparao (1971)for Schlumberger as 0.125L and for dipole-dipole as 0.195L,
where L is the maximum separation between extreme electrodes (AB for
Schlumberger 1 1 3 3 3 3 3
Pole-dipole 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Dipole-dipole 3 3 1 I 1 1 1
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 305
4.6.Interpretation
-
-
-
-
-
-
W
-
0.5 CAVITY -
wJ w
A
I I I I
0.0001 0.01 1.o I00 I0 K
FREQUENCY (Ha:)
FIG. 17. Generalized spectrum of natural magnetic fields. (After Campbell, 1967.)
current from a grounded wire source so that part of the current flows through
the cultural feature. Spurious resistivity and induced-polarization anomalies
arise as a result. In a definitive analysis of the problem, Nelson (1977) found
that the only certain means of eliminating such spurious responses is to keep
IP transmitting and receiving lines away from grounded structures. How-
ever, he did a commendable job in computing the response of a grounded
structure for comparison with the resistivity phase measured over the
structure (Fig. 18). Cultural features also can introduce noise into measure-
ments by providing a path for various interfering signals. Of course, strong
noise voltages are present in the vicinity of power lines, requiring filtering
TABLE
VII. Cultural Noise
Passive
Fences
Pipelines
Power lines
Telephone lines
Rails
Active
Power lines
Telephone lines
Electrified rails
308 STANLEY H. WARD
N 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 s s
3 3 1 5 7 0 1 3
1 5 .I 10 1 11 1 4 87
4 7 3 -1 6 2 3 11 -1 3 7 4 1
, 0 - 3 1 0 1 2 0 1 3 2 5
-6 5 1 2 4 3 I1 0
10 5 3 z 11 500'dipoler
F ~ L TEST
D
N 5 4 3 2 t o 1 2 3 4 5 5
3 3 2 8 7 1 3 3
3 3 0 9 3 8 0 3 3
3 3 - 1 1 0 3 3 1 0 . 1 3 3 4 1
3 -2 12 3 3 4 11 -1 3
-4 13 3 3 3 4 13 -3
1 5 3 3 3 3 4 1 4
COMPUTED MODEL
IP electrodes
N 5 4 3 2 2 3 4 5 5
FIG. 18. Phase lag in milliradiansdue to a power line and computed model using the grounded
impedance measured on one of the power poles. The computed model half-space parameters
were 50 O-m and 3 mrad. The grounding impedance were 100 O-m at 160 mrad, with 1 1 grounds
in the calculation. One of the grounds is 5 m from thecenter IP electrode. (After Nelson, 1977.)
at the front end of the receiver. Furthermore, pipelines often carry electrical
current for cathodic protection, and this current is a source of noise.
4.7.4. Overburden and Other Geologic Noise. Conductive overburden,
generally in the form of porous alluvium or weathered bedrock, prevents
current from penetrating to the more resistive bedrock. Hence detection of
bedrock features is less certain than when overburden is absent. When the
overburden is of irregular resistivity, as illustrated in Fig. 19, the geologic
noise produced by the near-surface features readily obscures the anomaly due
to the target in the bedrock. Anomalies due to geological heterogeneities of
no geothermal significance can also obscure, or partly obscure, the anomaly
due to a geothermal system.
4.7.5. Topography. Much geothermal exploration is done in moun-
tainous terrains, where topography can produce spurious resistivity
anomalies. Fox et af. (1980) systematically analyzed the effects of
topography for the dipole-dipole array, using a two-dimensional numerical
solution. Figure 20, for example, shows the apparent resistivity anomaly
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 309
Pa
FAULT /
,
/ I I I
150
I
150
150
I I
5015i50\4;;
150
150
150
I
150
I
150 150
I ,
I 1 , I I I , I , I I
FAULT +
SULFIDES
99
FAULT +
FIG.19. Resistivity pseudosections over an earth model consisting of a contact between rock
types, a massive sulfide body at the contact, and an irregular overburden. (After Pridmore
et al., 1981.)
310 STANLEY H. WARD
- 1
I
EARTH
p = I00
APPARENT RESISTIVITY
-5
I
-4 -3 -q -I 0 I 2 3 4 5
in which
15 15 -3
I I
!I
between the wires, CT the conductivity of the half-spqce on which the wires
are situated, k = (-iapw) the wave number of the half-space, p the
permeability of the half-space, and w the angular frequency.
The electromagnetic coupling between the wires increases with the fre-
quency, the lengths ab and-AB, the separation between ab and AB, and the
conductivity of the half-space. Electromagnetic coupling is particularly
important in the induced-polarization method, where one is attempting to
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 313
-IOJ I I I I A
.01 1 fHz 'O
100 1000
FIG. 22. Phase spectra for various dipoles and spacings from an IP survey in conductive
terrain, Northern Territory, Australia. (Data by Phoenix Geophysics Ltd.)
5. Magnetotelluric Method
5.1. Introduction
The magnetotelluric (MT) method has been used in geothermal, hydro-
carbon, and crust/mantle exploration for about 30 years; it relies on
measurement of three orthogonal components of natural magnetic fields and
two horizontal orthogonal components of natural electric fields in the
frequency band to 10 Hz (Tikhonov, 1950; Cagniard, 1953). The audio-
magnetotelluric (AMT) method has been used in mining and geothermal
314 STANLEY H. WARD
Below 1 Hz the fields, called micropulsations, are mainly due to the inter-
action of the solar wind with the earth's magnetic field and ionosphere. As
Fig. 17 shows, the amplitude of the electromagnetic field increases with
decreasing frequency below 0.1 Hz. Important references on natural electro-
magnetic fields are Bleil(1964),Matsushita and Campbell (1967), and Jacobs
(1970).
