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16.

ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL


PROSPECTING*

Stanley H. Ward
Earth Science Laboratory
University of Utah Research Institute
Salt Lake City, Utah 84108
and
Department of Geology and Geophysics
University of Utah
Salt Lake City, Utah 84112

1. Introduction

This chapter will treat the resistivity, induced-polarization, magneto-


telluric, audio-frequency magnetotelluric, and controlled-source electro-
magnetic methods. With the exception of the magnetotelluric method, all of
these methods are used in mining exploration. Resistivity, induced-polariza-
tion, and magnetotelluric methods are used in a minor way in oil and gas
exploration. All of the methods have been used in geothermal exploration,
while resistivity, controlled-source electromagnetics, and audio-frequency
magnetotellurics are employed periodically in coal basin studies. Resistivity,
magnetotellurics, and controlled-source electromagnetic methods are used in
deep exploration of the earths crust and mantle. Resistivity, induced-
polarization, and controlled-source electromagnetic methods are used in
ground water exploration, while only resistivity is used routinely in applica-
tions in geotechnical engineering. Representative applications of each
method will be given subsequently.
The objectives of this chapter are to provide for each method (a) an
overview, (b) an outline of important applications, (c) a summary of
important references, (d) a summary of the theoretical and physical bases,
(e) a description of typical modern field equipment, ( f ) a summary of data
processhg, (g) a summary of interpretation procedures, and (h) a summary
of the problems encountered with the method in its various applications.

*The final revised manuscript for this chapter was received in December, 1985.
265
METHODS OF EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS Copyright 0 1987 by Academic Press, Inc.
Vol. 24. Part B All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
266 STANLEY H. WARD

Each of the methods demands a knowledge of electromagnetic theory.


Such theory as is necessary to understand each method will be presented,
commencing with elementary electromagnetic theory at the outset. Within
the discussion of each method, additional electromagnetic theory will
appear.
Each method also depends on contrasts in electrical properties of the earth
media. Since these properties have some unusual features vis-his more
homogeneous materials such as metals, it is necessary to discuss these
properties at some length prior to entering into discussions of the five
methods mentioned earlier.

2. Elementary Electromagnetic Theory

2.1. Introduction
I now present theory sufficient only for the purpose of this presentation.
Throughout, mks units will be used and time dependence eiotwill be invoked.

2.2. Maxwells Equations


An electromagnetic field may be defined as the domain of the four vector
functions E, ByD, and H,where E is the electric field intensity in volts per
meter, B the magnetic induction in webers per square meter, D the dielectric
displacement in coulombs per square meter, and H the magnetic field
intensity in amperes per meter.
The experimental evidence of Amptre and Faraday leads to the two
fundamental Maxwell equations described in the time domain :

V x E + aB/at =0 (Faradays Law) (1)


and

V x H - aD/at =J (Amperes Law) (2)


in which J is the electric current density and aD/at the displacement current
density, both in amperes per square meter. It should be stressed that these
are empirical equations which seem to govern all electromagnetic phe-
nomena. Taking the divergence of Eqs. (1) and (2), I obtain

v-a~/at=o and -v-aD/at=v.J (3)


because the divergence of a curl is zero. Provided the vector functions B
and D are piecewise continuous and possess continuous first and second
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 267

derivatives, then the operators V and a/& may be interchanged to yield


a
-(V.B) = 0 (4)
at

and
a
--(V*D) = V.J
at

Equation (4) yields the third Maxwell equation


V-B=O
if at any time B was zero. Equation ( 5 ) yields the fourth Maxwell equation
V*D=Pe (7)
if at any time D was zero, provided that an equation of continuity
V *J + &/at =0 (8)
is applied. Equation (8) is a statement of the conservation of charge in the
vicinity of a point. For homogeneous earth materials of conductivity
s/m or greater, free charge pe dissipates in less than 10-6s. Thus for
geophysical prospecting, in which frequencies less than lo5 Hz are employed,
ape/at = 0 and we may write

V * D= 0 (9)
Equation (9) does not apply to inhomogeneous regions; at the interface
between two different media a surface charge accumulates.

2.3. The Constitutive Relations


The first two Maxwell equations, Eqs. (1) and (2), are uncoupled dif-
ferential equations describing the experimental behavior of the five vector
functions E, B, H, D, and J. These two equations are coupled only through
the frequency-domain constitutive relations
D = E(w, E, r, t , T , P,...) E (10)
B = p(w, Byr, t, T, P,...) H - (1 1)
and
J = b(w, E, r, t , T, P,...) E
in which the tensors 8, J, and b describe, respectively, the dielectric per-
mittivity, magnetic permeability, and electric conductivity as functions of
268 STANLEY H. WARD

angular frequency o,electric field strength E or magnetic induction B,


position r, time t , temperature T , and pressure P . Each of these three tensors
is complex in the general case, permitting the phases of D and E, of H and
B, and of J and E to be different. In most elementary electromagnetic earth
problems the following assumptions are made to simplify analysis.
1. All media are linear, isotropic, homogeneous, and have electrical
properties which are independent of time, temperature, or pressure.
2. The magnetic permeability p is assumed to be that of free space, i.e.,
p =po.
Comments on these assumptions follow.
1. Anisotropic media are included in some simple electromagnetic
boundary-value problems and aid in interpretation of data obtained with
plane wave sources.
2. Inhomogeneous media entering into electromagnetic boundary-value
problems are treated as one-dimensionally inhomogeneous (plane-layered),
two-dimensionally inhomogeneous (infinite cylinders of arbitrary cross
section), or three-dimensionally inhomogeneous.
3. In shallow prospecting the effect of pressure is small and is customarily
ignored.
4. The time dependence of electrical conductivity due to varying
moisture content in surface soils is usually ignored, although not correctly so.
For the purpose of subsequent discussion, the following three constitutive
relations will suffice :
D= [E(O)- i ~ ( o ) ] E= EE (13)
J = [a(o) + ia(w)]E = aE
B=pH (15)
in which dielectric permittivity E and electrical conductivity a are complex
functions of angular frequency while magnetic permeability p is independent
of frequency and is real.

2.4. Fourier Transformation of Maxwells Equations


We wish to effect Fourier transformation of the Maxwell equations, given
in the time domain by
V x E + dB/& = 0 (16)
and
V X H - dD/dt = J
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 269

The vector field quantities E, B, H, D, and J are each functions of position


r and time 1.
A typical field quantity transforms according to

' 1
. Pm

E(r, t ) = - -~ E(r, o)e'"'do


& --OD

in which E(r, t ) is described in the time ( 1 ) domain whereas E(r, o)is


described in the frequency (0) domain. The curl of Eq. (18) is
.
I
Pm
V x E(r, I ) = V X - E(r, o)eiW'd o
6 -"
which for E(r, o)piecewise continuous, with continuous first and second
derivatives, becomes

V x E(r, t ) = -
7T
3
rm

-m
V x E(r, w)eiw'd o

The quantity aB/dt transforms according to

=-
6
1
R
1
"
--o
iwB(r, o)e'"' d o

Thus the first Maxwell equation (1 6)becomes under Fourier transformation

V x E(r, w)eiW'd o +- iwB(r, w)e'"' dw = 0 (22)

The second Maxwell equation similarly transforms according to

V x H(r, o)e'"'dw = - J(r, o)+ ioD(r, w)e'"' do (23)

Insofar as Eqs. (22) and (23) apply to arbitrary functions, E(r, o)and
H(r, o),provided they satisfy the existence conditions for Fourier trans-
formation, these equations must apply to each element of the integral. Thus
we find that
V x E(r,o) + ioB(r,w) = 0 (24)
and
V x H(r, o)- iwD(r, w ) = J(r, w ) (25)
270 STANLEY H. WARD

These are the frequency-domain versions of the first two Maxwell equations.
If we now substitute, in Eqs. (24) and (25), the constitutive relations of Eqs.
(13)-( 1 3 , we obtain, after dropping the functional dependences,
V xE + ipwH = 0 (26)
and
V x H - (a + iew)E = 0
These are now two coupled differential equations. In Eq. (27), the term
J = aE is conduction current density and the term aD/at = $oE is displace-
ment current density, so V x H must represent total current density. It is
customary to make the following shorthand identifications (Harrington,
1961) :
i = ipo (impedivity ) (28)
and
9 = a + i&w (admittivity) (29)
so that Eqs. (26) and (27) may be rewritten
VXEXLH=O

and
VXH-PE=O

2.5. The Wave Equations


2.5.1. Wave Equations in the Time and Frequency Domains. If we take
the curl (i.e., V X ) of Eqs. (1) and (2) we obtain
From (1)

V x (V x E) +Vx );( =0
(32)

r:>
From (2)

and V x ( V x H ) - V X - = V X J

The constitutive relations in the time domain


D=EE B=pH J=aE
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 27 1

may now be substituted in Eq. (32) to yield

and V xV xH -Vx
[:t
-(EE)
1 = V x (aE) (33)

If p , E , and a are constant in space and time in a homogeneous region, then


Eq. (33) reduces to
aH
V x V x E + p V x -= 0
at
aE
and V xV xH - EV x -
at
= aV x E (34)

Provided the vector functions H and E are piecewise continuous and have
continuous first and second derivatives, the operators V x and a/at may be
interchanged so that Eq. (34) becomes

0
a
x V x E + p (V x H)= 0

and V xVxH -E-


a
(V x E) = aV x E (35)
at
The quantities V x H and V x E are, of course, given in Eqs. (1) and (2),
so Eq. (35) is readily converted to
a2E aE
VXVXE+~ET+~O-=O
at at

and V xV xH + pe-a2H
at2
+pa-
aH
at
=0 (36)

The vector identity in Cartesian coordinates


V X V X A E V V - A - V2A (37)
permits us to expand the first term in each of Eqs. (36). Taking cognizance
of the fact that V - E= 0 and V . H = 0, from Eqs. (6) and (9), for
homogeneous earth regions, then Eq. (36) becomes
a2E aE a2H aH
V2E - pue7 - pa- = 0 and V2H - p~~ -p a x =0
at at
272 STANLEY H . WARD

These are wave equations for the electric and magnetic fields, stated in the
time domain. A one-dimensional Fourier transformation of Eq. (38) leads to
V2E + ( p m 2 - ipao)E = 0 and V2H + ( p & 0 2 - ipao)H = 0
(39)
or
VZE+ k2E = 0 and V2H + k2H = 0 (40)
in which
k2 = p&w2 - ipoo = -29 (41)
Equations (40) are the wave equations in the frequency domain or, more
commonly, the Helmholtz equations in E and H. In Eqs. (39), p&o24 paw
for earth materials at frequencies less than lo5Hz; that is, displacement
currents are less than conduction currents. Thus Eqs. (38) and (39) may be
rewritten as
aE aH
V2E - p a - = 0 and V2H - pa- =0
at at
and

V2E - igaoE = 0 and V2H - ipaoH = 0 (43)


where, under this circumstance,
k=- (44)
Either Eqs. (42) or Eqs. (43) represent a diffusion equation. Their one-
dimensional versions are
a2E aE a2H aH
--pu--=O and - (45)
aZz at a22 - at = O
a% ipawE = 0 and
a2H
- - ipowH
_.-
=0 (46)
az2 az2
2.5.2. Solutions of the Wave Equations. Equations (46) are second-
order linear differential equations with solutions
E = + E o e - i ( k z - w t ) + -Eoei(kz+w0= +E
+ -E (47)
and
H= +Hoe-i(kZ-Wt) + -Hoei(kZ+Of) = +H
+ -H (48)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 273

Since k is complex, it is written


k=a-ip (49)
in which a andp are both real. The quantities a and pare given, in general, by
a = u[(pUE/%)(Jl + a2/UE2C02+ 1)]1* (50)
and
p = O[(p&/2)(Jl + Q2(E2C02 - 1 ) p (51)
When conduction currents dominate over displacement currents
(tan 6 % l), as is customary in electrical prospecting, we find that a and fi
are identical real quantities defined by
a=p=- (52)
Then the positive solutions of Eqs. (47) and (48) may be written
E=+ ~ ~ ~ - i ~ ~ z ~ - P z ~ i d (53)
and
H= + ~ ~ ~ - i ~ ~ z ~ - L k ~ i w t
(54)
From Eqs. (53) and (54) we may draw the following conclusions:
1. Since p is real e-(32becomes smaller as z becomes larger. Hence it
represents attenuation. An electromagnetic wave will be reduced in
amplitude by a factor of l/e at a distance within a medium described by the
depth of penetration d, where
d= =5 0 3 m (55)
2. e-iaz= cos(az) - isin(az) states that the wave varies sinusoidally
with z. (56)
3. eior= cos(wt) + isin(ot)
states that the wave varies sinusoidally
with t. (57)
4. Over a plane fixed in space, E and H vary with time as in Fig. la.
5 . If the wave propagates in the z direction, E and H will vary sinu-
soidally with z as in Fig. lb.
How do we know that the wave propagates? The arguments follow.
1. Wax = Way = 0 states that Ex and Hx are of constant magnitudes
over a plane as below. This is a uniform plane wave as in Fig. lc.
2. Planes at different distances along z will have their own magnitudes.
At (1) and (3) in Fig. lb, Ex and Hy are maximum. At (2) in the same figure,
Ex and Hyare zero.
274 STANLEY H. WARD

"I

FIG. 1 . Uniform plane waves : (a) electric and magnetic fields vary sinusoidally with time,
(b) electric and magnetic fields vary sinusoidally with distance, and (c) 'electric and magnetic
vector amplitudes and phases are uniform over a plane normal to the direction of propagation.

3. In any plane, the Evector (or theHvector) will exhibit the same phase;
i.e., at each point over the plane, E (or H)will reach its positive peaks, zero
crossing, or negative peak at identical times. Any such plane is therefore
referred to as a plane of constant phase.
4. The peaks of the E or Hfield which occur at t = 0, z = 0, will occur
downstream at t = t l , z = z1. That is, a plane of constant phase will
propagate in the z direction if we set a/az = Way = 0 as appropriate to a
uniform plane wave.
5 . A plane of constant phase is described by
E= = ~-iC
+E~~-~(CLZ-O )
(58)
where C is the phase, i.e., description of the amplitude of the sine wave, as
a function of z and 1.
If
crz - o t = c (59)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAI. PROSPECTING 275

then
dz/dt = o / a = ?&= phase velocity (positive) (60)
Similarly, for
E= -bei(uz+Wt)'=iC
(61)
dz/dt = - w / a = V
pVp
h = phase velocity (negative) (62)
This explains why we used +Eoand -Eo.

2.6.Boundary Conditions
Electromagnetic problems arising in the physics of the solid earth generally
deal with the resultant current, field intensity, or potential in response to an
impressed or primary field. The primary field gives rise to a secondary
distribution of charges and currents and, hence, to a secondary field. The
resultant field is the sum of the primary and secondary fields. Each of the
fields must satisfy Maxwell's equations, or equations derived therefrom, plus
appropriate conditions to be applied at boundaries between the homo-
geneous regions involved in the problem, e.g., at the air-earth interface. The
problems we meet most frequently, therefore, are referred to as boundary-
value problems.
Boundary conditions are readily derived from the integral forms of
Maxwell's equations (e.g., Stratton, 1941, p. 34). We shall merely state them
here.
Normal B. The normal component Bn of B is continuous across an
interface separating medium 1 from medium 2. This is written
Bni = Bnz (63)
NormalD. The normal component Dn of D is discontinuous at an interface
due to the accumulation of a surface charge density p s , i.e.,
Dn1 - Dnz = ps (64)
Tangential E.The tangential component Et of E is continuous across an
interface, i.e.,
4,
= Et, (65)
Tangential H . The tangential component Ht of H is continuous across an
interface, i.e.,
Ht, = Htz (66)
276 STANLEY H. WARD

Current density J. The normal component Jn of J is continuous across an


interface, i.e.,

Jnl = Jnz (67)


Strictly speaking, this result applies only to direct current, but it is totally
satisfactory for earth materials up to 10 Hz in which displacement currents
may be neglected.
Potentials. The static potentials V and U defined by

E=-VV (68)
n = -vu (69)
are continuous across an interface, i.e.,

J4=& (70)
u1 = u2 (71)
We note from the above that of the quantities considered, only one is
discontinuous across an interface. It is essential to explore the nature of this
discontinuity at an interface separating media of different conductivities.
Equation (64) may be rewritten as
En1 - En2 = ~ s / e o
and Eq. (67) as
En1 - ( 0 d ~ d E n z= 0 (73)
Combining Eqs. (72) and (73) results in
ps = EO[(~I - ~ ~ Y o l l E n z (74)
which informs us that a surface charge ps occurs at the boundary between
media of different conductivities 01 and 0 2 . Although the surface charge
density is small because EO = 8.854 x faradlm, its electrical field E is
not necessarily small, as we can deduce from

in which ds is an element of the surface over which the charge occurs. In the
case of two adjacent plane boundaries separating a region of 0 2 from a
background of 01 the charge accumulation is as depicted in Fig. 2 for the case
02 > 01.
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 277

ai>ai
FIG. 2. Charges associated with boundaries representing discontinuities in electrical
conductivities.