These natural fields represent noise for controlled-source electromagnetic
methods (CSEM), but they are the source fields for MT. Since low fre-
quencies are needed for deep penetration, it is easy to see from Fig. 17 why
MT has been used so extensively for crustal studies and deep exploration:
the source fields increase at low frequencies for MT while the same fields
constitute noise for CSEM, and hence noise increases as frequency is lowered
in CSEM. Furthermore, CSEM sources undergo a strong geometric decay,
which plane waves do not.
Audiomagnetotelluric, which is simply MT in the audio frequency range
10 to 104 Hz, has the advantage that data can be collected much faster, but,
of course, depth of exploration is less than for lower frequencies. Unfor-
tunately, low source fields have hindered the application of AMT, especially
in regions remote from the equator. One remedy has been to use an artificial
source, usually a grounded wire carrying current, at a large distance from the
survey area. This technique is called controlled-source audiomagnetotellurics
(CSAMT).
5.2.1.2. FORMULATION FOR A ONE-DIMENSIONAL EARTH. The basic
formulation for the MT/AMT method applied to a homogeneous earth is
given in Eq. (151). Orthogonal electric and magnetic field pairs, [Ex.H,] or
[Ey,H,], are measured at the surface of the earth. These quantities are simply
related to the electromagnetic impedance Z of a plane wave. When displace-
ment currents are neglected, which is justifiable for earth materials at the
frequencies employed in MT/AMT surveys, the impedance may be com-
puted from
Z = a p o / k = Ex/Hy = - Ey/Hx (149)
Under these conditions Eq. (149) can be rewritten as
z = o p o / G j i Z i i = J ; G p = =eiTl4 (150)
The impedance phase is 45", with Ex leading Hy by this amount. The
resistivity of the half-space is then given as
= o.2TIEx/Hy12
p = (l/aflo)(z(z (151)
where Ex is in millivolts per kilometer, Hy in nanoteslas, and the period T
in seconds.
316 STANLEY H. WARD
air
FIG.23. Typical model, apparent resistivity, and impedance phase for a layered (I-D) earth.
(After Ward and Wannamaker, 1983.)
When the earth is layered, as in Fig. 23, the plane wave impedance is given
by the recursive formula developed earlier :
=
ZZ+ Z1 tanh(iklh1)
ZI + 2%tanh(ik1h l )
ZI z
1
through
2 + Zn-ltanh(ikn-lh,-l)
= (153)
Zn-1 ~ n - 1
Zn-1 + Zntanh(ik,-Ihn-l)
in which Zi = Opo/ki is the intrinsic impedance of ith medium, the
impedance at the top of the ith layer, and ki and hi are the wave number and
thickness, respectively, of the ith layer. From Eq. (152) one can compute the
impedance phase d, and the apparent resistivity pa via
2
1 = IZlle'+ (154)
Figure 23b shows schematically the appearance of the pa vs. f and d, vs. f
curves for the three-layer earth depicted in Fig. 23a. Boehl et al. (1977) show
that one can predict the phase from the apparent resistivity approximately by
d, = 45" + 45"alnp,/alnw (156)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 317
TE MODE E,,
TM MODE E,
Y
FIG. 24. Model, modes of excitation, and formulation for a 2-D earth. (After Ward and
Wannamaker, 1983.)
P,
FIG. 25. Illustrative behavior of electric and magnetic fields over a 2-D body in a homo-
geneous half-space. (After Ward and Wannamaker, 1983.)
318 STANLEY H. WARD
electric field E,,/Egvaries from its normal value well off to the side of the
body to low values over the body. The corresponding TE mode magnetic field
H!/H$ reverses over the body, while H$/H$ is negative outside the body
and positive over the body, as appropriate for a line source of current along
the axis of the body. These secondary induced fields become vanishingly
small as frequencies approach zero (Wannamaker et al., 1982). For the TM
mode one observes in Fig. 25 that the normalized anomalous electric field
E$/E: is positive outside the body and negative over it. This characteristic
of the TM mode is indicative of dipolar fields, does not vanish as frequency
falls, and requires some explanation.
5.2.1.3.2. Surface Chargeand Current Channeling. The explanation for
this dipolar behavior lies in the existence of a surface charge density p , ,which
we established in Section 2.6.
For MT, the E-field response is predominantly dipolar, although higher-
order multipoles may be important at higher frequencies (Stratton, 1941, pp.
563-573). The electric field at C in Fig. 26 due to this polarization is in the
direction of the external electric field En,, while the electric field at D due
to the polarization is in the opposite direction to En,. On addition of the
incident field, this gives the appearance of currents in the external medium
being deflected into the more conducting medium. This phenomenon is
referred to as current channeling. If the two-dimensional body of Fig. 26 was
more resistive than its surroundings, i.e., p2 > P I , then the currents would
be deflected away from the body. Current channeling as opposed to local
induction of eddy currents is illustrated i n Fig. 27. The two effects are
superimposed when an electromagnetic field impinges on an earth in which
a conductive inhomogeneity exists.
Figure 28 contains plots of apparent resistivity and impedance phase versus
frequency for points A and B of Fig. 25. The apparent resistivity and
I- +I
*D
FIG. 26. Illustration of surface charges at boundaries, due to an electric field excitation.
(After Ward and Wannaker, 1983.)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 319
CURRENT CHANNELING
-L
/ P2 P1
Dl
INDUCTION
Pa
PI
FIG.28. Typical behavior of TE and TM mode apparent resistivities and impedance phases
at two points near a 2-Dbody in a homogeneous half-space. (After Ward and Wannamaker,
1983.)
320 STANLEY H. WARD
impedance phase for both points at the highest frequencies will be that for
a homogeneous half-space of resistivity p1 since the skin depth
61 = 2/= = 5 0 3 m (157)
in the half-space is so small that little energy reaches the 2-D body. On the
other hand, at the lowest frequencies the 2-D body will be transparent to the
downward-traveling electromagnetic wave, since the TE mode does not
involve surface charges and current gathering, so once again the apparent
resistivity and impedance phase at both A and B will be that for a homo-
geneous half-space of resistivity p1 (Wannamaker et al., 1982). Between the
low- and high-frequency extremes, the TE mode apparent resistivity, ~ T ,E
drops below p1 at A and B since the 2-D body is of resistivity lower than pl
and its effect is observed. The behavior of the impedance phase &E is then
somewhat predictable from m~ if Eq. (156) is loosely applied.
On the other hand, ~ T Mat point A starts at p1 at the highest frequency,
where the waves have not penetrated to the 2-D body, but continues to
decrease with decreasing frequency until it becomes asymptotic at some value
dictated by the current channeling effect. Note that A is located in a region
where the total electric field is lower than the incident field, as for point D
of Fig. 26. Off to the side of the 2-D body, as at B of Fig. 25, the electric
field due to the polarization charges adds to the incident field. Hence, the
apparent resistivity, calculated from an expression of the form
~ T =
M 0.2T1Ey/Hx12 (158)
will increase with decreasing frequency until a low-frequency asymptote has
been reached. Once again +TM roughly follows the gradient of ~ T M versus
frequency.
5.2.1.3.3. The Impedance Tensor. We have seen that there are two basic
modes of excitation, TE (Ell) and TM (EL), as illustrated in Fig. 24. In
practice, we do not know the strike or x direction a priori, so our field data
are taken in rotated directions which may be at any angle to x and y . Hence
we need some means of rotating field data into TE and TM modes.
If x is the strike direction, we write
ZTE= EX/Hy = Z , (159)
ZTM= - Ey/Hx = Z y x
When the fields are aligned parallel and perpendicular to strike, the
impedance tensor given in Fig. 24 becomes
fi
ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
-W
W
c
ri
0
LA
1
O
x' x
PLAN VIEW
L
Y'
Y
32 1
Ftc. 29. Plan view of measuring axes (x, y ) and symmetry axes (x', y ' ) for an MT survey over
a 2-D body in a homogeneous half-space. (After Ward and Wannamaker, 1983.)
Now let us turn to the field case where the electrical strike direction is
unknown. Then measurements are made in the rotated xy coordinate system
of Fig. 29.
The x'y' coordinate system is aligned with the strike, so we have
E: = ZTEH; (161)
E; = - ZTMHi (162)
In the xy coordinate system rotated by angle 8,
Ex = E: cos 8 + E; sin 8
E,, = -E:sinB + E;cosB
Hx = H: cos 8 + H;sin 8
Hy = - H i sin 8 + H; cos 8 (1 66)
Substituting Eqs. (161) and (162) in Eq. (163), we obtain
Ex = ZTEH; cos 8 - ZTMH: sin 8 (167)
We can write for the reverse coordinate transformation,
H: = Hx cos 8 - Hysin 8 (168)
H; = Hx sin 8 + Hy cos 8 (169)
322 STANLEY H. WARD
When Eqs. (168) and (169) are substituted in Eq. (167) there results
~ 8 + Hycos 8) cos 8 - Z T M ( Hcos
Ex = Z T E ( Hsin ~ 8 - Nysin 8) sin 8
E ZTM)sin 8 cos 8
= H ~ ( Z T- + H'(ZTE cos28 + ZTMsin28)
tan(400) =
(ZA - Zj,)(Z& + ZjJ + (ZA + Zj,)(Z& - Zjd
Iz:, - ZjY(2- \Z&+ zj# (178)
Such principal directions occur every go", so the strike direction cannot be
distinguished from the dip axis by using the impedance alone.
This ambiguity is removed by using the tipper T, defined as
where
Hz = AH, + BH, ( 180)
For the TM ( E l ) mode, no Hzresults, so the direction x which results in A
decreasing to zero is the strike direction.
5.2.1.4. FORMULATION FOR A THREE-DIMENSIONAL EARTH. Figure 30
illustrates that for an equidimensional3-D object, mode identification is no
longer possible, but for an elongate 3-D object it is possible. All components
of the secondary field are induced by any orientation of the incident field.
Furthermore, current channeling takes place for any orientation of the
incident field.
x' x
PLAN VIEW
E,
FIG.30. Plan view of measuring axes (x, y ) and symmetry axes (X',
y ' ) for an MT survey over
a 3-Dbody in a homogeneous half-space. (After Ward and Wannamaker, 1983.)
324 STANLEY H. WARD
Sims and Bostick (1969) showed that the usual impedance tensor of Fig.
24 is valid for 3-D models. In Fig. 30 we illustrate the 3-D body, the
measuring axes xy, and the symmetry axes xy. The electric and magnetic
fields are related not by Eqs. (161) and (162), but by the following equations:
E: = ZiXHi + Z& H; (181)
E; = Z;,H; + Z;:,H; (182)
in which the impedance elements Zij are functions of 8, as are the fields.
The electric field in the x direction is
E, = E: cos 8 + E; sin 8 (183)
When Eqs. (181) and (182) are substituted in Eq. (183), there results
Ex = (ZiXH:+ Z&H;) cos 8 + (Z,!,H: + ZjYH;)sin 8
cos 8 + Z;, sin 8)H: + (Z& cos 8 + Z;, sin 8)H;
= (ZX (184)
Then we substitutelliand Hi according to Eqs. (168) and (169), respectively,
to obtain
Similarly, we find
Zyx = - Z4 + Z3 cos 26 - 2 2 sin 26 (192)
Zyy = Z1 - Z2 cos 26 - 2 3 sin 26 (193)
In Eqs. (190)-(193) we have shortened the notation by using the following
definitions
z1 = (2%+ Z;,)/2 2 2 = (Z& - Z;,)/2 (194)
2 3 = (Z& + Z;J2 24 = (Z& - Z,',)/2 (195)
From Eqs. (190) and (193) we observe that
(ZXX + 2yy)/2 = z1 ( 196)
while from Eqs. (191) and (192)
(2, - 2,)/2 = z 4 (197)
Comparison of Eqs. (194) and (196) and Eqs. (195) and (197) shows that Z1
and 2 4 are invariant under rotation. In the 2-D case, Eq. (176), we found
that Z I = 0. Hence the skewness S has been introduced as a measure of three-
dimensionality. S is defined by
s = 1z11/1z41 = JZ:, - 2)!yl/p&- &I,! (198)
If S is large, three-dimensionality is indicated. If S is small, it is not easy to
deduce whether the earth is 2-D or 3-D.