2.7. Wave Impedances


A uniform plane wave is defined as a plane wave in which the field
intensities are independent of the coordinates in each equiphase plane. This
condition is expressed as
a
- [ E , HI = - [E,HI
a =0
ax aY
for a plane wave propagated in the positive z direction. The frequency-
domain components of Maxwells equations, given by Eqs. (30) and (31),
with the constraint of Eq. (76), become
aEY-
- aEx
- - - -2Hy
az
- 2H. az
HE = 0 (77)

Thus in a uniform plane wave E and H are contained in planes perpendicular


to the direction of propagation; the wave is said to be transverse electro-
magnetic (TEM). The four transverse components of Eqs. (77) and (78) may
be considered as the superposition of two independent pairs [Ex,H,] and
[E,, Hx].As shown earlier, solutions to Eq. (46) are linear combinations of
eikzand e-ikzas follows :
Ex = + E x e - i ( k Z - d ) + - E x e i ( k Z + w f ) (79)
E, = + ~ ~ ~ - i ( k z -+
w t -) ~ ~ ~ i ( k z + w t )
(80)
H, = ) -Hxei(kz+wr)
+ ~ , ~ - i ( k z - w t+
(81)
Hy = +Hye-i(kz-at) + - ~ ~ ~ i ( k z + w t )
(82)
The superscript plus denotes a wave traveling in the positive z direction and
the superscript minus a wave traveling in the negative z direction. In general,
278 STANLEY H. WARD

'Ex,-Ex , ..., -Hy are complex constants and combine to form the complex
vector amplitudes. Hence we may write
E = + E e - i ( k Z - w t ) + -Eei(kz+ot) (83)
H = +He-i(kZ-of) + -Hei(kZ+ot)
(84)
Not all eight amplitude given in Eqs. (79)-(82) are independent, according
to Eqs. (77) and (78). If we now substitute Eqs. (79) and (82) in the second
of Eqs. (77) we obtain
- ik+E, - i(kz- O t ) + ik-Exei(kZ+@f)
= - t + ~ ~ ~ - i ( k z --
o t?) - ~ ~ ~ i ( k z + ~ f )
(85)
The coefficients of the exponentials eikz and e-ikz must vanish indepen-
dently, and hence we obtain

Similarly, we find

+Hx = (- k/mp)+Ey (88)


-Hx = (k/wp)-Ey (89)
Ratios of components of E to components of H have the dimensions of
impedance (volts per meter divided by ampere-turns per meter) and are called
wave impedances Z, where
c

In an infinite medium, the ratios of the field components are determined by


the frequency and the constants of the medium, and the wave impedance then
- of the medium. Given that Z =
becomes the intrinsic impedance and
k = G, we may obtain t = ikZ and JJ = ik/Z. In a dielectric the wave
impedance becomes
Z=@i
which for the free space is

zo = djzG - 377 n (92)


In a conductor the wave impedance becomes
z=- n (93)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 279

I
II

zi- 1
zi 1
I

FIG.3. An n-layered earth on which a uniform plane wave is normally incident. E, and ff,,
electric and magnetic fields ; k vector wave number; ui and hi, conductivities and thicknesses
of layer i.

2.8. The Plane-Wave Impedance of an n-Layered Isotropic Earth


2.8.1. Normal Incidence. We wish to consider normal incidence of a
uniform plane wave on an n-layered isotropic model of the earth. The plane
wave is propagated in the positive z , or downward, direction. The earth
model is illustrated in Fig. 3.
In any layer we may write the electric and magnetic fields in terms of an
outgoing wave and a reflected wave. For normal incidence of a uniform plane
wave on a plane-layered, nonpermeable isotropic earth, the fields in the ith
layer are
Eyc. - (+E.
I e-iki(z-zO + - E i e i k i ( Z - Z i ) lei"'
- (94)

where ki is the wave number in the ith layer, POthe permeability of free space,
o the angular frequency, Zi the vertical distance to the bottom of the ith
280 STANLEY H. WARD

layer, z any vertical distance within a layer at which the field is measured ;
'Ei the amplitude of the positive-traveling electric wave in the ith layer, -Ei
the amplitude of the negative-traveling electric wave in the ith layer, and eiot
the harmonic description of the wave.
At this juncture, for convenience, we note that selection of E, only and
Hx only assumes that the electric vector is normal to the plane of incidence.
Over the plane z = Zi we find
Eyi = 'Ei + -Ei
and
Hxj = (-Ei - 'Ei)(l/Zi)
in which
Zj = wpo/ki
is the intrinsic impedance of the ith layer.
Equations (96) and (97) yield
+Ei = &Eyi - ZiHxi)
-Ej = i(Eyi + ZiHi)
At z = zi-1, continuity of tangential E and H demands that
Hxi = Hxci-1)
Eyi = Ey(i-1)
Therefore we may write
Ey(i-1) = +E.l e- i k i ( z i - l - Z i ) + -Eieiki(Zi-i-Zi)
(1/ z i ) (l e+ ~ . L - Z i ) - -Eieiki(Zi-l-Zi)
-iki(zi-
Hx(i-1) =- )
Now if we let
Zi - zj-1 = hi

and substitute Eqs. (99) and (100) in Eqs. (103) and (104), we find
Ey(i-1) = Eyi cosh(ikihi) - ZiHxi sinh(ikih;) (106)
Hx(i-1) = H,i cosh(ikihi) - (1/Zi)Eyi sinh(ikihi) (107)
where use has been made of the identities
coshx = (e" + e-")/2 (108)
sinhx = (e" - e-X)/2 ( 109)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 28 1

Equations (106) and (107) may be written in matrix form as

[ Ey(i- 1)
Hx(i-lJ = [-
cosh(ikihi) - Zi sinh(ikihi)
l/Zi sinh(ikihi) COsh(ikihi)I ' [21 (1 10)

and symbolically by

The matrix i7 is referred to as the transfer matrix of the ith layer. For n
layers we can find a succession of Z from Zi through Tn each transfer matrix
permitting us to write the fields in one layer in terms of the fields in the next
layer. Thus, we can readily find the matrix relationship between the fields
in the (i - 1)th layer and those in the infinite medium terminating the nth
layer.

The product Z E of n matrices is itself a matrix S, so Eq. (112) may be written

in which

Then the impedance Zj-1 looking into the n-layered medium from the
surface of the ith layer, is

where the substitution & + I = - E y ( n + l ) / H x ( n + l ) has been made.


For an earth model consisting of one layer overlying an infinite half-space
(this model is usually referred to as a two-layered earth)the impedance may
282 STANLEY H. WARD

be found by making the substitutions for a0 from Eq. (110), i.e.,


a11 = cosh(ik1hl)
a12 = - ZI sinh(ik1h l )
(YZI = - (1/Z1) sinh(ik1hl)

Thus we obtain from Eq. (1 16) the impedance


21 = -Eyi/H.i
which is defined in terms of the electric and magnetic fields measured at the
surface of the earth as
Z2 + 21 tanh(iklh1)
21 = z1
Z1 + ZZtanh(iklh1)
Expression (122) is the impedance at the surface of the two-layered earth.
For an n-layered earth model, we start with the impedance at the top of
the first layer above the basal half-space. By analogy with Eq. (122) this will
be
n + l + 2,tanh(iknhn)
2, = z,ZZn + Z,+l tanh(ik,h,) (123)

Once this impedance is computed we may use it as the terminating impedance


of an equivalent homogeneous half-space and write for the impedance at the
top of the (n - 1)th layer
2, + Z,-1 tanh(ik,-lh,-l)
( 124)
2 n - 1 = Zn-1
Zn-l + 2, tanh(ikn-lhn-l)
and so on up to the surface, where

We have used the notation 2j to denote the impedance at the top of the ith
layer and the notation Zi to denote the characteristic impedance of the ith
layer.
2.8.2.Oblique Incidence. The previous development may be gener-
alized to accommodate an arbitrary angle of incidence. As it turns out, the
impedance contrast between the air and the earth is so large that regardless
of the angle of incidence of a plane wave in the air, the wave in the earth will
travel vertically. This is readily seen from Snells law
kl sin 0i = k2 sin 8r (126)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 283

in which k~ is the wave number of air, k2 the wave number of the earth, 8i
the angle of incidence, and el the angle of transmission relative to the vertical.
When k2 % kl in (126) then 8t = 0 and this always holds at an air-earth
interface when displacement currents are neglected.

3. Electrical Properties of Earth Materials

3.1. Introduction
Bulk resistivities from the surface to in excess of 15 km depth in a normal
crust are controlled by aqueous electrolytic conduction via pores, fractures,
and faults. A slight increase in resistivity with depth in this region is the result
of decreasing pore, fracture, and fault porosity due to increased hydrostatic
load. Fractures and faults are known to remain open to depths in excess of
5 km due to departures from hydrostatic loading. From about 15 km to the
Moho, mineral semiconduction dominates and the resistivity decreases
downward. Semiconductionwill remain the dominant conductionmechanism
in excess of 100 km into the normal upper mantle.

3.2. Aqueous Electrolyte Conduction


3.2.1. Normal Mode of Conduction. Conduction in near-surface rocks
is largely electrolytic, taking place in pore spaces, along grain boundaries,
in fractures, and in faults but negligibly through the silicate framework.
The ions which conduct the current result from the dissociation of salts
when the salts are dissolved in water. Since each ion is able to carry only a
definite quantity of charge, the more ions that are available in a solution and
the faster they travel, the greater the charge that can be carried. Hence, the
solution with the larger number of ions will have the higher conductivity.
Thus, in general, a rock which contains saline water within its pores will have
a greater conductivity when the salinity of the water is high than when it is
low ; salinity is a major factor in determining the resistivity of a rock.
An increase in temperature lowers the viscosity of water, with the result
that ions in the water become more mobile. The increased mobility of the ions
results in an observed resistivity decrease with increase in temperature
according to
pI = p d [ l + 4 - 1811 (127)
in which a is the temperature coefficient of resistivity (usually given as about
O.O25/"C), t the ambient temperature, pt the resistivity at this temperature,
and p18 is the resistivity at 18C.
284 STANLEY H. WARD

Archies law,
F = p,/pw = 4-m (128)
usually is satisfied for aqueous electrolytic conduction. In Eq. (128), F i s the
formation factor, prthe resistivity of the rock, pwthe resistivity of the saturat-
ing electrolyte, 4 the porosity, and m the cementation factor, which varies
between 1.0 and 3 ; m = 2 is the value usually taken for sandstone while
m = 1 satisfies conduction in rocks in which fracture porosity dominates.
3.2.2. Effect of Clays on Rock Resistivity. A clay particle acts as a
separate conducting path in addition to the electrolyte path. The resistance
of this added path is low. The origin of this abnormally high clay mineral
conductivity lies in the double layer of exchange cations, as shown in Fig. 4.
The cations are required to balance the charge due to substitution within the
crystal lattice and to broken bonds (Grim, 1953). The finite size of the cations
prevents the formation of a single layer. Rather, a double layer is formed,
consisting of a fixed layer immediately adjacent to the clay surface and a
diffuse layer which drops off in density exponentially with distance from the
fixed layer.
The diffuse layer, in contrast to the fixed layer, is free to move under the
influence of an applied electric field. The cations of the diffuse layer add to
the normal ion concentration and thus increase the density of charge carriers.
The net result is increased surface conductivity. Although clay minerals
exhibit this property to a high degree because of their large ion exchange
capacity, all minerals exhibit it to some extent. All rocks containing clay
minerals have an abnormally high conductivity for this reason.

- - - ---- - -
CLAY PARTICLE

@ ABSORBED CATIONS
t NORMAL CATIONS
- NORMAL ANIONS
FIG.4. Schematic representationof ions adsorbed on clay particle. (After Ward and Fraser,
1967.)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 285

The effect of disseminated clay or shale on rock resistivities becomes


increasingly important as the conductance through the pores diminishes. In
geothermal and mining environments, hydrothermal alteration converts
feldspars to kaolinite, montmorillonite, and other clay minerals, especially
in silicic rocks. In basic rocks, chlorite and serpentine may also be produced.
All of these alteration products exhibit high surficial conductivity. As the
concentration of the electrolyte increases, the relative contribution of the
electrolyte conduction path to the clay conduction path increases, as may be
seen from
Or = (a, + as)/F (129)
in which ar, a e ,and asrepresent the observed conductivities of the rock, the
electrolyte, and the clay surface path. Ward and Sill (1976) demonstrate that
-
as 30e for altered rocks at Roosevelt Hot Springs, Utah, despite the
presence of an electrolyte containing 7000ppm total dissolved solids.

3.3. Induced Polarization


3.3.1.Introduction. Pyrite and clay minerals often are found as altera-
tion products in geothermal and mining areas. Hence the induced electrical
polarization mechanisms of electrode polarization and membrane polariza-
tion might be expected to occur there.
3.3.2. Electrode Polarization. Whenever there is a change in the mode
of current conduction, e.g., from ionic to metallic, energy is required to cause
the current to flow across the interface. This energy barrier can be considered
to constitute an electrical impedance.
The surfaces of most solids have a very small net attraction for either
cations or anions, as mentioned earlier for clay minerals. Immediately
adjacent to the outermost solid layer there is an adsorbed layer of essentially
fixed ions, one or a few molecular layers in thickness (Fig. 5a). These are not
truly exchangeable and, hence, constitute the fixed layer.
Adjacent to the fixed layer of adsorbed ions there is a group of relatively
mobile ions, of the same or opposite charge, known as the diffuse layer. The
anomalous number of ions in this zone decreases exponentially from the
fixed layer outward to the normal ion concentration of the liquid. (The
normal balanced distribution of anions and cations has been deleted from
Fig. 5 for clarity.) The particular distribution of ions shown is only one of
several possible distributions, but it is the most common. The electrical
potential across the double layer has also been plotted in Fig. Sb; the
potential drop across the diffuse layer is known as the zeta potential (2).
While the fixed layer is relatively stable, the diffuse layer thickness is a
function of temperature, ion concentration in the normal electrolyte, valence
286 STANLEY H. WARD

-
=- + ) + +
+ + t
- _x
+

o + I +
(a)
--I= +I + t
o=t;+ +
+
w =
= + 1 + + t
J

-h
I 'FIXED LAYER

-
4
I-
(b)

DlSTA N C E
FIG. 5. (a) Hypothetical anomalous ion distribution near a solid-liquid interface; (b)
corresponding potential distribution. (After Ward and Fraser, 1967.)

of the ions, and dielectric constant of the medium. Most of the anomalous
charge is contained within a plane distance d from the surface (Grahame,
1947) :
d= (EO KekT/2ne2~2)"2 ( 130)
where n is the normal ion concentration of the electrolyte, 1) the valence of
the normal ions, e the elementary charge, Ke the dielectric constant of the
medium, k Boltzmann's constant, and T temperature.
The thickness is, therefore, governed by the balance between the attraction
of unlike charges at the solid surface and the thermal redistribution of ions.
Obviously, increasing n, the salinity, or u, the valence, decreases the thick-
ness of the diffuse layer.
Returning now to polarization at electrodes, there are two paths by which
current may be carried across an interface between an electrolyte and a metal
(Fig. 6). These are called the faradaic and nonfaradaic paths. Current passage
in the faradaic path is the result of an electrochemical reaction such as the
oxidation or reduction of some ion and may involve diffusion of the ions
toward or away from the interface. The charge is carried physically across
the interface by an electron transfer. In the nonfaradaic case, charged
particles do not cross the interface; rather, current is carried by the charging
and discharging of the double layer. The nonfaradaic component, thus, may
be represented by a simple capacitance insofar as the variation of its
impedance with frequency is concerned.
16. ELECTRICALMETHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL. PROSPECTING 287
WARBURG
REACTION IMPEDANCE
RE S I STAN C E

F A R A D A I C PATH

NO N- FAR A D A l C PATH
11
I DOUBLE
LAYER
CAPACITANCE
FIG. 6. Circuit analog of interfacial impedance. (After Ward and Fraser, 1967.)