It is clear from Eq. (196) that the elements Zxxand Zyyof the impedance
tensor do not become zero in the presence of a 3-D body except along any
axis of symmetry. However, for a 3-D body, principal axes generally may be
defined where Z,, and Zyy are minimized. Hence it is customary to estimate
an approximate strike direction 8 0 and to estimate the principal impedances
Z , = ZTEand Zy, = ZTMin such principal directions. Several methods have
been used to find the angle 60 between the measuring axes and the principal
axes. For example, one can maximize 1 2
,2 + JZyx)2,
1 minimize lZxx)2+
Iz~~~~, maximize I z , ~ or \ Z ~ , I , minimize 1 ~ or lzYy\,
~ ~ maximize
1 12, + zYx),
and so on. Each procedure will give the strike direction if the earth is two-
dimensional. When the earth is three-dimensional these methods do not give
the same results. The most common method used is that of maximizing the
absolute value of the sum of the off-diagonal elements, i.e., maximizing
lZ, + ZYJ. This is done analytically (Swift, 1967; Sims and Bostick, 1969).
As for the case of a 2-D structure, principal directions of the impedance
occur every 90". Defining TE and TM modes requires that this 90" ambiguity
be removed. This can be accomplished precisely for a 2-D structure by using
tipper strike, since Hz is correlated with the horizontal magnetic field
perpendicular to the strike. A unique tipper strike can be defined for 3-D
326 STANLEY H. WARD
bodies as well, with the principal impedance closest to this strike being
assigned to the TE mode. Principal apparent resistivities are
p& = O . ~ T ) Z & ( O O ) ) ~(TE mode) (199)
= O.~T)Z,L(OO)(~(TM mode) (200)
with impedance phase derived directly from Z& and Z,!x. Tipper strike has
the additional advantage that it is relatively insensitive to near-surface
geological noise (Wannamaker et al., 1980, 1982). However, this procedure
does not necessarily allow 2-D algorithms to be applied routinely to principal
apparent resistivities and impedance phases gathered over 3-D structures.
The basic behavior of apparent resistivities pxu and pyx and impedance
phases and +yx at points A and B over the 3-D body in a half-space, where
the x and y coordinates of the MT quantities pertain to those drawn in Fig.
31, has been plotted in Fig. 32. At point A, note that pxu and pyx fall as
frequency falls until they become asymptotic to a low-frequency limit
somewhere below p1. Regardless of the orientation of the inducing electric
field, some boundary polarization charge will exist. This charge creates
qualitatively a dipolar electric field anomaly over the body, which resembles
that of the TM mode of a 2-D body. At low frequencies current gathering
is by far the dominant factor in determining both pxr and pyx.
The character of the impedance phases +xuand 4yxat point A is comple-
mentary to that of pxuand pyx,although departures from the 2-D responses
again occur. For the 3-D body, and +yx at all but the highest frequencies
have values exceeding 45". Eventually, at low frequencies, 4- and 4yxwill
become asymptotic to 45", but will never drop below it. Note that qualita-
tively the apparent resistivities and impedance phases obey Hilbert transform
p2
FIG.31. Plan map showing location of measuring points A and B over a 3-D body in a
homogeneous half-space. (After Ward and Wannamaker, 1983.)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 327
A t
I
I f
f
FIG. 32. Typical apparent rehistivity and impedance phase curves for points A and B of
Fig. 31. (After Ward and Wannamaker, 1983.)
5.3.Data Acquisition
Vozoff (1972) provides a useful overview of MT data acquisition.
Sternberg et al. (1982) present an updated and more detailed description of
the subject. Figure 33 shows a schematic representation of the disposition of
E and H sensors for MT soundings.
Because of the steeply varying nature of the spectrum of Fig. 17, data are
collected in a number of bands from loe4 to 103Hz. Figure 34 displays
typical data from the midband extending nominally from 0.05 to 5 Hz.
The E fields are detected between orthogonal sets of nonpolarizing
electrodes. The electrodes are connected by 50-300-m wires to electric field
preamplifiers in the recording truck. While Vozoff (1972) advocated use of
large distances (2600 m) between electrodes, Wannamaker (1983) advocates
electrode separations as short as possible, consistent with adequate signal.
Modern E field preamplifiers are of sufficiently low internal noise that
328 STANLEY H. WARD
E
t
FIG.33. Magnetotelluric sensor deployment in the field. (After Sternberg et al., 1982.)
shorter spacings are possible. One seeks to avoid placing electrodes of a pair
on opposite sides of a surficial resistivity change; the shorter the wire, the
less likely the electrodes will be on opposite sides. We will refer to this matter
again later. The electrodes are either Cd-CdCl2 , Pb-PbClt , or Cu-CuSO4
nonpolarizing type. The former are thought to have slightly lower noise, i.e.,
chemical drift, but CdClz is highly toxic.
The H fields are detected with induction coils or Squids (cryogenic
magnetometers). Most modern MT surveys employ two complete MT
stations so that the E or H fields from one may be used as a remote reference
for the other. Gamble et al. (1979a,b) demonstrated that bias in estimates
of impedances derived from MT measurements may be reduced by use of a
remote reference. Stodt (1983) made a comprehensive review of bias and
tandom errors in MT surveys and demonstrated that bias removal can be
effected, under certain conditions, without resort to remote reference. The
use of a remote reference is, nevertheless to be preferred.
Figure 35 shows the system used for MT research by Conoco, Inc.
According to Sternberg et al. (1982):
The system consists of two data acquisition (or DA) vehicles, each
being equipped with the necessary electronicsto record three components
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 329
SCALE IN Seconds
FIG.34. High-quality MT data low-pass filtered at 5 Hz. Five field components are illustrated.
Data Data
Acquisition (DA) Acquisition (DA)
System System
330 STANLEY H. WARD
f
FIG. 36. Earth Science Laboratory MT system overview. (After Stodt, 1983.)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 331
100 m from the sensors. At the recording truck, the incoming signals are
presented to a line receiver and fed to four-pole low-pass filters with
programmable cutoffs for antialiasing protection. Optional programmable
gain and high-pass filter stages are also available at this point. The signal on
each channel is then fed to a separate sample and hold amplifier, controlled
by a programmable time base. Voltages are then digitized with a minimum
of 12 bits of resolution and stored for processing.
Figure 37 presents an expanded block diagram of the electric field and coil
receivers of Fig. 36. The electric field measurements are processed in the
following stages. They are presented to differential preamplifiers with radio
frequency interference (RFI) filter and transient suppression, then to
optional high-pass and 60-1 80-Hz notch filters, and finally to programmable
gain differential output amplifiers with programmable offset. The coil
magnetic field signals are presented to a differential preamplifier with RFI
filter and transient suppression, and then to optional high-pass and 60-
180-Hz notch filters. Line drivers send the conditioned signals to the
recording truck. The Squid magnetic field signals are sent directly to the
truck.
Gain in the system is introduced as early as possible to avoid contaminating
the measurements wfth instrument noise. The purpose of the optional high-
pass and notch filters and the programmable offset in the electric field
channels is to tailor the signal so the gain can be turned up without incurring
saturations by energy at frequencies which are not of interest.
Because of the steeply varying nature of the spectra as a function of
frequency and the nonstationary character of MT signals, dynamic range in
the analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion is a problem which requires very
careful consideration. Usually 14-16-bit AID conversion is required for each
332 STANLEY H. WARD
5.4.Data Processing
Stodt (1983) presents a particularly clean approach to MT data processing,
from which I quote in part :
due to sources which are not plane waves, cultural noise, and analogue
or digital processing errors from instrument drift, aliasing, or truncation
effects. It is important to distinguish between systematic errors and
random noise when developing estimation procedures and error analysis
for the impedance and tipper functions.
Impedances and tippers are usually calculated as unweighted least-
squares estimates. We distinguish between conventional and remote
reference impedance and tipper estimates. Conventional estimates are
calculated entirely from field measurements obtained at a single base site
(see, e.g., Sims et al., 1971). Two of the horizontal field measurements
are used as references with equations (201) or (202) to compute the
estimates, In contrast, remote reference estimates (Goubau et al., 1978;
Gamble et al., 1979a,b) are computed by introducing two reference
fields which are measured at a separate location. This is done to avoid
correlations between the noises in the base and reference field measure-
ments which introduce bias errors into the estimates.
(EyA*)(HxB*) - (ByB*)(HxA*)
z - (213)
yy - (HyA*)(HxB*) - (HyB*)(HxA*)
where A* and B* are the complex conjugates of any two of H x ,Hy , E x, and
Ey .Any quantity such as (E,A*) is the cross-power of Ey and A* calculated
from
's
wi+A0/2
<EyA*)(od= EyA* d o (214)
wl-A0/2
These are the Zij estimated in the conventional way, For remote reference
estimates of the Zu Eqs. (204) and (205) are multiplied by the magnetic fields
(Hxr and Hyr) at a distant site. Then
-- --
(Ey
- -- Ey
H,*,HxH$
zyy= (HxH.ZHyHy*r - H.ff.xH$)
- (218)
- HxHfiHy H.Z)
where the overbar denotes an average over a frequency window as well as
over all data sets.
Equations (215)-(218) involve only cross-powers between the base and the
remote stations. If the noise at the base station is not correlated with the noise
at the remote reference station and if a sufficient number of data sets are
averaged, these impedance estimates will be unbiased by noise. Furthermore,
since Eqs. (204) and (205) were multiplied in turn by a single reference field,
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 335
the values of the impedance elements are independent of the magnitudes and
phases of the reference fields and of the resistivity structure at the reference
site. Further details on the remote reference processing method are given in
Goubau et a/. (1978), Gamble et a/. (1979a, b), and Clarke et al. (1983).
10
&I
A
= 300
= 100
= 39
= 19
10
/ - 9
- 4
* 7/3
* 3/2
= 1/9
10- = 1/19
I 1/20
10-
\ = 0
FIG.38. Two-layercurves for the magnetotelluric apparent resistivity. (After Patella, 1976.)
336 STANLEY H. WARD
1977; Oldenburg, 1979; Larsen, 1981; Parker and Whaler, 1981; and
others). From inversion one expects to obtain estimates of the parameters of
the earth model plus one or more estimates of uncertainties in the parameter
estimates. This method has almost entirely replaced the former curve-
matching system in which a field curve was matched with one or more
members of a catalog of curves computed from forward modeling of a
layered earth. Catalogs of forward-computed curves appear in Cagniard
(1953), Yungul(1961), Srivastava (1967), and Patella (1976). In recent years
it has become increasingly apparent that the earth is seldom plane-layered,
so numerical algorithms for two- and three-dimensional earths are becoming
W E
STAT ION
OBSERVED IMPEDANCE PHASE 8-B'
I 1 I I O I 1 1 I I
W E
STATION
FIG.39. Observed apparent resistivity and impedance phase pseudosections for profile B-B'.