In the faradaic path, the impedance associated with the electron transfer
is represented by the reaction resistance. The ion diffusion process is not
representable in so simple a fashion and, in fact, may not be adequately
represented by any combination of fixed capacitors and resistors. It is
customarily referred to as the Warburg impedance W and its magnitude
varies inversely with the square root of the electrical frequency.
The interfacial impedance of many metal-electrolyte interfaces may be
described roughly as follows. Above 1000Hz most of the electric current is
carried across the interface by the nonfaradaic path ; hence, the interfacial
impedance varies with frequency as approximately f-.As the frequency is
lowered, more and more current is carried via the faradaic path, so the low-
frequency impedance varies with frequency in the range f - 2 to fo,
depending on the magnitude of the impedance ratio W / R .
The discussion above applies to an ideal electrode in a pure electrolyte. The
concepts, however, are important in understanding the processes occurring
when current is passed through a rock. Any rock sample is dirty from the
viewpoint of the physical chemist, since the electrodes (semiconducting
mineral grains) and electrolytes (pore solutions) are anything but pure.
Nevertheless, perhaps we are justified in using equivalent circuits based on
pure systems since a phenomenological explanation for rock behavior
results. With this caution, one might suggest the equivalence of the elemen-
tary rock system of Fig. 7a with the equivalent circuit of Fig. 7b, where W
is the Warburg impedance [= k(l - i ) / f * ;k is a constant], CFthe double-
layer capacitance, CCHthe chemical capacitance, R the reaction resistance,
R the resistance representing a higher-order reaction, Ri the resistance of the
ionic path, and Rm the resistance of metallic vein path or particle.
In noting these circuit elements, it must be appreciated that one chemical
reaction at the interface may lead to a chain of subsequent reactions involving
electrons, ions, and molecules of all reaction products present. At each point
---
288 STANLEY H. WARD

-
>IONIC PATHS
(a)

LM
E T A LL I C P A R T I CL E

R, and R,

R i and R,

Ri and R,

FIG. 7. (a) Simplified representation of mineralized rock ; (b) corresponding equivalent


circuit; (c) equivalent circuit of all mineralized rocks. (After Ward and Fraser, 1967.)

of the reaction chain, the accumulation of the reaction product represents


a capacitance CCHto the electrode. Escape of the product is achieved either
by diffusion, represented by a Warburg impedance W ,or by a reaction,
represented by a resistor R. The product of this reaction in turn follows a
similar circuit behavior, which we have omitted for simplicity, except to lump
all such products as R'.
Although the circuits of Figs. 7a and 7b satisfy the expected physical/
chemical processes in mineralized rock, they are too complicated for practical
use. Thus, the simple circuit of Fig. 8a is used to predict induced polarization,
of both electrode and membrane type, in a rock. The frequency- and time-
domain responses of the circuit of Fig. 8a are shown in Fig. 8b and 8c,
respectively. This is the Cole-Cole model of relaxation used by Pelton et al.
(1978a).
3.3.3. Membrane Polarization. In rocks containing a few percent clays
distributed throughout the rock matrix, membrane polarization is important.
Membrane polarization arises chiefly in porous rocks in which clay particles
partially block ionic solution paths (Fig. 9a). The diffuse cloud of cations
(double layer) in the vicinity of a clay surface is characteristic of clay-
electrolyte systems. On application of an electrical potential, positive charge
carriers easily pass through the cationic cloud but negative charge carriers
accumulate (Fig. 9b) ; an ion-selective membrane, therefore, exists.
Consequently, a surplus of both cations and anions occurs at one end of
the membrane zone, while a deficiency occurs at the other end. This is because
the number of positive charges cannot deviate significantly from the number
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 289

..
R1

( c ; " i b
v
EXCITING C U R R E N T

t-
VDC' R z I

0
,v ,RIR2 1
Rl+R2
FIG. 8. Simplified analog circuit model of rock. (a) Elementary circuit; (b) frequency
response of elementary circuit-sine wave excitation ; (c) transient response of elementary
circuit-square wave excitation. (After Ward and Sill, 1983.)

of negative charges at any one point in space, or large electric fields would
result. These ion concentration gradients oppose the flow of current, and the
overall mobility of ions is reduced by this process. This reduction in mobility
is most effective for potential variations which are slow (e.g., 0.1 Hz) with
respect to the time of diffusion of ions between adjacent membrane zones.
For potential variations which are fast (e.g., 1000 Hz)with respect to the
diffusion time, the mobility of ions is not substantially reduced. Hence, the
conductivityof a membrane system increases as electricalfrequency increases.

3.4.Semiconduction
The intrinsic conductivity of a solid at temperature T is computed from
rs = lel(nepe + nhph) (131)
where n e and n h are the electron and hole equilibrium concentrations, ,ueand
,uhthe mobilities of electrons and holes, respectively, and e the elemental
charge.
290 STANLEY H. WARD

NORMAL ELECTROLYTE
CHARGE CARRIERS

NEGATIVE CHARGE
ZONE OF ION DEFICIENCY
ZONE OF ION
UGH
(b)
+

FIG.9. Depiction of ions in a pore space forming an ion concentrationbarrier which creates
membrane polarization: (a) pore path before application of an electric potential; (b) pore path
after application of a potential. (After Ward and Fraser, 1967.)

Kinetic theory leads us to expect a temperature dependence of the form


e-EkTfor the concentration of electrons in the conduction band of a solid.
Assuming a relatively small variation of mobility with temperature, we are
then led (Kittel, 1953) to predict a conductivity dependence of the form
(i = (ioe -Eg/2kT (132)
in which Eg is the gap energy, 00includes the mobility function and, in this
form, is the conductivity as T -+ 00, and kis Boltzmanns constant. Thermal,
electrical, or optical excitation of electrons across the band of forbidden
energy renders the solid conducting.
Impurities and imperfections in the material produce extrinsic conduc-
tivity. Above some temperature, impurities may be unimportant, so we
define the temperature range above extrinsic conductivity as the intrinsic
range in which the previous mechanism is operative.
However, below the intrinsic range, certain types of impurities and
imperfections markedly alter the electrical properties of a semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconduction arises by thermal excitation of electrons (occupy-
ing intermediate energy levels in the forbidden gap produced by impurities
in solid solution) into the unoccupied conduction band, or by the excitation
of electrons from the occupied valence band into unoccupied impurity levels.
Ionic conduction in a solid occurs as a result of mobile ions moving
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 29 1

TABLEI. Values of uo and E as the Temperature Ranges of Importance for the Extrinsic
Electronic, Instrinsic Electronic, and Ionic Mechanisms'

Range of importance
Type of semiconduction uo Wrn) E (eV) ("C)

Extrinsic 10-6 1.o 600


Intrinsic 10-3 3.3 600 to 1100
Ionic 10-3 3 .O 1100

'Semiconduction follows the formula u = uoe-"T but uo and E are different for each
conduction mechanism.

through the crystal lattice as a result of defects in it. The simplest imperfec-
tion is a missing atom or lattice vacancy (Schottky defect). Diffusion of the
vacancy through the lattice constitutes transport of charge. The conduction
mechanism above 1100C is recognized as ionic because, when an iron
electrode is used in contact with a magnesium orthosilicate, iron diffuses into
the silicate, replacing the magnesium.
Table I illustrates the temperature ranges important for extrinsic, intrinsic,
and ionic conduction.

3.5. Melt Conduction


A silica magma chamber can be expected to exhibit a resistivity two to three
orders of magnitude lower than its solid rock host, as demonstrated by the
experiments of Lebedev and Khitarov (1964). Duba and Heard (1980)
measured resistivity on buffered olivene and Rai and Manghnani (1978)
measured electrical conductivity of basalts to 1550C ; the latter measure-
ments establish that mafic rocks can also demonstrate low resistivities.
Resistivities of order 1 fi m are to be expected in either silicic or basic melts
due to ionic conduction.
For partial melts, the melt phase serves as an interconnection of low
resistivity in a residual crystal matrix of resistivity two or more orders greater
and determines the bulk resistivity (Shankland and Waff, 1977). An Archie's
law dependence is hence expected.

4. Basic Principles of Resistivity and Induced


Polarization Surveys
4.1. Introduction
Electrical resistivity surveys are used routinely in geothermal, base metal
mining, coal, and ground water applications (Zohdy, 1964; Al'pin ei al.,
1966; Keller and Frischknecht, 1966; Kunetz, 1966; Van Nostrand and
292 STANLEY H. WARD

Cook, 1966; Bhattacharya and Patra, 1968; Keller, 1969; Meidav and
Furgerson, 1972; Parasnis, 1973; Telford et al., 1976; Verma et al., 1982;
Ward and Sill, 1982). They are used much less routinely in oil and gas and
deep crustal exploration (Keller, 1968; Eadie, 1981 ; Ward, 1983a, b).
Resistivity surveys are capable of mapping overburden depth, stratigraphy,
faults, fractures, rock units, conductive ore deposits, thermal brines and
associated hydrothermal alteration, and variations in the deep conductivity
of the crust, and may be capable of direct detection of oil and gas.
The induced-polarization (IP) method was developed for detecting small
concentrations of disseminated mineralization in base metal exploration
(Seigel, 1949; Hallof, 1957; Marshall and Madden, 1959; Wait, 1959; Van
Voorhis et al., 1973 ;Wynn and Zonge, 1975 ;Sumner, 1976,1979; Angoran
and Madden 1977; Pelton et al., 1978a; Hohmann and Ward, 1981 ; Ward
and Sill, 1982). Subsequently it has been used experimentally in geothermal
exploration (Ward and Sill, 1982).
Resistivity and induced-polarization surveys are performed in boreholes
and at the earths surface. In the interest of uniformity throughout this
chapter I will limit my discussion to surveys performed at the earths surface.
Dyck (1975) reviewed electrical borehole methods.

4.2. Basic Principles


As Hohmann and Ward (1981) indicate, the resistivity and induced-
polarization methods involve measurement of an impedance, with subse-
quent interpretation in terms of the subsurface electrical properties and, in
turn, the subsurface geology. An impedance is the ratio of the response (i.e.
output) to the excitation (i.e. input). In the resistivity and IP methods, the
input is a current injected into the ground between two electrodes and the
output is a voltage measured between two other electrodes.
In frequency-domain impedance measurements, the input current is a sine
wave with frequencyfand period T = l/J The output is also a sine wave,
as shown in Fig. 10; its amplitude A and phase @ depend on electrical
properties of the earth. In general, the output is delayed by CP x T O R
seconds relative to the transmitted waveform. Often it is convenient to
decompose the output wave into in-phase (real) and quadrature (imaginary)
components, as shown in Fig. 10. If we denote their peak amplitudes as R
and Z, respectively, then the amplitude and phase of the output waveform
are given by
A = R2 + Z2 (133)
and
@ = arctan(l/R) (134)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 293
I c

FIG.10. Transmitted and received waveforms in the frequency domain. (After Hohmann and
Ward, 1981.)

Impedance can also be measured in the time domain, in which case the
current is periodically turned on and off. As shown in Fig. 11, the output
is the voltage measured at various times when the transmitter current is off.
Note that the input again is periodic, because measurements must be made
for each of several periods and then added together, or stacked, to eliminate
294 STANLEY H. WARD

TRANSMITTER CURRENT
T
(perlod)

V
RECEIVED SIGNAL

* time

FIG. 1 1 . Transmitted and received waveforms in the time domain. (After Hohmann and
Ward, 1981.)

noise. Time- and frequency-domain measurements are directly related


through the Fourier transform and, in that sense, are equivalent. However,
in practice, each domain has certain advantages and disadvantages.
There are three basic modes of operation for any electrical method:
sounding, profiling? and sounding-profiling. In sounding, the transmitter-
receiver separation is changed, or the frequency is changed, and the results
are interpreted in terms of a layered earth. Because the earth is usually not
layered, we believe that sounding has only modest application. In profiling?
the transmitter or receiver or both are moved along the earths surface to
detect lateral anomalies. The most useful method is a combination of
sounding and profiling, which delineates both lateral and vertical variations.
The resistivity and induced-polarization methods are based on the
response of earth materials to the flow of current at low frequencies. The dc
resistivity method is based on potential theory, which requires direct current,
but noise and measurement problems quickly lead to the use of alternating
currents of low frequency, so the resistivity method now employs ac
exclusively. The IP method, on the other hand, requires the use of alternating
current because it is based on changes in resistivity as a function of frequency.
As the frequency increases, in some critical frequency range determined by
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 295

the resistivity of the materials and the scale size of the measurement, electro-
magnetic coupling between transmitting and receiving circuits violates
potential theory, and electromagnetic theory is required.
Measurements are made with a four-electrode array consisting of two
current and two potential electrodes. Resistivity data are always recorded
along with IP data to aid in interpretation. For a homogeneous earth, the
resistivity is given by
p = KAV/I (135)
where Z is the current, A V the measured potential difference, and K a geo-
metric factor that depends on the electrode configuration. When the ground
is not homogeneous, the voltage and current data are reduced in the same
fashion, but the resistivity is called the apparent resistivity. It is the resistivity
of a homogeneous earth that would produce the same measurement.
The potential due to a single electrode on a three-layer earth is given by
(Sunde, 1949)

where
k123 = (1 - +~ ~ 2 3 e - ~ ~ 1 ) (137)
u123 = (el - pZkZS)/(pl -t p2k23) (138)
k 4 ) = (1 - ~23e-~"2)/(1 + ~23e-"~*) (139)
and
U23 = (p2 - pl)/(p2 -t p1) (140)
Jo(1r) is the Bessel function of the first kind of order zero, r the distance from
the current electrode at which the potential is measured, and 1 a Hankel
transform variable. With two current and two potential electrodes in use, as
is customary, the potential difference between the two potential electrodes
is measured as
A V = (6- b) - (K - h) (141)
where the first term is the potential difference due to the positive current
electrode and the second term the potential difference due to the negative
current electrode. An apparent resistivity is then readily derived as

pa - 'I
-K-=-
211
~mki23(A)[J0(1rl)- Jo(Ar2)
0
- JO(Ar3) -k Jo(Ar.)]dA (142)
296 STANLEY H. WARD

RESISTIVITY AND IP ARRAYS

ARRAY GEOMETRY K DISPLAY LEiE

WENNER Pa v s a SOUNDING
c1 P1 P2 c2

SCHLUMBERGER
L-@K-l
A MN B
7rn(n+l)a pa vs (nt 1/z)a SOUNDING

POLE-DIPOLE tQ1 2xn(n+1)a Pavsn SOUNDING-


PROFILING
c1 p1 Pz

DIPOLE-DIPOLE na rn(n+l)(n+2)a Pavsn SOUNDING-


PROFILING
c, c z p1 PI

FIG.12. The common arrays used in resistivity and induced-polarization surveys.

Forward solutions involve evaluation of the last integral as the ri are changed
systematically. To illustrate, when conducting field soundings with the
Schlumberger array, the current electrodes of Fig. 12 are expanded about six
times per decade of distance, starting with a current electrode separation of
a few meters, until their separation reaches 1 km or more. The potential
electrodes are left fixed at, say, m apart until the voltage becomes too small,
which occurs as the current electrodes get farther apart. Then the potential
electrodes are expanded to, say, 5 m, and the current electrode expansion
continues. A plot of Pa versus half the current electrode separation (AB/2)
is made as in Fig. 13. This curve may be compared with catalogs of curves
based on Eq. (142).
Equation (136) is one member of a Hankel transform pair, the other
member of which is

Thus all the information about the earth that is present in the kernel klz3(A)
is available on effecting the Hankel transform of Eq. (143). Attempts to use
this technique were made by Slichter (1933) and Vozoff (1958). Unfor-
tunately, the technique seldom works because it demands a range of r from
zero to infinity, which is never available in practice.
Today, a least-squares fit is performed between observed values of pa
versus AB/2 and values calculated from Eq. (142). Severalinversion methods
are available for performing this operation and they will be referenced
later.
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 297

X:= 1.00 10'3(7.6%>


A
P
A
h 1
I LOW
-
BEST HlGHi LOW BEST HIGH1
-. 24.0
126.0
.8
2.5

.-
35.9 __
6.0
4.3 4.82ll.S 5.41 2.0
--
115.0 123.0? 7.0%
9.0
2000.0
-
132.0
62.1
14.0
65.5f4.4% 684
*FIXED VALUE5

1 3 5 10 3 5 l o o 3 5 1 0 0 0
LEGEND A812
SOIL CLAY 1- f SANDSTONE
SAND AND GRAVEL
SILT (AQUIFER)
FIG.13. Six-layer interpretation of Schlumberger sounding. The table gives best estimates for
layer thicknesses (meters) and resistivities (ohm-meters) as well as low and high estimates
corresponding to 1 standard deviation departure in log parameter space. The section at the
bottom compares estimated resistivity and depth with geological information from a well. (After
Rijo e t a / . , 1977.)