Contours of pyxare in ohm-meters while those of & are in degrees. (After Wannamaker et af.,
1980.)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICALPROSPECTING 337
W E
STATION
m m o e* 8 0 f p
F L E . mr Lez:s,-:kr 2
W E
STATION
FIG.40. Computed apparent resistivityand impedancephase pseudosectionsfor model finite-
element section for profile B-B'. (After Wannamaker eta/., 1980.)
338 STANLEY H. WARD
Lrn
I
1400
-
0 5-rn
3000
FIG,41. Best 2-D TM finite-element section fitting the observations for profile 9-9' of Fig.
24. Values for individual media are in ohm-meters. Vertical exaggeration is 6 :I . (After
Wannamaker et al., 1980.)
All of these algorithms compute the MT/AMT responses for both TE and
TM modes of excitation, Two-dimensional MT inversion has been discussed
by Jupp and Vozoff (1977). Observed apparent resistivity and impedance
phase TM mode pseudosections are shown in Fig. 39 (Wannamaker et af.,
1980). Modeled apparent resistivity and impedance phase are shown in Fig.
40; a 2-D finite-element algorithm was used in the computation. The
resulting model of the subsurface is shown in Fig. 41.
Means for calculating the MT responses of 3-D earths have been reported
by Jones and Vozoff (1978), Ting and Hohmann (1981), Wannamaker and
Hohmann (1 982), Wannamaker et al. (1 982), Wannamaker (1983), Park et
af. (1983), and others.
Most MT data have been interpreted by using 1-D earth models at each
site along a profile of stations. The resulting interpretation is a 2-D cross
section of the earth (see, e.g., Stanley et al., 1977). Wannamaker et af. (1980,
1982) demonstrate that this approach can produce grossly misleading earth
models. For 3-D environments with strong preferred orientations, 2-D TM
mode modeling is preferred; TE algorithms are of limited use due to current
gathering (Wannamaker et al., 1982). Otherwise, full 3-D interpretation is
required. Wannamaker etal. (1982), Newman etal. (1983), and Wannamaker
(1983) also demonstrate the importance of layering in which 3-D bodies are
situated.
functions. As Stodt (1983) points out, the systematic noise must be treated
independently of the random noise in any statistical evaluation of noise in
MT data. Systematic noise leads to biased estimates of the MT transfer
functions. To attempt to eliminate this problem, the use of a remote reference
has become common practice (Gamble et al., 1979a,b). Stodt (1983) demon-
strates that to some extent this bias can be removed from conventional data,
i.e., data recorded without a remote reference. Nevertheless, use of a remote
reference is recommended.
5.6.5. Geological Noise due to Overburden. In areas where there is an
irregular conductive overburden, current channeling into a patch of deeper
or more conductive overburden will produce anomalies even to the lowest
frequencies. Unless these anomalies are interpreted via 2-D or 3-D modeling,
they can be mistaken for deep-seated features. Wannamaker (1983) illus-
trates these effects.
5.6.6. Resolution. In MT surveys, resolution of layers in a flatly dipping
layered structure is usually of more concern than resolution of adjacent
steeply dipping bodies. For example, we rely on active source systems for
delineating fractures and faults in the shallower parts of geothermal systems,
while we rely on MT for detecting the more diffuse heat sources at depth.
Madden (197 1) demonstrated the principle of equivalence in MT sound-
ings. For simplicity, I will analyze the MT response of a two-layer earth,
although the analysis is readily extended to more layers.
If layer 1 is electromagnetically thin-i.e., wavelengths in the layer are
much greater than the thickness of the layer (kl hl e 1)-then tanh(ik1hl) =
i k l h ~and Eq. (153) becomes
1 + ik2h1
21 = z2
1 + Z2crlhl
where the definition of the intrinsic impedance has been used. If layer 1 is
conductive, cr1 s 02, then Eq. (219) reduces to
21 Z2/(1 + Z 2 ~ l h l ) (220)
The effect of a thin conductive layer on 21 arises only from its conductivity-
thickness product ; neither cr1 nor hl can be resolved independently. On the
other hand, if layer 1 is resistive, 01 e a2, then Eq. (219) reduces to
21 = Z2(l + k2hl) (221)
Thus the effect of a thin resistive layer on 21 arises solely from its thickness.
These conclusions can be shown to apply to any layer within an arbitrarily
layered sequence. In the general case, a buried layer 1 appears thin if krhl 4 1
throughout the frequency range for which EM waves are able to penetrate
from the surface to the buried layer.
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 34 1
7 00 14000
600 l2000
500
4 00 8000
300 6000
200 4000
100 2000
0 0
its boundaries are important, a 3-D slab must be very large for l-D inter-
pretation to apply. If l-D inversion is applied to the results obtained for the
largest slab, the results will be erroneous.
5.6.9.Depth of Exploration and Detectability. Depth of exploration is
often stated to be one skin depth 6,where
a=- (222)
This simplification is misleading, because noisy data or surface geological
noise can obscure the responses of deep bodies. However, with care in both
data acquisition and data interpretation, depths of exploration Well in excess
of 100 km can be achieved for infinite interfaces.
For 2-D or 3-D bodies, depth of exploration can be considerably less.
Newman et al. (1983) explored the possibility of detecting deep magma
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 343
I50 SLA0
A 400m z 400m
BOOm r B O O m
100- - 0
l2OOm x I 2 0 0 m
90- D
00 - 0 1600m r 1 6 0 0 m
- 70 -
60-
-
c 50-
40-
v)
W
30-
10
0.0I 0.1 I 10 100
FREO. ( H z 1
MODEL
h, = 2 0 0 m p, : KX)fL-m ear'h
h, = 3 ) p, = loon-m
FIG.44. Apparent resistivity 1-D curve and computed data points for four different
equidirnensional 3-D slabs. (After Ting and Hohmann, 1981.)