When performing combined sounding and profiling, that is, when search-
ing for both lateral and vertical variations in resistivity, the dipole-dipole
array of Fig. 12 is most commonly used. Referring to Fig. 14, the transmitting
dipole is established between stations 1 and 2; that is, electrodes are placed
at 1 and 2 and are connected to a source of low-frequency current. Fre-
quencies in the range 0.03-3 Hz are used most commonly. The receiving
dipole is first connected to electrodes at stations 3 and 4, and the current I,
298 STANLEY H. WARD

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Plot value of PFE for electrodes at 2-3, 6-7


FIG.14. Method of plotting data in a pseudosection for the dipole-dipole method. Numbers
on profile are electrode positions. Current Zis entered via a transmitting dipole between stations
5 and 6.Value of resistivity, or of induced-polarization parameter, is plotted at intersection of
lines drawn at 45' from center of each dipole. x dipole length; n separation, which assumes
values ranging from 1 through 6 for every location of the transmitting dipole.

voltage V, and geometric factor Kare entered into Eq. (135) to compute an
apparent resistivity. This resistivity is plotted at the intersection of lines
drawn at 45" as in Fig. 14. Then the receiving dipole is moved to stations 4-5,
5-6, 6-7,7-8, and 8-9. This expansion of the array provides information
mostly on the vertical variation of resistivity. Then the transmitting dipole
is moved to stations 2-3 and the expansion process repeated. With, say, 10
or 20 transmitter locations established along a traverse line, a whole field of
apparent resistivity data points will appear as in Fig. 14. These data are
contoured to produce what is known as a pseudosection. It is not a true
representation of the distribution of resistivities in the subsurface. Theoretical
pseudosections are computed iterativeIy until one is found which reasonably
matches the observed one. Figure 15 contains an observed pseudosection, a
computed one, and a two-dimensional model on which the computed
pseudosection is based. Three-dimensional earths may also be modeled, as
will be discussed subsequently.
For induced-polarization surveys, both the amplitude pa of apparent
resistivity and the phase shift 4 between the transmitted current and the
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 299

FIELD DATA
-5 -4 -3 -2 -I 0 I 2 3 4 5
I

(a)

COMPUTED RESULTS
-5 -4 -3 -2 -I 0 I 2 3 4 5
I

OU
(b) \,
0 133' 56

63 52
202' 56 60
4 5 53 58
%oo\o' 00 51/
9O

I I 1
FIG. IS. (a) Observed pseudosection from dipole-dipole field survey; (b) computed pseudo-
section using two-dimensional finite-element algorithm ; (c) model of the subsurface used in
producing the computed pseudosection. (After Hohmann, 1982.)

received voltage are measured in the frequency domain ; the dipole-dipole


array is usually used and the lpal and r#~ values are plotted in pseudosection
as in Fig. 16. Two-and three-dimensional modeling of [paland 4 are then
performed.
300 STANLEY H. WARD

FIG.16. Induced-polarization response from deep sulfide mineralization beneath resistive


overburden-Kennecott, Safford, Arizona, porphyry copper deposit. (From Hohmann and
Ward, 1981.).

4.3. Data Acquisition


Table I1 lists the features of a microprocessor-based resistivity and
induced-polarizationreceiver engineered by the Earth Science Laboratory of
the University of Utah Research Institute. Its features facilitate coherent
detection, which is necessary for enhancing signal-to-noise ratio and for
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 30 1
TABLE11. Typical Features of IP Receiver"

Frequency domain
0.001 to 2000 Hz in 1,2,3.3,5 steps
Sequence
Automatic gain ranging
Automatic S.P. buckout
Sample at M PTS per cycle
M = 5 1 2 , f l 10 Hz
Decreasing to 4 for f = 2000 Hz
Stack 2" cycles
n = 0 to 6 , f s 0.33 Hz
n = 4 to 6, 0.5 S f < 10 Hz
Increase to n = 10, 20 5 f -C 2000 Hz
Compute (paland extrapolate phase
Compute running std. dev. for f d 0.33 Hz
Full phase and amplitude calibration

" These are Geotronics DR-1 preliminary specifications.

recognizing and removing electromagnetic coupling. The high-pass filtering


before stacking significantly improves signal-to-noise ratio, as SanFilipo and
Hohmann (1982) have established. The automatic gain ranging and self-
potential buckout features speed observations, as does the use of dual
channels. A transmitter of equally modern design does not exist but has been
outlined by engineers of the Earth Science Laboratory in Table 111.
The electrodes used for resistivity and IP surveys require special considera-
tion. The current electrodes must be of low impedance so that a modest
voltage source of order 1OOOV may drive 5-20A of current. Usually,
aluminum foil of dimensions 0.3 by 1.O m is placed in a pit dug to about 0.3 m
or more. Earth is cast over the foil and about 1-5 gal of salt water (NaCl)

TABLE111. Typical Features of Microprocessor-based


Transmitter

Computer control monitors all power circuits


Computer controls load up
Monitors input power
Abrupt load change shutdown
Displays all operating parameters
Analyzes system faults
Makes operational logs
Programmable waveform
Facilitates remote control
302 STANLEY H. WARD

is applied before and after emplacing the aluminum foil. The salt solution
effectively increases the area of the electrode, especially if the electrode is not
used for 24 hours after its emplacement. One hopes to obtain impedances of
a pair of electrodes of order 100 hz if current of the order of 10 A are sought,
as is usual. Several electrodes in parallel, placed 1-2m apart, will lower
impedances where required.
Potential electrodes, on the other hand, are not required to be of low
impedance. Rather, they must be of low noise. Nonpolarizing Cu-CuSO4
electrodes are usually employed (Sumner, 1976).
Dipole lengths used in dipole-dipole surveys range from 30m to 1 km.
Current from the transmitter will range from 1 A to 20 A, depending on the
application, but also depending on how low the impedance of the trans-
mitting electrodes can be made. Receiving dipole wires are typically 18 or
20 AWG, while transmitting dipole wires are typically 8 to 12 AWG.

4.4. Data Processing


The induced-polarization parameters measured depend on whether the
system makes use of a time-domain or frequency-domain waveform (Figs.
10 and 11). For time-domain measurements, the maximum value of the
voltage during the on cycle, along with the current, can be used to calculate
the apparent resistivity. The transient during the off cycle contains the basic
information on induced polarization in the time domain. This transient is
specified by its normalized value just after the current is turned off and by
the form and rate of decay. For frequency-domain measurements, the basic
data are the magnitude and phase of the measured voltage as functions of
frequency, from which the amplitude and phase of the apparent resistivity
are calculated.
Older analog time-domain receivers integrate one or several intervals
under the decay curve, at sampling times ranging from about 0.05 to 2.0s
after current shutoff. When the integrated voltage is normalized by the
primary voltage VO and the integration time At, the unit of the measurement
is given as millivolts per volt and is called the chargeability M. Another
definition of chargeability, the Newmont standard, does not normalize by
the integration time; the units are millivolt seconds per volt or milliseconds.
Since the equivalent integration time of the Newmont standard is 1 s,
normalization by the integration time does not change the numerical value
of the chargeability. The Newmont standard is often written as M331 , which
refers to a standard pulsed square wave of 3 s on, 3 s off, and an integration
time of 1 s. Often measurements are made with different pulse lengths and
integration times, which are then reduced to an equivalent M331 by using
various model-dependent normalization factors (Sumner, 1976).
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 303

Analog frequency-domain receivers often use two to five frequencies, and


many have no current waveform reference, so phase information is lost. The
basic data are then the magnitudes of the apparent resistivitypl and pz at two
frequenciesf1 and fz , which can be used to calculate the percent frequency
effect (PFE), ~

PFE = lOO(pi - pz)/pi


where pi is the resistivity at the lower frequency.
Modern digital receivers sample the waveform at discrete points in time
and store the samples as numbers in the computer memory. Manipulation
of the data stored in memory is under program control and, in principle,
either time- or frequency-domain processing can be done. To increase the
ratio of signal to noise, multiple cycles are stored and averaged, or stacked,
in the memory. Phase information is obtained by using a pair of very accurate
synchronized oscillators at the receiver and transmitter or by using a cable
link between the receiver and transmitter.
For the Newmont standard of chargeability, time-domain and frequency-
domain IP units are related by
7M = 7Cg (mrad) = 1 PFEIdecade of frequency (145)
Normally, IP effects produce a positive percent frequency effect, a phase lag
(negative phase angle), and a secondary decay voltage with the same sign as
the primary (M positive) ; by convention these are referred to as positive IP
effects. Negative IP response (positive phase angle) can be caused by
geometric effects with normally polarizable materials and by inductive
coupling. Precise measurements are required in I P surveys; even a large IP
response of 20 mrad is a phase shift of only 3".

4.5,Arrays
The most common arrays used in resistivity surveys are the Wenner,
Schlurnberger, dipole-dipole , pole-dipole, and bipole-dipole arrays. If
induced-polarization surveys are to be conducted, either the pole-dipole or
the dipole-dipole array is used in order to minimize electromagnetic
coupling. The bipole-dipole array was used extensively after the success that
Risk et af. (1970) experienced with it at the Broadlands geothermal region in
New Zealand. It has been used much less in recent years because the apparent
resistivity contour plans obtained with it are complicated, difficult to
interpret, and vary significantly with bipole orientation and position.
Because of these problems, I will not discuss it further, but refer the reader
to articles by Dey and Morrison (1977), Hohmann and Jiracek (1979), and
Frangos and Ward (1980) for evaluations. The remaining four arrays are
304 STANLEY H. WARD

TABLEIV. Basis for Selecting p,/IP Arrays

Time or frequency domain


Decades of spectrum
Signal-to-noise ratio
Lateral and vertical resolution
Depth of exploration
Lateral effects
Electromagnetic coupling

illustrated in Fig. 12. Of these, the Wenner array has largely been replaced
by the Schlumberger array because the latter is least affected by near-surface
inhomogeneities beneath the array (Kunetz, 1966). The dipole-dipole array
has largely replaced the pole-dipole array in conductive environments (e.g.,
geothermal) because it exhibits less electromagnetic coupling.
Table IV lists seven factors to consider when selecting an array for
resistivity or induced-polarization surveys. Time-domain and frequency-
domain operations are equivalent but equipment convenience may dictate
one or the other. In either domain, one would prefer three decades of
spectrum from about 0.1 to 100 Hz for IP surveys to permit determination
of the polarization spectrum. Table V provides an evaluation of the last five
factors of Table IV. Where 1 is entered in a box it indicates the preferred
array ;where 3 is entered it indicates the least desired array, for that particular
factor. Signal-to-noise ratio is superior for the Schlumberger array because
the transmitting and receiving electrode pairs are nested. For the same
reason, electromagneticcoupling is greatest, i.e., worst, for the Schlumberger
array. Dipole-dipole techniques are always superior to other techniques for
lateral resolution of two adjacent steeply dipping bodies. Vertical resolution
of adjacent beds in a horizontally layered sequence depends on the range and
density of measurements laterally ; the Schlumberger array is worst in this
regard (Oldenburg, 1978).
The depths of exploration of resistivity arrays are given by Roy and
Apparao (1971)for Schlumberger as 0.125L and for dipole-dipole as 0.195L,
where L is the maximum separation between extreme electrodes (AB for

TABLEV. Resistivity Array Evaluation

Surface S/N Lateral Vertical Depth of Lateral EM


effects ratio resolution resolution exploration effects coupling

Schlumberger 1 1 3 3 3 3 3
Pole-dipole 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Dipole-dipole 3 3 1 I 1 1 1
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 305

Schlumberger). Thus Schlumberger uses 1.6 times the maximum electrode


separation of the dipole-dipole method for the same depth of exploration ;
this makes it more susceptible to the effects of inhomogeneities offset from
the sounding, i.e., lateral effects.
In view of the evaluation of Table V, it should not be surprising to find
that (a) usually the Schlumberger array is used at many scattered sites within
a large region where estimates of the thicknesses and resistivities of assumed
horizontal layers are required, while (b) the dipole-dipole array is used on
a regular grid of lines where the earth is assumed to be two- and three-
dimensionally inhomogeneous.

4.6.Interpretation

Hohmann (1982) provided a current review of numerical modeling for all


electrical geophysical methods.
Forward and inverse techniques of interpreting resistivity and induced-
polarization data over one-dimensional (I-D) earths, i.e. plane-layered, are
readily available. Representative references are La Compagnie Generale de
Geophysique (1955, 1963), Mooney and Wetzel(1956), Zohdy (1965, 1975),
Alpin et al. (1966), Kunetz (1966), Koefoed (1968), Ghosh (1971), Inman et
af. (1973), Inman (1975), Petrick et af. (1977), Rijo et af. (1977), Van Zijl
(1977) Oldenburg (1978), and Coen and Yu (1981).
While inversion of data for a two-dimensional (2-D) earth has been
attempted (see, e.g., Pelton et al., 1978b; Tripp et al., 1984), forward
modeling of resistivity data is customarily used in interpreting dipole-dipole
resistivity and IP data. Pertinent references include Coggon (1971, 1973),
Ward et af. (1973), Lee (1975) Snyder (1976), Rijo (1977), and Fox et af,
(1980).
Petrick et af. (1981) published a three-dimensional (3-D) inversion scheme
for interpreting resistivity data. Based on the concept of a centers, the scheme
provides information on the locations of conductive bodies. Three-dimen-
sional forward solutions have been presented by Dieter et af. (1969),
Hohmann (1975), Lee (1975), Dey and Morrison (1979), Lee et al. (1981),
Pridmore et al. (1981), and Petrick (1983).
The two- and three-dimensional forward interpretations are based on
finite-difference, finite-element, transmission surface, integral-equation, or
hybrid finite-elementlintegral-equationformulations. Hohmann (1982) has
provided a review of all such methods. Quoting from Hohmann, Differen-
tial equation (finite element and finite difference) and integral equation
methods have been used. Differential equation (DE) solutions are easiest to
implement, and they result in large banded matrices. Becausethe entire earth is
306 STANLEY H. WARD

TABLEVI. Problems with p,/IP Surveys

Natural field noise


Cultural noise
Effect of overburden
Effect of other geologic noise
Effect of topography
Resolution, lateral and vertical
Electromagnetic coupling

modeled on a grid, DE methods are preferable for complex geology. Integral


equation (IE) formulations involve more difficult mathematics, but the
unknown fields only need to be found in anomalous regions. Thus IE
solutions are less expensive for calculating the response of one or a few small
bodies and hence are most useful for evaluating field techniques, for design-
ing surveys, and for generating interpretation catalogues. Much recent
research on 3D modeling has focused on hybrid methods, which attempt to
combine the advantages of DE and IE solutions.

4.7. Problems with Resistivity and Induced-PolarizationSurveys


4.7.1. Introduction. As with any geophysical method, applications of the
resistivity and IP methods encounter problems which can be only partly
overcome. Table VI lists the problems encountered when applying resistivity
and/or induced-polarization surveys. Each of these problems will be
addressed briefly in the following.
4.7.2. Natural Field Noise. Natural electric and magnetic fields below
1 Hz are due mainly to the interaction of fields and particles from the sun with
the earths magnetic field; their magnitude depends on solar activity. Above
1 Hz they are primarily due to worldwide thunderstorms. As Fig. 17 shows,
their amplitudeincreases rapidly with decreasing frequency below 1 Hz, which
effectively prevents measurements below about 0.03 Hz. Since electro-
magnetic coupling is too high above 1 Hz, IP measurements with large arrays
are limited to the range 0.03-1 Hz.Even in that range, coherent detection and
digital high-pass filtering are required to make accurate measurements
because of the natural field noise. Stacking, that is, adding successive tran-
sients, is necessary to reduce noise in time-domain measurements, but noise
rejection is not as good as for coherent detection in the frequency domain.
Commonly, the range of frequencies is extended to 100 Hz or higher in
order to obtain spectra of complex conductivity, as will be described
subsequently.
4.7.3. Cultural Noise. Table VII lists the sources of cultural noise.
Grounded structures such as fences, power lines, and pipelines redistribute
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 307

-
-
-
-
-
-
W
-
0.5 CAVITY -
wJ w
A

I I I I
0.0001 0.01 1.o I00 I0 K
FREQUENCY (Ha:)
FIG. 17. Generalized spectrum of natural magnetic fields. (After Campbell, 1967.)

current from a grounded wire source so that part of the current flows through
the cultural feature. Spurious resistivity and induced-polarization anomalies
arise as a result. In a definitive analysis of the problem, Nelson (1977) found
that the only certain means of eliminating such spurious responses is to keep
IP transmitting and receiving lines away from grounded structures. How-
ever, he did a commendable job in computing the response of a grounded
structure for comparison with the resistivity phase measured over the
structure (Fig. 18). Cultural features also can introduce noise into measure-
ments by providing a path for various interfering signals. Of course, strong
noise voltages are present in the vicinity of power lines, requiring filtering

TABLE
VII. Cultural Noise

Passive
Fences
Pipelines
Power lines
Telephone lines
Rails
Active
Power lines
Telephone lines
Electrified rails
308 STANLEY H. WARD

N 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 s s
3 3 1 5 7 0 1 3
1 5 .I 10 1 11 1 4 87
4 7 3 -1 6 2 3 11 -1 3 7 4 1
, 0 - 3 1 0 1 2 0 1 3 2 5
-6 5 1 2 4 3 I1 0
10 5 3 z 11 500'dipoler
F ~ L TEST
D
N 5 4 3 2 t o 1 2 3 4 5 5
3 3 2 8 7 1 3 3
3 3 0 9 3 8 0 3 3
3 3 - 1 1 0 3 3 1 0 . 1 3 3 4 1
3 -2 12 3 3 4 11 -1 3
-4 13 3 3 3 4 13 -3
1 5 3 3 3 3 4 1 4

COMPUTED MODEL

IP electrodes

N 5 4 3 2 2 3 4 5 5

FIG. 18. Phase lag in milliradiansdue to a power line and computed model using the grounded
impedance measured on one of the power poles. The computed model half-space parameters
were 50 O-m and 3 mrad. The grounding impedance were 100 O-m at 160 mrad, with 1 1 grounds
in the calculation. One of the grounds is 5 m from thecenter IP electrode. (After Nelson, 1977.)

at the front end of the receiver. Furthermore, pipelines often carry electrical
current for cathodic protection, and this current is a source of noise.
4.7.4. Overburden and Other Geologic Noise. Conductive overburden,
generally in the form of porous alluvium or weathered bedrock, prevents
current from penetrating to the more resistive bedrock. Hence detection of
bedrock features is less certain than when overburden is absent. When the
overburden is of irregular resistivity, as illustrated in Fig. 19, the geologic
noise produced by the near-surface features readily obscures the anomaly due
to the target in the bedrock. Anomalies due to geological heterogeneities of
no geothermal significance can also obscure, or partly obscure, the anomaly
due to a geothermal system.
4.7.5. Topography. Much geothermal exploration is done in moun-
tainous terrains, where topography can produce spurious resistivity
anomalies. Fox et af. (1980) systematically analyzed the effects of
topography for the dipole-dipole array, using a two-dimensional numerical
solution. Figure 20, for example, shows the apparent resistivity anomaly
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 309

Pa

FAULT /
,
/ I I I

150
I

150
150
I I

5015i50\4;;

150
150
150
I

150
I

150 150
I ,

375 327 313


386 336
1

69 150 150 150 150 150 150 394 344


67 150 150 150 150 150 150 150

I 1 , I I I , I , I I

FAULT +
SULFIDES

99

FAULT +

FIG.19. Resistivity pseudosections over an earth model consisting of a contact between rock
types, a massive sulfide body at the contact, and an irregular overburden. (After Pridmore
et al., 1981.)
310 STANLEY H. WARD

- 1
I

EARTH
p = I00

APPARENT RESISTIVITY
-5
I
-4 -3 -q -I 0 I 2 3 4 5

FIG.20. Apparent resistivityanomaly due to a two-dimensionalvalley with 30" slopes. (After


Fox er ol., 1980.)

produced by a valley with 30" slopes. The pseudosection is characterized by


a central zone of low'apparent resistivity flanked by zones of high apparent
resistivity. The low is most pronounced when the transmitting and receiving
dipoles are on extreme opposite sides of the valley. This example shows that
a valley can produce a large, spurious resistivity low which could easily be
misinterpreted as evidence for a buried conductor. Similarly, a hill can
produce an apparent resistivity high.
Because induced polarization is a normalized measurement, current
focusing and dispersion produced by an irregular terrain surface do not
significantly affect IP data. Thus if the earth were homogeneous and
polarizable, irregular terrain would produce no significant spurious
response. However, second-order topographic effects in IP surveys are
introduced by variations in distances between surface electrodes and a
polarizable body relative to a flat earth.
In general, topographic effects are important where slope angles are
10" or more for slope lengths of one dipole or more. The solution to the
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 311

problem is to include the topographic surface in numerical models used for


interpretation.
4.7.6. Resolution, Lateral and Vertical. To facilitate resolution of the
resistivities and thicknesses of horizontally layered media, a wide range and
high spatial density of electrode separations are required. Even so, the
principle of equivalence (Kunetz, 1966) indicates that substantial ambiguity
exists in determining layer thicknesses and resistivities. Resistivity techniques
usually provide information on resistivity-thickness products for resistive
layers and conductivity-thickness products for conductive layers.
The problem of vertical resolution is illustrated in Fig. 21. Superposition
of resistivity or induced-polarization responses from two or more bodies
frequently leads to misinterpretation. Figure 21 shows how the responses of
two prisms superpose as they are moved closer together. Each prism is
conductive (p2/p1 = 0.2), has dimensions of 1 width x 4 depth extent x 5
length, and occurs at depth 1 . These units are normalized by the dipole
length. This case dramatically illustrates the need for sophisticated inter-
pretation of resistivity and IP anomalies: a pseudosection should not be
construed as a cross section of the earth. Drilling would be unsuccessful if
a hole spotted over the IP high in the pseudosection in the two cases where
the bodies are separated. Bulls-eye pseudosection anomalies such as these
often are caused by superposition. When the bodies join, their responses
merge into that for a single wide body, as shown in the lower pseudosection
of Fig. 21.
4.7.7. Electromagnetic Coupling. The resistivity and induced-polariza-
tion methods typically use dc formulation which requires that the trans-
mitting and receiving wires be coupled only resistively. However, when ac is
used, which is customary, electromagnetic coupling between the transmitting
and receiving wires also occurs. This is readily seen in the expression for
mutual coupling between a pair of grounded wires (Sunde, 1949):

in which

Q(r) = 1/2nor ( 147)

is the resistive coupling term and

is the electomagnetic coupling term. In these relations r is the distance


between the electrodes a, byA, and B which terminate the wires, 0 the angle
312 STANLEY H. WARD

15 15 -3

I I
!I

FIG.21. Resolution of adjacent bodies. Induced-polarizationresponses due to two prisms are


superposed; width, la; depth extent, 4a; length, Sa; depth, la; p2/,71,0.2. Dipole length is a.
Anomaly contours are in EZ(To), which is the fraction of the intrinsic polarization of 100 given
to the bodies. Therefore, EZ(To) can represent PFE, Mor 6.(After Hohmann and Ward, 1981 .)

between the wires, CT the conductivity of the half-spqce on which the wires
are situated, k = (-iapw) the wave number of the half-space, p the
permeability of the half-space, and w the angular frequency.
The electromagnetic coupling between the wires increases with the fre-
quency, the lengths ab and-AB, the separation between ab and AB, and the
conductivity of the half-space. Electromagnetic coupling is particularly
important in the induced-polarization method, where one is attempting to
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 313

-IOJ I I I I A
.01 1 fHz 'O
100 1000

FIG. 22. Phase spectra for various dipoles and spacings from an IP survey in conductive
terrain, Northern Territory, Australia. (Data by Phoenix Geophysics Ltd.)

measure resistivity as a slowly varying function of frequency, the latter due


to electrochemical reactions in the subsurface. As can be seen from the
formulation above, electromagnetic coupling is also frequency-dependent
and it can totally obscure the IP effects.
Figure 22 illustrates how electromagnetic coupling increases with fre-
quency. Extrapolation of the resistivity phase to zero frequency will eliminate
the electromagnetic coupling and leave only the IP effect. Hence an IP survey
should use several decades of spectrum to permit this phase extrapolation.

5. Magnetotelluric Method
5.1. Introduction
The magnetotelluric (MT) method has been used in geothermal, hydro-
carbon, and crust/mantle exploration for about 30 years; it relies on
measurement of three orthogonal components of natural magnetic fields and
two horizontal orthogonal components of natural electric fields in the
frequency band to 10 Hz (Tikhonov, 1950; Cagniard, 1953). The audio-
magnetotelluric (AMT) method has been used in mining and geothermal
314 STANLEY H. WARD

exploration for about 10 years; it relies on measurements of the same


components of magnetic and electric fields, but in the frequency range 10 to
lo4 Hz (Strangway et af.,1973). While the two methods use different sets of
equipment and rely on fields from fundamentally different sources, they are
essentially the same method and will be so treated in this chapter to the extent
possible. The abbreviation MT/AMT will be used throughout to refer to the
combined method.
A representative set of early references on the magnetotelluric method
includes Tikhonov (1950), Cagniard (1953), Cantwell (1960), Bostick and
Smith (1962), Wait (1962), Swift (1967), Sims et af. (1971), and Vozoff
(1972). The paper by Vozoff (1972) has become the standard reference for
a reasonably current description of the magnetotelluric method, especially
as applied to oil and gas exploration. Gamble et af. (1979a, b) describe the
use of a remote reference for eliminating bias errors in resistivity estimates
obtained with MT data. Papers describingits application in geothermal areas
include Hermance et af. (1975), Hermance and Pedersen (1977), Stanley
et af. (1977), Goldstein et al. (1978, 1982), Morrison et al. (1979), Dupis
et al. (1980), Gamble et af. (1980), Musmann et al. (1980), Ngoc (1980),
Wannamaker et af. (1980, 1983), Aiken and Ander (1981), Berktold (1982),
Berktold and Kemmerle (1982), Goldstein et al. (1982), Hutton et af.(1982),
Martinez et al. (1982), Stanley (1982), and Wannamaker et al. (1983), among
others.
Pertinent references on the audiomagnetotelluric method include Keller
(1970), Strangway and Vozoff (1970), Strangway et al. (1973), Dupis et af.
(1974), Dupis and Iliceto (1974), Keller and Rapolla (1974), Hoover and
Long (1975), Hoover et af. (1976, 1978), Isherwood and Mabey (1978),
Jackson and ODonnell(1980), Long and Kauffman (1980), and others. The
article by Strangway et al. (1973) is usually taken as the point of departure
for literature surveys of the AMT method.
5.2. Basis of t h e MT/AMT Method
5.2.1. Basic Principles.
5.2.1.1. SOURCESOF FIELDS.The MT/AMT method uses the earths
natural electric and magnetic fields to infer the electrical resistivity of the
subsurface. Figure 17 contains a generalized spectrum of natural magnetic
field amplitude taken from Campbell (1967). There is, of course, a corre-
sponding electric field spectrum, related through Maxwells equations.
Fields above about 1 Hz are due to worldwide thunderstorms, the principal
centers being in equatorial South America, Africa, and the southwest
Pacific. Because the ionosphere is a plasma, i.e., a highly conducting
medium, the energy propagates in a waveguide mode in the earth-ionosphere
cavity. The resonances shown in Fig. 17 are due to constructive interference.
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 315

Below 1 Hz the fields, called micropulsations, are mainly due to the inter-
action of the solar wind with the earth's magnetic field and ionosphere. As
Fig. 17 shows, the amplitude of the electromagnetic field increases with
decreasing frequency below 0.1 Hz. Important references on natural electro-
magnetic fields are Bleil(1964),Matsushita and Campbell (1967), and Jacobs
(1970).
These natural fields represent noise for controlled-source electromagnetic
methods (CSEM), but they are the source fields for MT. Since low fre-
quencies are needed for deep penetration, it is easy to see from Fig. 17 why
MT has been used so extensively for crustal studies and deep exploration:
the source fields increase at low frequencies for MT while the same fields
constitute noise for CSEM, and hence noise increases as frequency is lowered
in CSEM. Furthermore, CSEM sources undergo a strong geometric decay,
which plane waves do not.
Audiomagnetotelluric, which is simply MT in the audio frequency range
10 to 104 Hz, has the advantage that data can be collected much faster, but,
of course, depth of exploration is less than for lower frequencies. Unfor-
tunately, low source fields have hindered the application of AMT, especially
in regions remote from the equator. One remedy has been to use an artificial
source, usually a grounded wire carrying current, at a large distance from the
survey area. This technique is called controlled-source audiomagnetotellurics
(CSAMT).
5.2.1.2. FORMULATION FOR A ONE-DIMENSIONAL EARTH. The basic
formulation for the MT/AMT method applied to a homogeneous earth is
given in Eq. (151). Orthogonal electric and magnetic field pairs, [Ex.H,] or
[Ey,H,], are measured at the surface of the earth. These quantities are simply
related to the electromagnetic impedance Z of a plane wave. When displace-
ment currents are neglected, which is justifiable for earth materials at the
frequencies employed in MT/AMT surveys, the impedance may be com-
puted from
Z = a p o / k = Ex/Hy = - Ey/Hx (149)
Under these conditions Eq. (149) can be rewritten as
z = o p o / G j i Z i i = J ; G p = =eiTl4 (150)
The impedance phase is 45", with Ex leading Hy by this amount. The
resistivity of the half-space is then given as
= o.2TIEx/Hy12
p = (l/aflo)(z(z (151)
where Ex is in millivolts per kilometer, Hy in nanoteslas, and the period T
in seconds.
316 STANLEY H. WARD

air

FIG.23. Typical model, apparent resistivity, and impedance phase for a layered (I-D) earth.
(After Ward and Wannamaker, 1983.)

When the earth is layered, as in Fig. 23, the plane wave impedance is given
by the recursive formula developed earlier :

=
ZZ+ Z1 tanh(iklh1)
ZI + 2%tanh(ik1h l )
ZI z
1

through
2 + Zn-ltanh(ikn-lh,-l)
= (153)
Zn-1 ~ n - 1
Zn-1 + Zntanh(ik,-Ihn-l)
in which Zi = Opo/ki is the intrinsic impedance of ith medium, the
impedance at the top of the ith layer, and ki and hi are the wave number and
thickness, respectively, of the ith layer. From Eq. (152) one can compute the
impedance phase d, and the apparent resistivity pa via
2
1 = IZlle'+ (154)

Figure 23b shows schematically the appearance of the pa vs. f and d, vs. f
curves for the three-layer earth depicted in Fig. 23a. Boehl et al. (1977) show
that one can predict the phase from the apparent resistivity approximately by
d, = 45" + 45"alnp,/alnw (156)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 317

TE MODE E,,
TM MODE E,
Y

Rotate to minimize Z,, Zyy

FIG. 24. Model, modes of excitation, and formulation for a 2-D earth. (After Ward and
Wannamaker, 1983.)

which may be observed in principle in Fig. 23b. Equation (156) is based on


an assumption that the resistivity and impedance phase are related through
a Hilbert transform for a 1-D earth (Kunetz, 1972). Our observations
suggest, but do not prove, that the Hilbert transform relationship usually is
obeyed by 2-D and 3-D earths (Wannamaker et al., 1982).
5.2.1.3. FORMULATION FOR A Two DIMENSIONAL EARTH.
5.2.1.3.1. Modes of Excitation. For a two-dimensional earth, i.e., one
in which the resistivity in the strike direction differs from the resistivity in
the orthogonal direction, the electric field in either of these principal
directions may be related to the magnetic fields in both directions. Then a
tensor relationship between electric and magnetic fields must be used, as
illustrated in Fig. 24. The mode of excitation in which the electric vector is
oriented parallel to strike, Ell, is referred to as the transverse electric (TE)
mode, whereas when the electric vector is perpendicular to strike, E L , the
transverse magnetic (TM) mode is excited. Usually both modes are excited
simultaneously.
The electric and magnetic fields for TE and TM mode excitation of a
conductive 2-D body are shown schematically in Fig. 25. For the TE mode,
where the electric field is parallel to the body, the anomalous normalized

P,

FIG. 25. Illustrative behavior of electric and magnetic fields over a 2-D body in a homo-
geneous half-space. (After Ward and Wannamaker, 1983.)
318 STANLEY H. WARD

electric field E,,/Egvaries from its normal value well off to the side of the
body to low values over the body. The corresponding TE mode magnetic field
H!/H$ reverses over the body, while H$/H$ is negative outside the body
and positive over the body, as appropriate for a line source of current along
the axis of the body. These secondary induced fields become vanishingly
small as frequencies approach zero (Wannamaker et al., 1982). For the TM
mode one observes in Fig. 25 that the normalized anomalous electric field
E$/E: is positive outside the body and negative over it. This characteristic
of the TM mode is indicative of dipolar fields, does not vanish as frequency
falls, and requires some explanation.
5.2.1.3.2. Surface Chargeand Current Channeling. The explanation for
this dipolar behavior lies in the existence of a surface charge density p , ,which
we established in Section 2.6.
For MT, the E-field response is predominantly dipolar, although higher-
order multipoles may be important at higher frequencies (Stratton, 1941, pp.
563-573). The electric field at C in Fig. 26 due to this polarization is in the
direction of the external electric field En,, while the electric field at D due
to the polarization is in the opposite direction to En,. On addition of the
incident field, this gives the appearance of currents in the external medium
being deflected into the more conducting medium. This phenomenon is
referred to as current channeling. If the two-dimensional body of Fig. 26 was
more resistive than its surroundings, i.e., p2 > P I , then the currents would
be deflected away from the body. Current channeling as opposed to local
induction of eddy currents is illustrated i n Fig. 27. The two effects are
superimposed when an electromagnetic field impinges on an earth in which
a conductive inhomogeneity exists.
Figure 28 contains plots of apparent resistivity and impedance phase versus
frequency for points A and B of Fig. 25. The apparent resistivity and

I- +I

*D
FIG. 26. Illustration of surface charges at boundaries, due to an electric field excitation.
(After Ward and Wannaker, 1983.)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 319

CURRENT CHANNELING

-L
/ P2 P1

Dl
INDUCTION

FIG.27. Illustration of concepts of current gathering and local induction.