I f
C
C
4
J-
0 5 lOtm
SCALE
CROSS SECTION
JUVENILE CHAMBER
( v i r t u a l l y undetectable)
detection with the apparent resistivity pyxand impedance phase &. On the
other hand, the 2-D TE response in Fig. 46 is quite strong, dwarfing the
corresponding anomalies in pxuand & caused by the 3-D structure. This
discrepancy is interpreted as being due to current gathering in the 3-D body,
whereby secondary currents induced about the 3-D structure are essentially
short-circuited into deeper, less resistive media of the layered host and are
inhibited by the material of 4000 Q-m from reaching the surface to produce
an anomaly (Newman et al., 1983).
To verify this interpretation, the 3-D body of Fig. 45 was removed from
its layered host and simulated within a uniform half-space of 400 Q-m
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
3D
-1-0
--P..
-2 -1 0 11 r2
log f (Hz)
15 - 1-0 1 15
65
F. 55
0
2
45
35
25
l5
-3
L L -2 -1 0 11 *2
15
-3 -2 -1 0 *1 +2
(Hz) log f log f (HA
FIG.46. Apparent resistivity and impedance phase curves over the magma changer of Fig.
45, layered earth. (After Newman et at., 1983.)
30 2D
'4
-.....- PP,." I
I
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 *2 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 *2
log f (Hr) log f (HA
75 L -
5
. 35
* 251
; 5 1
-3 -2 -1 0 11 *2
log f (Hz)
FIG.47. Apparent resistivity and impedance phase curves over the magma chamber of Fig.
45, homogeneous half-space. (After Newman et al., 1983.)
346 STANLEY H. WARD
(see Fig. 47). In this case, the 2-D TM anomaly as well as the anomalies in
both ply, & and pyx,&x over the 3-D body are much stronger than the
anomalies in Fig. 46. (Anomalies here mean departure from the 1-D
response.) This high sensitivity of the response of a 3-D body to its layered
host underscores the importance of simulations using an algorithm handling
3-D bodies in arbitrarily layered earths.
3
tWEATHERED HOST ROCK --
-OVERB
MASSIVE SULFIDE
DISSEMINATED SULFIDE-(
(subscript 2). The parameter L is the separation between the transmitting and
receiving coils. The 8i are induction numbers, which control the responses
of overburden and ore body.
Any electromagnetic boundary-value problem will involve one or more
induction numbers, as can be seen by dimensional analysis of the wave
equation
expect, the various Bi are not always far apart, with the result that separation
of the contributions of the various elements of the geoelectric section to A E
is not clear-cut. In addition, interactions between the elements of the geo-
electric section can and do take place; an example is current channeling into
a highly conductive medium from a less conductive one.
The electromagnetic problem in mining geophysics can be described as a
search for procedures to separate the geological signal arising in a massive
sulfide body from the geological noise arising from the other elements of the
geoelectric section. The procedures must be sought with the realization that
each geological noise source may shift the phase, alter the amplitude, and
change the spatial spectrum of each component of the secondary fields
scattered by the massive sulfide deposit. To solve this problem, it is necessary
to (1) obtain precise data over several decades of freqency, (2) avoid spatial
aliasing of data, (3) select an optimum transmitter-receiver configuration,
and (4)use three-dimensional models to simulate the real earth. Com-
promises between complete solutions and economical or practical solutions
are to be expected within this framework (Hohmann and Ward, 1981;
Ward, 1982).
Figure 49 shows a generalized model of a convective hydrothermal system
being explored by an electromagnetic method. Except for the subsurface
target, it is similar in most respects to the mining problems of Fig. 48.
However, the resistivity of the geothermal reservoir is usually not as low as
OUTLINE OF
0.4 I\ \ T I M E DOMAIN
- -1 \ (Poor Conductor) \
"0 2 4 6 8
Ti m e (mrecl
- I A I I I
OO 94 187 281 374 468 562
Frequency (Hz)
FIG. SO. Time- and frequency-domain responses for good and poor conductors. (After
Hohmann and Ward, 1981.)
decay, while in the frequency domain the peak quadrature response and
maximum slope of the in-phase response occur at a higher frequency for
the poor conductor.
u = 2-/ (229)
while increasing its horizontal dimensions in proportion to e.
352 STANLEY H. WARD
H I
t / P 10.4
Conrours X loe9 A / m *
1.6
I Contours X 10.~
FIG. 51. Current density in the smoke ring of induced current around a step-varying
A/m2
TEM or FEM
Decades of spectrum
Signal-to-noise ratio
Lateral and vertical resolution
Source configuration
Transmitter coil size
Depth of exploration
Current channeling
Effects of topography
16. ELECTRICAL. METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 353
f
TRANSMITTER C U R R E N T
(AND PRIMARY MAGNETIC FIELD)
FIG.52. Typical time domain transmitted and received waveforms. (After McNeil, 1980.)
TABLE
IX. Evaluation of Frequency-Domain (FD) and Time-Domain (TD) Electromagnetic
Methods
~~~~ ~
Transmitter-receiver Alignment
Spectrum Bandwidth separations errors
Instantaneous
Timeheading Signal Noise power
For deep crustal exploration, one might expect FEM to be favored over
TEM because of the higher signal-to-noise ratio expected with narrowband
(FEM) than with broadband (TEM) systems. While SanFilipo and Hohmann
(1982) confirm this idea, further study of the problem is needed, especially
since the signals received from the subsurface targets are model-specific.
Table IX summarizes the known relative advantages of FEM and TEM.