Pa

PI

FIG.28. Typical behavior of TE and TM mode apparent resistivities and impedance phases
at two points near a 2-Dbody in a homogeneous half-space. (After Ward and Wannamaker,
1983.)
320 STANLEY H. WARD

impedance phase for both points at the highest frequencies will be that for
a homogeneous half-space of resistivity p1 since the skin depth
61 = 2/= = 5 0 3 m (157)
in the half-space is so small that little energy reaches the 2-D body. On the
other hand, at the lowest frequencies the 2-D body will be transparent to the
downward-traveling electromagnetic wave, since the TE mode does not
involve surface charges and current gathering, so once again the apparent
resistivity and impedance phase at both A and B will be that for a homo-
geneous half-space of resistivity p1 (Wannamaker et al., 1982). Between the
low- and high-frequency extremes, the TE mode apparent resistivity, ~ T ,E
drops below p1 at A and B since the 2-D body is of resistivity lower than pl
and its effect is observed. The behavior of the impedance phase &E is then
somewhat predictable from m~ if Eq. (156) is loosely applied.
On the other hand, ~ T Mat point A starts at p1 at the highest frequency,
where the waves have not penetrated to the 2-D body, but continues to
decrease with decreasing frequency until it becomes asymptotic at some value
dictated by the current channeling effect. Note that A is located in a region
where the total electric field is lower than the incident field, as for point D
of Fig. 26. Off to the side of the 2-D body, as at B of Fig. 25, the electric
field due to the polarization charges adds to the incident field. Hence, the
apparent resistivity, calculated from an expression of the form
~ T =
M 0.2T1Ey/Hx12 (158)
will increase with decreasing frequency until a low-frequency asymptote has
been reached. Once again +TM roughly follows the gradient of ~ T M versus
frequency.
5.2.1.3.3. The Impedance Tensor. We have seen that there are two basic
modes of excitation, TE (Ell) and TM (EL), as illustrated in Fig. 24. In
practice, we do not know the strike or x direction a priori, so our field data
are taken in rotated directions which may be at any angle to x and y . Hence
we need some means of rotating field data into TE and TM modes.
If x is the strike direction, we write
ZTE= EX/Hy = Z , (159)
ZTM= - Ey/Hx = Z y x
When the fields are aligned parallel and perpendicular to strike, the
impedance tensor given in Fig. 24 becomes

i.e., Z,, = Zyy = 0.


16.

fi
ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

-W
W

c
ri
0
LA

1
O
x' x

PLAN VIEW
L
Y'

Y
32 1

Ftc. 29. Plan view of measuring axes (x, y ) and symmetry axes (x', y ' ) for an MT survey over
a 2-D body in a homogeneous half-space. (After Ward and Wannamaker, 1983.)

Now let us turn to the field case where the electrical strike direction is
unknown. Then measurements are made in the rotated xy coordinate system
of Fig. 29.
The x'y' coordinate system is aligned with the strike, so we have
E: = ZTEH; (161)
E; = - ZTMHi (162)
In the xy coordinate system rotated by angle 8,
Ex = E: cos 8 + E; sin 8
E,, = -E:sinB + E;cosB
Hx = H: cos 8 + H;sin 8
Hy = - H i sin 8 + H; cos 8 (1 66)
Substituting Eqs. (161) and (162) in Eq. (163), we obtain
Ex = ZTEH; cos 8 - ZTMH: sin 8 (167)
We can write for the reverse coordinate transformation,
H: = Hx cos 8 - Hysin 8 (168)
H; = Hx sin 8 + Hy cos 8 (169)
322 STANLEY H. WARD

When Eqs. (168) and (169) are substituted in Eq. (167) there results
~ 8 + Hycos 8) cos 8 - Z T M ( Hcos
Ex = Z T E ( Hsin ~ 8 - Nysin 8) sin 8
E ZTM)sin 8 cos 8
= H ~ ( Z T- + H'(ZTE cos28 + ZTMsin28)

where use has been made of the trigonometric identities


2 sin 8 cos 8 = sin 28
2 s i n ' ~= 1 - ~ 0 ~ 2 8
2 C O S ~e = 1 + cos 20
Hence, if we write in the rotated coordinate system
Ex = ZxTHx + Zxy Hy
then by comparing Eq. (170) with Eq. (171) we get
Z, = ~ ( Z T-E ZTM) sin 28
and
z, = + ZTM)+ )(zTE
WTE - ZTM)cos 28 (173)
Similarly,
Zyx = - +(ZTE+ ZTM)+ &ZTE - ZTM)cos 28 (174)
and
M ZTE) sin 28
Zyy= ~ ( Z T - (175)
The important conclusion to be drawn from Eqs. (172)-(175) is that the
impedance elements obtained in the field coordinate system are complicated
combinations of TE and TM mode impedance elements.
From Eqs. (172) and (175) we find that

zxx = -zyy (176)


16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 323

while from Eqs. (172) and (173)


- z,, = ZTM+ ZTE ( 177)
Both Eqs. (176) and (177) are indepedent of the angle 0.
If the earth is 2-D, then one measures orthogonal electric and magnetic
fields in the arbitrary field coordinate system and calculates the impedances
ZA, Z& , Zjx, and Z;,. From these data one attempts to find a direction in
which Zxx= Z,, = 0 and the resulting 2, = ZTEand Z,, = - ZTM. The
direction at which this occurs, for clockwise rotation, are given by Vozoff
(1972) as

tan(400) =
(ZA - Zj,)(Z& + ZjJ + (ZA + Zj,)(Z& - Zjd
Iz:, - ZjY(2- \Z&+ zj# (178)

Such principal directions occur every go", so the strike direction cannot be
distinguished from the dip axis by using the impedance alone.
This ambiguity is removed by using the tipper T, defined as

where
Hz = AH, + BH, ( 180)
For the TM ( E l ) mode, no Hzresults, so the direction x which results in A
decreasing to zero is the strike direction.
5.2.1.4. FORMULATION FOR A THREE-DIMENSIONAL EARTH. Figure 30
illustrates that for an equidimensional3-D object, mode identification is no
longer possible, but for an elongate 3-D object it is possible. All components
of the secondary field are induced by any orientation of the incident field.
Furthermore, current channeling takes place for any orientation of the
incident field.
x' x

PLAN VIEW

E,
FIG.30. Plan view of measuring axes (x, y ) and symmetry axes (X',
y ' ) for an MT survey over
a 3-Dbody in a homogeneous half-space. (After Ward and Wannamaker, 1983.)
324 STANLEY H. WARD

Sims and Bostick (1969) showed that the usual impedance tensor of Fig.
24 is valid for 3-D models. In Fig. 30 we illustrate the 3-D body, the
measuring axes xy, and the symmetry axes xy. The electric and magnetic
fields are related not by Eqs. (161) and (162), but by the following equations:
E: = ZiXHi + Z& H; (181)
E; = Z;,H; + Z;:,H; (182)
in which the impedance elements Zij are functions of 8, as are the fields.
The electric field in the x direction is
E, = E: cos 8 + E; sin 8 (183)
When Eqs. (181) and (182) are substituted in Eq. (183), there results
Ex = (ZiXH:+ Z&H;) cos 8 + (Z,!,H: + ZjYH;)sin 8
cos 8 + Z;, sin 8)H: + (Z& cos 8 + Z;, sin 8)H;
= (ZX (184)
Then we substitutelliand Hi according to Eqs. (168) and (169), respectively,
to obtain

Ex = (2% cos 8+ Z;, sin @(H,cos 8 - H, sin 8)


+ (Z& cos 8 + ZiY sin B)(H, sin 8 + Hy cos 8) ( 185)
When rearranged, Eq. (185) yields
E, = [ZiXcos2 8+ Z;, sin 8 + (Z;, + Z&) sin B cos 8]Hx
+ [Z& cos28 - Z;, sin28 + (ZiY - ZiX)sin 8 cos 8]Hy (186)
In the field coordinate system xy we expect to observe that
Ex = ZXxH,+ Z,Hy (187)
so we identify Z,, and Zyy as follows:

zX,= ziX60s 8 + z;, sin 8 + (z&+ z;,)sin 8 cos e (188)


, = Z& cos B - ZiXsin 8
2 + (ZiY - 22,) sin 8 cos 8 (1 89)
By using the same trigonometric identities as for the 2-D case, Eqs. (1 88) and
(1 89) reduce to

Zxx= 21 + 2 2 cos 28 + 2 3 sin 28 (190)


, = 24
2 + Z3 cos 28 - ZZ sin 28 (191)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 325

Similarly, we find
Zyx = - Z4 + Z3 cos 26 - 2 2 sin 26 (192)
Zyy = Z1 - Z2 cos 26 - 2 3 sin 26 (193)
In Eqs. (190)-(193) we have shortened the notation by using the following
definitions
z1 = (2%+ Z;,)/2 2 2 = (Z& - Z;,)/2 (194)
2 3 = (Z& + Z;J2 24 = (Z& - Z,',)/2 (195)
From Eqs. (190) and (193) we observe that
(ZXX + 2yy)/2 = z1 ( 196)
while from Eqs. (191) and (192)
(2, - 2,)/2 = z 4 (197)
Comparison of Eqs. (194) and (196) and Eqs. (195) and (197) shows that Z1
and 2 4 are invariant under rotation. In the 2-D case, Eq. (176), we found
that Z I = 0. Hence the skewness S has been introduced as a measure of three-
dimensionality. S is defined by
s = 1z11/1z41 = JZ:, - 2)!yl/p&- &I,! (198)
If S is large, three-dimensionality is indicated. If S is small, it is not easy to
deduce whether the earth is 2-D or 3-D.
It is clear from Eq. (196) that the elements Zxxand Zyyof the impedance
tensor do not become zero in the presence of a 3-D body except along any
axis of symmetry. However, for a 3-D body, principal axes generally may be
defined where Z,, and Zyy are minimized. Hence it is customary to estimate
an approximate strike direction 8 0 and to estimate the principal impedances
Z , = ZTEand Zy, = ZTMin such principal directions. Several methods have
been used to find the angle 60 between the measuring axes and the principal
axes. For example, one can maximize 1 2
,2 + JZyx)2,
1 minimize lZxx)2+
Iz~~~~, maximize I z , ~ or \ Z ~ , I , minimize 1 ~ or lzYy\,
~ ~ maximize
1 12, + zYx),
and so on. Each procedure will give the strike direction if the earth is two-
dimensional. When the earth is three-dimensional these methods do not give
the same results. The most common method used is that of maximizing the
absolute value of the sum of the off-diagonal elements, i.e., maximizing
lZ, + ZYJ. This is done analytically (Swift, 1967; Sims and Bostick, 1969).
As for the case of a 2-D structure, principal directions of the impedance
occur every 90". Defining TE and TM modes requires that this 90" ambiguity
be removed. This can be accomplished precisely for a 2-D structure by using
tipper strike, since Hz is correlated with the horizontal magnetic field
perpendicular to the strike. A unique tipper strike can be defined for 3-D
326 STANLEY H. WARD

bodies as well, with the principal impedance closest to this strike being
assigned to the TE mode. Principal apparent resistivities are
p& = O . ~ T ) Z & ( O O ) ) ~(TE mode) (199)
= O.~T)Z,L(OO)(~(TM mode) (200)
with impedance phase derived directly from Z& and Z,!x. Tipper strike has
the additional advantage that it is relatively insensitive to near-surface
geological noise (Wannamaker et al., 1980, 1982). However, this procedure
does not necessarily allow 2-D algorithms to be applied routinely to principal
apparent resistivities and impedance phases gathered over 3-D structures.
The basic behavior of apparent resistivities pxu and pyx and impedance
phases and +yx at points A and B over the 3-D body in a half-space, where
the x and y coordinates of the MT quantities pertain to those drawn in Fig.
31, has been plotted in Fig. 32. At point A, note that pxu and pyx fall as
frequency falls until they become asymptotic to a low-frequency limit
somewhere below p1. Regardless of the orientation of the inducing electric
field, some boundary polarization charge will exist. This charge creates
qualitatively a dipolar electric field anomaly over the body, which resembles
that of the TM mode of a 2-D body. At low frequencies current gathering
is by far the dominant factor in determining both pxr and pyx.
The character of the impedance phases +xuand 4yxat point A is comple-
mentary to that of pxuand pyx,although departures from the 2-D responses
again occur. For the 3-D body, and +yx at all but the highest frequencies
have values exceeding 45". Eventually, at low frequencies, 4- and 4yxwill
become asymptotic to 45", but will never drop below it. Note that qualita-
tively the apparent resistivities and impedance phases obey Hilbert transform

p2

FIG.31. Plan map showing location of measuring points A and B over a 3-D body in a
homogeneous half-space. (After Ward and Wannamaker, 1983.)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 327

A t

I
I f
f

FIG. 32. Typical apparent rehistivity and impedance phase curves for points A and B of
Fig. 31. (After Ward and Wannamaker, 1983.)

relations as observed over 2-D structures. Again, I have no proof of this


relation for 3-D bodies, but it has been my experience with 3-D computer
simulations and the vast majority of field observations that in general this
transform relation seems to hold.
In the lower part of Fig. 32, the sounding curves correspond to point B
outside the 3-D prism. Apparent resistivity pv and impedance phase c$xu here
resemble those at point A, except that their variations are relatively subdued.

5.3.Data Acquisition
Vozoff (1972) provides a useful overview of MT data acquisition.
Sternberg et al. (1982) present an updated and more detailed description of
the subject. Figure 33 shows a schematic representation of the disposition of
E and H sensors for MT soundings.
Because of the steeply varying nature of the spectrum of Fig. 17, data are
collected in a number of bands from loe4 to 103Hz. Figure 34 displays
typical data from the midband extending nominally from 0.05 to 5 Hz.
The E fields are detected between orthogonal sets of nonpolarizing
electrodes. The electrodes are connected by 50-300-m wires to electric field
preamplifiers in the recording truck. While Vozoff (1972) advocated use of
large distances (2600 m) between electrodes, Wannamaker (1983) advocates
electrode separations as short as possible, consistent with adequate signal.
Modern E field preamplifiers are of sufficiently low internal noise that
328 STANLEY H. WARD

E
t

FIG.33. Magnetotelluric sensor deployment in the field. (After Sternberg et al., 1982.)

shorter spacings are possible. One seeks to avoid placing electrodes of a pair
on opposite sides of a surficial resistivity change; the shorter the wire, the
less likely the electrodes will be on opposite sides. We will refer to this matter
again later. The electrodes are either Cd-CdCl2 , Pb-PbClt , or Cu-CuSO4
nonpolarizing type. The former are thought to have slightly lower noise, i.e.,
chemical drift, but CdClz is highly toxic.
The H fields are detected with induction coils or Squids (cryogenic
magnetometers). Most modern MT surveys employ two complete MT
stations so that the E or H fields from one may be used as a remote reference
for the other. Gamble et al. (1979a,b) demonstrated that bias in estimates
of impedances derived from MT measurements may be reduced by use of a
remote reference. Stodt (1983) made a comprehensive review of bias and
tandom errors in MT surveys and demonstrated that bias removal can be
effected, under certain conditions, without resort to remote reference. The
use of a remote reference is, nevertheless to be preferred.
Figure 35 shows the system used for MT research by Conoco, Inc.
According to Sternberg et al. (1982):

The system consists of two data acquisition (or DA) vehicles, each
being equipped with the necessary electronicsto record three components
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 329

SCALE IN Seconds

FIG.34. High-quality MT data low-pass filtered at 5 Hz. Five field components are illustrated.

Data Data
Acquisition (DA) Acquisition (DA)
System System
330 STANLEY H. WARD

of the magnetic field with either squid magnetometers or induction coils


along with four electric field sensors to record two pairs of orthogonal
electric fields. The extra satellite electric field sensor is typically
deployed at a distance of a few hundred to a few thousand feet from the
main-base electric field sensor. The two DA vehicles may be separated
by any distance but are generally 1 to 10miles apart. Time synchroniza-
tion between the two vehicles is obtained by signals from WWVB.
A signal analysis (SA) truck is located in the vicinity of both DA trucks
and is used to process the MT data. Magnetic tapes are transported from
the DA trucks to the SA truck. We have found that the use of telemetry
links to transmit the data from one vehicle to another can severely
restrict ones flexibility in choosing site locations. Furthermore,
transportation of the tapes usually leads to an insignificant delay in
comparison with the site occupation time, particularly for a research
system. The SA truck is capable of performing all of the MT processing,
including remote reference processing, modeling and generation of final
resistivity cross sections.

Figure 36 presents a block diagram overview of a system designed by the


Earth Science Laboratory of the University of Utah Research Institute to
cope with the wide dynamic range of signal levels encountered in MT/AMT
(Stodt, 1983). Output from the electric field sensors is fed into a signal
conditioning and line drive box located at the sensors. Line drivers send
preamplified and conditioned signals to the recording truck, approximately
MEASUREMENT SITE I N S T R U M E N T TRUCK
-+-w lOOm--d \

f
FIG. 36. Earth Science Laboratory MT system overview. (After Stodt, 1983.)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 331

CA 1I B RO AR 110N L F E A T U R E6 OPTIONS F E A T U RE6

* PROGRAMMABLE * HIGH PASS *PROGRAMMABLE,


G A I N - O d b , 21.6 d b GAIN -0db,10.3 d b , 3 l d b
* NOTCH
* L O W T H E R M A L DRIFT * D I F F E R E N T I A L OUTPUT
* LOW N O I S E 6 0 H z , 180 H r
*RFI FILTER
* TRANSIENT SUPPRESSION
FIG. 37. The field and coil H field receivers of the Earth Science Laboratory MT system.
(After Stodt, 1983.)

100 m from the sensors. At the recording truck, the incoming signals are
presented to a line receiver and fed to four-pole low-pass filters with
programmable cutoffs for antialiasing protection. Optional programmable
gain and high-pass filter stages are also available at this point. The signal on
each channel is then fed to a separate sample and hold amplifier, controlled
by a programmable time base. Voltages are then digitized with a minimum
of 12 bits of resolution and stored for processing.
Figure 37 presents an expanded block diagram of the electric field and coil
receivers of Fig. 36. The electric field measurements are processed in the
following stages. They are presented to differential preamplifiers with radio
frequency interference (RFI) filter and transient suppression, then to
optional high-pass and 60-1 80-Hz notch filters, and finally to programmable
gain differential output amplifiers with programmable offset. The coil
magnetic field signals are presented to a differential preamplifier with RFI
filter and transient suppression, and then to optional high-pass and 60-
180-Hz notch filters. Line drivers send the conditioned signals to the
recording truck. The Squid magnetic field signals are sent directly to the
truck.
Gain in the system is introduced as early as possible to avoid contaminating
the measurements wfth instrument noise. The purpose of the optional high-
pass and notch filters and the programmable offset in the electric field
channels is to tailor the signal so the gain can be turned up without incurring
saturations by energy at frequencies which are not of interest.
Because of the steeply varying nature of the spectra as a function of
frequency and the nonstationary character of MT signals, dynamic range in
the analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion is a problem which requires very
careful consideration. Usually 14-16-bit AID conversion is required for each
332 STANLEY H. WARD

of several bands over the range 10-3-100 Hz of frequencies to be recorded.


A preemphasis filter is also used to whiten the spectrum and thus reduce the
dynamic range requirements.

5.4.Data Processing
Stodt (1983) presents a particularly clean approach to MT data processing,
from which I quote in part :

Magnetotelluric (MT) data are obtained as sets of simultaneous


measurements of orthogonal electric (Ex,Ey) and magnetic field
(Hx,Hy ,Hz)components at a given site on the earths surface. The data
sets are Fourier transformed and used to calculate complex transfer
functions which relate the field components to each other in the fre-
quency domain at the air-earth interface. When the usual assumptions
concerning the plane-wave nature of the source fields are satisfied (see,
e.g., Madden and Nelson, 1964; Swift, 1967), the signal components
(subscript s) of the measure fields are related to each other in the
following manner :
ESi = ZixHsxZiyHsy i = x or y (201)
and
Hsz = GxHsx + &Hsy (202)
The tensor impedances, Zjx and Ziy ,and the tipper functions, Tu and
Tv , are functions of frequency and conductivity structure. Equations
(201) and (202) can be written in the general form
Osi = GixZsx + GjyIsy i = X , y, or z (203)
where, from the viewpoint of linear system theory, Gix and Gi, are
transfer functions of a dual input, single output linear system through
which the inputs, Isxand Zsy, are related deterministically to the output,
Osi. The goal of MT is to deduce the conductivity structure of the earth
from the frequency dependent behavior of the impedance and tipper
functions.
Generally, MT field measurements consist of signal components of
variable amplitude, contaminated by noise. Noise can be defined in
general terms as any components of the processed field measurements
which do not satisfy the plane-wave impedance relationships given by
equations (201) and (202). This general definition includes systematic
errors in addition to additive random noise components. Systematic
errors are caused by deviations from the assumed model, e.g., errors
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 333

due to sources which are not plane waves, cultural noise, and analogue
or digital processing errors from instrument drift, aliasing, or truncation
effects. It is important to distinguish between systematic errors and
random noise when developing estimation procedures and error analysis
for the impedance and tipper functions.
Impedances and tippers are usually calculated as unweighted least-
squares estimates. We distinguish between conventional and remote
reference impedance and tipper estimates. Conventional estimates are
calculated entirely from field measurements obtained at a single base site
(see, e.g., Sims et al., 1971). Two of the horizontal field measurements
are used as references with equations (201) or (202) to compute the
estimates, In contrast, remote reference estimates (Goubau et al., 1978;
Gamble et al., 1979a,b) are computed by introducing two reference
fields which are measured at a separate location. This is done to avoid
correlations between the noises in the base and reference field measure-
ments which introduce bias errors into the estimates.

Details of the derivation of the MT transfer function calculations are given


in a number of references, including Swift (1967), Sims and Bostick (1969),
Word et al. (1970), and Vozoff (1972). A brief summary of the salient points
is presented here.
The impedances Zxx,Z,, and Zyy are complex and, as noted earlier, are
given by
Ex = ZxxHx+ Z,Hy (204)
Ey = ZyxHx + ZyyHy (205)
The problem is to solve for the Zij.
Since there are more observed field quantities than unknowns, this
information can be used by multiplying Eq. (204) and (205) by the complex
conjugate of each of the fields,
(ExA*( = Zxx(HxA*) + ZV(HyA*) (206)
(ExB*) = Zxx(HxB*)+ Zxy(HyB*) (207)
(EyA*> = Zyx(HxA*) + Zyy(HyA*) (208)
(EyB*> = Zyx(HxB*) + zyy(HyB*) (209)
where A* and B* are the complex conjugates of any two of H x ,Hy ,E x ,and
Ey and the angle brackets denote frequency band averages.
This yields more possible equations that unknowns. Since each of the
solutions to these equations responds differently to noise on any one of the
334 STANLEY H. WARD

field components it is customary to discard some of the solutions and average


others to obtain the best estimate.
Solving for the Zjj (see, e.g., Vozoff, 1972) gives
(ExA* )(HyB*) - (ExB* )(HyA*)
zxx = (2 10)
(HxA*)(HyB*) - (HxB* XHyA * )
(ExA*)(HxB*) - (ExB*)(HxA*)
z, =
(HyA* >(HxB*)- (HyB* >(HxA*)
(211)

(EyA* )(HyB* ) - (EyB* )(&A* )


(2 12)
zyx = (HxA*)(HyB*)- (HxB*)(HyA*)

(EyA*)(HxB*) - (ByB*)(HxA*)
z - (213)
yy - (HyA*)(HxB*) - (HyB*)(HxA*)
where A* and B* are the complex conjugates of any two of H x ,Hy , E x, and
Ey .Any quantity such as (E,A*) is the cross-power of Ey and A* calculated
from

's
wi+A0/2
<EyA*)(od= EyA* d o (214)
wl-A0/2

These are the Zij estimated in the conventional way, For remote reference
estimates of the Zu Eqs. (204) and (205) are multiplied by the magnetic fields
(Hxr and Hyr) at a distant site. Then

-- --
(Ey
- -- Ey
H,*,HxH$
zyy= (HxH.ZHyHy*r - H.ff.xH$)
- (218)
- HxHfiHy H.Z)
where the overbar denotes an average over a frequency window as well as
over all data sets.
Equations (215)-(218) involve only cross-powers between the base and the
remote stations. If the noise at the base station is not correlated with the noise
at the remote reference station and if a sufficient number of data sets are
averaged, these impedance estimates will be unbiased by noise. Furthermore,
since Eqs. (204) and (205) were multiplied in turn by a single reference field,
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 335

the values of the impedance elements are independent of the magnitudes and
phases of the reference fields and of the resistivity structure at the reference
site. Further details on the remote reference processing method are given in
Goubau et a/. (1978), Gamble et a/. (1979a, b), and Clarke et al. (1983).

5.5. Data Interpretation


For 1-D earths, inversion is used to obtain the thickness and resistivity of
each layer (Wu, 1968; Nabetani and Rankin, 1969; Patrick and Bostick,
1969; Jupp and Vozoff, 1975; Patella, 1976; Bostick, 1977; Petrick et a/.,

10

&I
A
= 300

= 100

= 39

= 19
10

/ - 9

- 4

* 7/3

* 3/2

= 1/9

10- = 1/19

I 1/20

10-
\ = 0

FIG.38. Two-layercurves for the magnetotelluric apparent resistivity. (After Patella, 1976.)
336 STANLEY H. WARD

1977; Oldenburg, 1979; Larsen, 1981; Parker and Whaler, 1981; and
others). From inversion one expects to obtain estimates of the parameters of
the earth model plus one or more estimates of uncertainties in the parameter
estimates. This method has almost entirely replaced the former curve-
matching system in which a field curve was matched with one or more
members of a catalog of curves computed from forward modeling of a
layered earth. Catalogs of forward-computed curves appear in Cagniard
(1953), Yungul(1961), Srivastava (1967), and Patella (1976). In recent years
it has become increasingly apparent that the earth is seldom plane-layered,
so numerical algorithms for two- and three-dimensional earths are becoming

OBSERVED APPARENT RESISTIVITY B-B'

W E
STAT ION
OBSERVED IMPEDANCE PHASE 8-B'
I 1 I I O I 1 1 I I

W E
STATION
FIG.39. Observed apparent resistivity and impedance phase pseudosections for profile B-B'.
Contours of pyxare in ohm-meters while those of & are in degrees. (After Wannamaker et af.,
1980.)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICALPROSPECTING 337

necessary in the interpretation of MT/AMT data (Ranganayaki and


Madden, 1980; Wannamaker et al., 1980, 1982). Figure 38 shows apparent
resistivity curves over a two-layer earth.
Two-dimensional models of the earth which have been reported in the
literature include the vertical contact (Neves, 1957 ; Patrick and Bostick,
1969; Vozoff, 1972; Morrison et al., 1979), a vertical dipping dike (Vozoff,
1972), a 2-D prism (Patrick and Bostick, 1969), a deep valley fill (Ward et
a/. , 1973), and the general two-dimensional earth (Pascoe and Jones, 1972 ;
Rijo, 1977; Stodt, 1978; Morrison et al., 1979; Wannamaker et al., 1980;
Nutter, 1981; Jiracek et al., 1982). The MT effects of two-dimensional
topographic features have been studied by Ku et al. (1973) and Ngoc (1980).
MODELED APPARENT RESISTIVITY 5-6'

W E
STATION

MODELED IMPEDANCE PHASE 5-5'

m m o e* 8 0 f p
F L E . mr Lez:s,-:kr 2
W E
STATION
FIG.40. Computed apparent resistivityand impedancephase pseudosectionsfor model finite-
element section for profile B-B'. (After Wannamaker eta/., 1980.)
338 STANLEY H. WARD

Lrn
I
1400

-
0 5-rn

3000

FIG,41. Best 2-D TM finite-element section fitting the observations for profile 9-9' of Fig.
24. Values for individual media are in ohm-meters. Vertical exaggeration is 6 :I . (After
Wannamaker et al., 1980.)

All of these algorithms compute the MT/AMT responses for both TE and
TM modes of excitation, Two-dimensional MT inversion has been discussed
by Jupp and Vozoff (1977). Observed apparent resistivity and impedance
phase TM mode pseudosections are shown in Fig. 39 (Wannamaker et af.,
1980). Modeled apparent resistivity and impedance phase are shown in Fig.
40; a 2-D finite-element algorithm was used in the computation. The
resulting model of the subsurface is shown in Fig. 41.
Means for calculating the MT responses of 3-D earths have been reported
by Jones and Vozoff (1978), Ting and Hohmann (1981), Wannamaker and
Hohmann (1 982), Wannamaker et al. (1 982), Wannamaker (1983), Park et
af. (1983), and others.
Most MT data have been interpreted by using 1-D earth models at each
site along a profile of stations. The resulting interpretation is a 2-D cross
section of the earth (see, e.g., Stanley et al., 1977). Wannamaker et af. (1980,
1982) demonstrate that this approach can produce grossly misleading earth
models. For 3-D environments with strong preferred orientations, 2-D TM
mode modeling is preferred; TE algorithms are of limited use due to current
gathering (Wannamaker et al., 1982). Otherwise, full 3-D interpretation is
required. Wannamaker etal. (1982), Newman etal. (1983), and Wannamaker
(1983) also demonstrate the importance of layering in which 3-D bodies are
situated.

5.6. Problems with the MT/AMT Method


5.6.1. Overview. A number of problems make it difficult to acquire MT
data of high quality. If high-quality data are gathered, however, a new set
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 339

of problems arises in interpreting the data. These problems are sketched in


the next few paragraphs.
5.6.2.Source Dimensions. In the formulation presented above it is
assumed that the MT fields are propagated as plane waves. This assumption
was the source of much controversy in the early days of MT, but Madden
and Nelson (1 964)showed that the field is usually a plane wave at frequencies
greater than Hz in mid-latitudes.
At frequencies below 1 Hz, the primary concern appears to be whether the
fields due to equatorial and auroral electrojet ring currents in the E layer of
the ionosphere can be treated as planar. Hermance and Peltier (1970)and
Peltier and Hermance (1971)studied the effects of such ring currents. They
concluded that in conductive environments, the plane wave assumption is
valid in the frequency range to 1 Hz. However, significant errors can
occur at frequencies less than lo-Hz in areas where high resistivities are
encountered if measurements are made within 500 km of the position
vertically beneath the electrojet.
At frequencies above 1 Hz, the proximity of lightning discharges becomes
important. Bannister (1969)studied the fields radiated from a vertical electric
dipole over a homogeneous earth and concluded that the plane wave
assumption is valid for distances greater than seven skin depths from the
source.
Dmitriev and Berdichevsky (1979)showed that the plane wave formulation
is applicable to a layered earth even if the fields vary linearly in the horizontal
plane. However, if the plane wave assumption is not valid, the extra field
components associated with nonplanar waves will be processed so as to
produce bias in MT estimates (Stodt, 1983).
5.6.3.Random Noise. Random noise may arise in (a) the electrodes for
E field measurement via chemical disequilibrium, (b) movement of the E field
wires in the earths magnetic field when wind agitates them, (c) movement
of the H field sensors in the earths magnetic field due to wind or seismic
activity, (d) microphonics in the H field sensors due to any motion, (e)
thermal noise in the E and H field preamplifiers, ( f ) quantization noise in
A/D converters, (8) nonlinear behavior of the total recording system, (h)
sporadic departure from plane wave propagation, and (i) sporadic cultural
noise due to power lines, telephone lines, rail electrification, pipeline
corrosion protection, radio interference, and the power sources in the
recording instrumentation. Obviously, one attempts to minimize these noise
sources prior to recording and processing. Ultimately, the processing system
must be designed to minimize, evaluate, and place statistical limits on errors
introduced into MT transfer functions by random noise.
5.6.4. Systematic Noise. Most of the noise sources described above are
also capable of introducing systematic noise into estimates of the MT transfer
340 STANLEY H. WARD

functions. As Stodt (1983) points out, the systematic noise must be treated
independently of the random noise in any statistical evaluation of noise in
MT data. Systematic noise leads to biased estimates of the MT transfer
functions. To attempt to eliminate this problem, the use of a remote reference
has become common practice (Gamble et al., 1979a,b). Stodt (1983) demon-
strates that to some extent this bias can be removed from conventional data,
i.e., data recorded without a remote reference. Nevertheless, use of a remote
reference is recommended.
5.6.5. Geological Noise due to Overburden. In areas where there is an
irregular conductive overburden, current channeling into a patch of deeper
or more conductive overburden will produce anomalies even to the lowest
frequencies. Unless these anomalies are interpreted via 2-D or 3-D modeling,
they can be mistaken for deep-seated features. Wannamaker (1983) illus-
trates these effects.
5.6.6. Resolution. In MT surveys, resolution of layers in a flatly dipping
layered structure is usually of more concern than resolution of adjacent
steeply dipping bodies. For example, we rely on active source systems for
delineating fractures and faults in the shallower parts of geothermal systems,
while we rely on MT for detecting the more diffuse heat sources at depth.
Madden (197 1) demonstrated the principle of equivalence in MT sound-
ings. For simplicity, I will analyze the MT response of a two-layer earth,
although the analysis is readily extended to more layers.
If layer 1 is electromagnetically thin-i.e., wavelengths in the layer are
much greater than the thickness of the layer (kl hl e 1)-then tanh(ik1hl) =
i k l h ~and Eq. (153) becomes
1 + ik2h1
21 = z2
1 + Z2crlhl
where the definition of the intrinsic impedance has been used. If layer 1 is
conductive, cr1 s 02, then Eq. (219) reduces to
21 Z2/(1 + Z 2 ~ l h l ) (220)
The effect of a thin conductive layer on 21 arises only from its conductivity-
thickness product ; neither cr1 nor hl can be resolved independently. On the
other hand, if layer 1 is resistive, 01 e a2, then Eq. (219) reduces to
21 = Z2(l + k2hl) (221)
Thus the effect of a thin resistive layer on 21 arises solely from its thickness.
These conclusions can be shown to apply to any layer within an arbitrarily
layered sequence. In the general case, a buried layer 1 appears thin if krhl 4 1
throughout the frequency range for which EM waves are able to penetrate
from the surface to the buried layer.
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 34 1