Apart from these, one should note that a single coil can be used as both
transmitter and receiver in TEM. This has not yet been exploited in geo-
thermal or deep crustal exploration, but it is a feature of SIROTEM
(McCracken and Buselli, 1978), which has been used in mining and sedi-
mentary basin exploration. Further, alignment errors between transmitter
(Z) and receiver (Rx)are unimportant in TEM because only of secondary
(scattered) fields are measured, whereas in FEM measurements are always
made of primary (source) and secondary fields combined.
One can depart from the basic waveforms of Fig. 10 and 52 to achieve
specific objectives. Duncan et al. (1980) and others reported the use of a
pseudorandom binary sequence (PRBS) but have yet to demonstrate that this
modestly broadband system enjoys advantages of FEM narrowband systems
which also employ cross-correlation to extract signal from noise. Several
other waveforms have been used in mining exploration (see, e.g., Barringer,
1962; Lamontagne, 1975; Won, 1980).
6.3.2.Source Configurations. Figure 53 portrays five basic transmitting
source configurations used in mining exploration. For detailed discussions
of the many variants on these basic source types, see Grant and West (1965),
Ward (1967), and Telford et al. (1976).
The two-loop array (Fig. 53a) is moved in-line or broadside across the
expected strike of the structure. In the frequency domain, real and imaginary
parts of secondary magnetic fields are recorded as a percentage of the
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 355
Two-loop Large source loop
Single -loop
Tx 8 Rx Ax
Section Plan
FIG.53. Five basic source types used in electromagnetic exploration : (a) coplanar horizontal,
coplanar vertical, or coaxial loop pairs; (b) large rectangular source loop to which a single
horizontal or vertical receiving coil is referenced; (c) single loop which is used sequentially as
transmitter and then as receiver in the time domain or whose impedance is measured in the
frequency domain; (d) Grounded wire source to which electric and magnetic field components
are referenced ; (e) vertical transmitting loop, tilt angle and ellipticity measured by receiver.
primary field. The phase reference is hard-wired from the transmitter to the
receiver, by which means the primary field is also canceled. In the time
domain, the secondary transient is simply recorded and stacked at the
receiver. Measurements are made every 25 or 50 m along the traverse with
the transmitter and receiver separated by 100-200 m.
The large source loop portrayed in Fig. 53b ranges in dimensions from
200 x 400m to 500 x 1OOOm. Measurements are made in the frequency
domain of the field strength and phase of one to three magnetic field
components or of field strength ratio and phase difference with a pair of
horizontal coplanar or vertical coaxial coils. For the former, synchronized
crystal clocks at the receiver and transmitter provide a phase reference for
coherent detection. Measurements of one to three components are also made
in the time domain, for which crystal clocks provide a time reference for
stacking. Traverses of the receiving coils are made outside the loop on lines
perpendicular to a long side of the loop, and hence nominally perpendicular
to the geologic strike. In the time domain, measurements are also made inside
the loop when one wishes to minimize current channeling (B. Spies, 1982,
356 STANLEY H. WARD
6.5. Interpretation
6.5.1. One-DimensionalEarth Models. The review article by Hohmann
(1982) covers the state-of-the-art numerical methods used in the interpreta-
tion of electromagnetic data. The half-space and horizontally layered earth
r
are one-dimensional models. The frequency-domain response of a vertical
magnetic dipole of moment m over a layered earth is given by
and
Hr(P, X) = -
Im
471 0
R(1, P, X)Jl(1r)A2 d1 (231)
where Jo(1r) and Jl(1r) are Bessel functions of the first kind of orders 0 and
1 , respectively, 1 is the Hankel transform variable, and R(1, P, X) is the
kernel of the integral and is a function of the model parameters. The
unknown model parameters are the components of the n-dimensional vector
P, and hence are the layer conductivities aj(i = 1 to n) and the layer thick-
nesses hi(i = 1 to n - 1). Therefore, there are m components of P,where
m = 2n - 1. The system parameters forming the vector X are the source-
receiver separation rand the angular frequency of the transmitter o.Glenn
el a/. (1973) define
2, = z,
22 + 21tanh(iklh1)
(233)
21+ 22 tanh(ik1h)
that is, the plane wave impedance at the top of an n-layered structure as given
by Eq. (125).
The time-domain response of a layered earth is obtained by taking the
inverse Laplace transform of Eq. (230) or (231).
Forward application of equations such as (230) and (23 1) is rapidly being
replaced by inverse solutions in whichR(A, P,X) is estimated by least-squares
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 359
1 . I ~ . . . I ..-
OBSERVATION
- 3 LAYER
0
- MODEL - 25
-
-
- -
+-5-
-lo*
- .
I * I ...... I . ...-
10 10 lo3 lo4 lo5
F R E OUE NCY Hr -
R E S I S T I V I T Y Qm
3
(b)
FIG.54. (a) Horizontal magnetic dipole sounding for a receiver 30.5 m south of transmitter
(after Ward et a/., 1976); (b) deduced vertical resistivity profile.
360 STANLEY H. WARD
140
I50
160
- HOHMANN
o COGGON
-1-170
0.03 0.I
I
0.3
I
1.0
L
3.0
I
10.0
I
30.0 +
a
FIG.56. Fraction of currentf(a) confined to the overburden as a function of a. (See text.)
(After Edwards and Howell, 1976.)
Most MT
AMT
AFMAG
VLF
CSAMT
UTEM (Univ. Toronto)
TURAM
EMP (Newmont)
GEOPROBE
Vertcal Rotaining Loop
PEM (Crone)
MAX MIN I1
Shootback
Least SIROTEM
Acknowledgments
I am grateful to my colleagues G. W. Hohmann, W. R. Sill, and P. E. Wannamaker for
collaborating on several reports and manuscripts from which I have drawn most of the material
for this chapter. Joan Pingree typed the manuscript and Doris Cullen and Sandra Bromley
supervised preparation of the illustrations. I am grateful to the Earth Science Laboratory of the
University of Utah Research Institute for funding the typing and drafting.
366 STANLEY H. WARD
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