5.6.7. Topography. The effect of topography on the results of an MT


survey may be significant. Figure 42 illustrates distortion of telluric currents
at low frequencies. Anomalous secondary electric and magnetic fields result.
The TE and TM mode apparent resistivities due to a ridge of two different
resistivities at two different frequencies are illustrated in Fig. 43 (Ku et al.,
1973; Ngoc, 1980). A valley causes the opposite effect on the electric field.
Also, as is the case for buried structures, the TM response of 2-D topography
becomes asymptotic to a nonzero low-frequency limit where boundary
charges on the surface of the earth act as sources for current variations below.
Note also that the TM mode topographic effects are much stronger than
those of the TE mode, especially near corners of the structure. The magni-
tude of the responses in this case indicates that one should give careful
consideration to the effects of topography if the breaks in slope in the survey
area are as steep and abrupt as those studied here.
5.6.8. Current Channeling. Current channeling is merely part of the
response of a 2-D or 3-D earth. One-dimensional earth models do not include
it at all, while 2-D earth models include it only for the TM mode. Thus current
channeling is a problem only if it ignored in the modeling process. Ting and
Hohmann (1981) provide a particularly good illustration of the effects of
current channeling, and we repeat it here.
Theoretical results for a three-layer model are compared with those for
horizontal 3-D square slabs in place of the middle layer. The l-D model
consists of an anomalous layer with resistivity 5 bZ-m. For comparison with
3-D models, we replace the infinite anomalous layer by a finite square slab
having different lateral extents. The apparent resistivity is calculated over the
center of the slabs and plotted as a function of frequency. The comparison
is shown in Fig. 44 for square slabs 400, 800, 1200, and 1600 m on a side.
The 3-D results should be resonably accurate, based on convergence checks
and comparisons with 2-D TM models.
The largest 3-D slab shown is 1600m. The 3-D results appear to be
converging to the 1-D curve, but the convergence is very slow at the lower
frequencies. This illustrates an important point : because surface charges at
\
f=O.IHz - -- - - -- f= 2 Hz
800 16000

7 00 14000

600 l2000

500

4 00 8000

300 6000

200 4000

100 2000

0 0

and TE mode (Ell) anomalies over a 2-Dridge. (After Ngoc, 1980.)


FIG.43. TM mode (EL)

its boundaries are important, a 3-D slab must be very large for l-D inter-
pretation to apply. If l-D inversion is applied to the results obtained for the
largest slab, the results will be erroneous.
5.6.9.Depth of Exploration and Detectability. Depth of exploration is
often stated to be one skin depth 6,where
a=- (222)
This simplification is misleading, because noisy data or surface geological
noise can obscure the responses of deep bodies. However, with care in both
data acquisition and data interpretation, depths of exploration Well in excess
of 100 km can be achieved for infinite interfaces.
For 2-D or 3-D bodies, depth of exploration can be considerably less.
Newman et al. (1983) explored the possibility of detecting deep magma
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 343
I50 SLA0
A 400m z 400m
BOOm r B O O m
100- - 0
l2OOm x I 2 0 0 m
90- D
00 - 0 1600m r 1 6 0 0 m
- 70 -
60-

-
c 50-
40-
v)
W
30-

10
0.0I 0.1 I 10 100
FREO. ( H z 1

MODEL

h, = 2 0 0 m p, : KX)fL-m ear'h

h, = 3 ) p, = loon-m

FIG.44. Apparent resistivity 1-D curve and computed data points for four different
equidirnensional 3-D slabs. (After Ting and Hohmann, 1981.)

chambers with MT. If the magma chamber is electrically connected to a


highly conducting half-space, it probably will not be detected. On the other
hand, if the basal half-space is resistive or if the earth is not layered, the
magma chamber is more readily detected.
Apparent resistivity and impedance phase sounding curves directly over
the 3-D model of Fig. 45 appear in Fig. 46 and are compared to curves
centered over a 2-D structure of identical cross section and to curves repre-
senting the response of just the 1-D layered sequence in the absence of the
inhomogeneity (Newman et a/., 1983). Note that departures from the purely
layered response by both modes of the 3-D body signature are very subdued ;
such a response would have a low probability of being recognized, par-
ticularly in light of the frequent existence of near-surface geological noise
which obscures target MT anomalies (Wannamaker et al., 1982). The 2-D
TM and corresponding 3-D results agree very closely, as expected, indicating
that increasing the strike length of this structure will not facilitate its
344 STANLEY H. WARD

I f
C
C
4

J-
0 5 lOtm
SCALE

CROSS SECTION

JUVENILE CHAMBER
( v i r t u a l l y undetectable)

FIG.45. Three-dimensional model of magma chamber in a layered earth. (After Newman


et al., 1983.)

detection with the apparent resistivity pyxand impedance phase &. On the
other hand, the 2-D TE response in Fig. 46 is quite strong, dwarfing the
corresponding anomalies in pxuand & caused by the 3-D structure. This
discrepancy is interpreted as being due to current gathering in the 3-D body,
whereby secondary currents induced about the 3-D structure are essentially
short-circuited into deeper, less resistive media of the layered host and are
inhibited by the material of 4000 Q-m from reaching the surface to produce
an anomaly (Newman et al., 1983).
To verify this interpretation, the 3-D body of Fig. 45 was removed from
its layered host and simulated within a uniform half-space of 400 Q-m
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

3D
-1-0
--P..

-2 -1 0 11 r2
log f (Hz)

15 - 1-0 1 15
65

F. 55
0

2
45
35
25

l5
-3
L L -2 -1 0 11 *2
15
-3 -2 -1 0 *1 +2
(Hz) log f log f (HA
FIG.46. Apparent resistivity and impedance phase curves over the magma changer of Fig.
45, layered earth. (After Newman et at., 1983.)

30 2D
'4

-.....- PP,." I

I
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 *2 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 *2
log f (Hr) log f (HA

75 L -

5
. 35
* 251

; 5 1
-3 -2 -1 0 11 *2
log f (Hz)
FIG.47. Apparent resistivity and impedance phase curves over the magma chamber of Fig.
45, homogeneous half-space. (After Newman et al., 1983.)
346 STANLEY H. WARD

(see Fig. 47). In this case, the 2-D TM anomaly as well as the anomalies in
both ply, & and pyx,&x over the 3-D body are much stronger than the
anomalies in Fig. 46. (Anomalies here mean departure from the 1-D
response.) This high sensitivity of the response of a 3-D body to its layered
host underscores the importance of simulations using an algorithm handling
3-D bodies in arbitrarily layered earths.

6. Controlled-Source Electromagnetic Methods


6.1. Introduction
Controlled-source electromagnetic methods (CSEM) are applied in mining,
ground water, geothermal, sedimentary basin, and deep crusthpper mantle
exploration. Surveys are performed in boreholes, on the earths surface, and
from aircraft flying 35-135 m above the earths surface. In the interest of
uniformity throughout this chapter. I will limit my discussion to surveys
performed at the earths surface. Dyck (1975) reviewed electrical borehole
methods, Becker (1979) reviewed airborne electromagnetic methods, while
Ward (1979,1982) and Hohmann and Ward (1981) reviewed ground electro-
magnetics, all as applied to mineral prospecting. Ward (1983a, b) reviewed
ground electromagnetic methods applied to deep crustal and geothermal
exploration. Numerous references are given in each of these seven review
articles.

6.2. Basic Principles


6.2.1. Geoelectric Sections. Figure 48 portrays a generalized model of the
earth, in mining exploration, in which a massive sulfide body is the object
of search by means of the electromagnetic (EM) method. Unfortunately, all
the other members of the geoelectric section of Fig. 48 will also contribute
to the secondary magnetic field detected at the receiver. The ratio of secon-
dary to primary magnetic fields is recorded as the ratio AE/E of secondary
to primary voltages in the receiver. Thus the objective of the electromagnetic
method in mining exploration is to detect and evaluate each element of the
geoelectric section so that the resistivity environment surrounding the ore can
be assessed. In this fashion, for example, one can hope to distinguish
overburden response from the response of the massive sulfide body in deeply
weathered terrains. To achieve this objective, the following inequality must
hold :
el = a l p l w t l L Q ez = 0 2 p 2 w t 2 ~ (223)
where o,p, w ,and t are the conductivity, magnetic permeability, angular
frequency, and thickness for the overburden (subscript 1) and the ore body
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 3 47
T R A N S M I T T I N G COIL R E C E I V I N G COIL

3
tWEATHERED HOST ROCK --
-OVERB

MASSIVE SULFIDE

DISSEMINATED SULFIDE-(

Fro. 48. Generalized geoelectric section appropriate to the electromagnetic exploration of


massive sulfides. (After Hohmann and Ward, 1981.)

(subscript 2). The parameter L is the separation between the transmitting and
receiving coils. The 8i are induction numbers, which control the responses
of overburden and ore body.
Any electromagnetic boundary-value problem will involve one or more
induction numbers, as can be seen by dimensional analysis of the wave
equation

This equation indicates that a dimensionless quantity kL remains invariant


under transformation from one scale to the next, i.e.,

The induction number 8 = kL is thus similar to the Reynolds number in fluid


flow. Hence it is a fundamental quantity governing electromagnetic
phenomena. It is expressed by kz in Eq. (47) and by kihj in Eq. (123).
If the inequality of Eq. (223) holds, then the contribution of the ore body
can be distinguished clearly from the contribution of thepverburden in AE,
provided all other induction numbers are much less that 8i. As one might
348 STANLEY H. WARD

expect, the various Bi are not always far apart, with the result that separation
of the contributions of the various elements of the geoelectric section to A E
is not clear-cut. In addition, interactions between the elements of the geo-
electric section can and do take place; an example is current channeling into
a highly conductive medium from a less conductive one.
The electromagnetic problem in mining geophysics can be described as a
search for procedures to separate the geological signal arising in a massive
sulfide body from the geological noise arising from the other elements of the
geoelectric section. The procedures must be sought with the realization that
each geological noise source may shift the phase, alter the amplitude, and
change the spatial spectrum of each component of the secondary fields
scattered by the massive sulfide deposit. To solve this problem, it is necessary
to (1) obtain precise data over several decades of freqency, (2) avoid spatial
aliasing of data, (3) select an optimum transmitter-receiver configuration,
and (4)use three-dimensional models to simulate the real earth. Com-
promises between complete solutions and economical or practical solutions
are to be expected within this framework (Hohmann and Ward, 1981;
Ward, 1982).
Figure 49 shows a generalized model of a convective hydrothermal system
being explored by an electromagnetic method. Except for the subsurface
target, it is similar in most respects to the mining problems of Fig. 48.
However, the resistivity of the geothermal reservoir is usually not as low as

OUTLINE OF

FIG.49. Generalized geoelectric section appropriate to the electromagnetic delineation of a


convective hydrothermal system.
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTINO 349

the resistivity of the massive sulfide, the target in mining exploration.


Further, only the faults and fractures constitute the geothermal reservoir.
Thus detection of thin planar features, or an aggregate of them, becomes the
goal of applying electromagnetic methods in geothermal environments.
There are, however, geothermal resources which are stratigraphically con-
trolled, so that electromagnetic delineation of roughly horizontal porous
strata then becomes the objective of electromagnetic surveys. Caprock,
overburden, and other lateral and vertical variations of resistivity of no
consequence to the geothermal reservoir may obscure its detection and
delineation (Keller, 1970; Ward, 1983a,b).
For the grossly inhomogeneous resistivity environments that are normally
encountered in mining and geothermal exploration, continuous sounding
and profiling are usually done. Sounding is carried out by varying frequency,
while profiling is carried out by laterally moving the receiver relative to a
fixed transmitter or moving both transmitter and receiver in unison. More
will be said about this later.
In deep crustal sedimentary basin and ground water studies, the appli-
cation of active electromagnetic methods is directed primarily toward
sounding, that is, estimation of layer resistivities and thicknesses in an
essentially horizontal sequence of layers (Zohdy, 1964, 1965, 1975 ; Keller,
1970; Ward, 1983a, b).
6.2.2. Response of a Sphere. In mining applications, the object of
search with the electromagnetic method is most often a lenslike massive
sulfide body with conductivity of the order of 1 S/m buried in a resistive host
of about S/m. An approximation to this situation is a conducting sphere
in a vacuum. Hohmann and Ward (1981) presented the time and frequency-
domain responses of a sphere of radius R and conductivity 7. They stated that :

The time domain electromagnetic response can be approximated by


a single exponential decay :
h ( t ) = e-fT (226)
where the time constant 7 is given by
5 = 0p0 R 2 / z 2 (227)
in which po = 1.26 x H/m is the magnetic permeability of free
space, The equivalent frequency domain electromagnetic response is

Larger time constants, then, correspond to larger (OR)products.


350 STANLEY H. WARD

0.4 I\ \ T I M E DOMAIN

- -1 \ (Poor Conductor) \

"0 2 4 6 8
Ti m e (mrecl

- I A I I I
OO 94 187 281 374 468 562
Frequency (Hz)
FIG. SO. Time- and frequency-domain responses for good and poor conductors. (After
Hohmann and Ward, 1981.)

In Fig. 50, we compare frequency- and time-domain electromagnetic


responses of a good conductor (T = 3.2ms) and a poor conductor
( 5 = 0.64ms). For two spheres of radii 50 and 100m, these time
constants correspond to conductivities of 10 and 0.5 S/m, respectively.
In the time domain, the poor conductor is characterizedby a more rapid
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 35 1

decay, while in the frequency domain the peak quadrature response and
maximum slope of the in-phase response occur at a higher frequency for
the poor conductor.

Figure 50 is useful for gaining insight into eddy current induction in


confined conductors. In the time domain, after the transmitting current is
terminated, the eddy currents will be confined initially to the surface of the
conductor. As a result of ohmic losses, the initial induced currents will begin
to dissipate. The region inside the conductor will see a decreasing magnetic
field and thus eddy currents will start flowing through it. This process is
repeated in time at successive interior points and can best be described as an
inward diffusion (Nabighian, 1982). The currents will decay with a time
constant as noted above. In the frequency domain, eddy currents due to high-
frequency excitation will be confined to the surface, while eddy currents due
to low-frequency excitation will appear throughout the body.
As it turns out, the response of any body will be similar to that of a sphere,
so Fig. 50 is useful in obtaining a basic understanding of any earth induction
process.
6.2.3.Response of a Half-Space. A finite source of electromagnetic
waves, such as a loop of wire, will radiate a field of complex form. This field
can always be decomposed into a spectrum of plane waves, although complex
angles of incidence must be invoked (Clemmow, 1966). In Section 5, on the
magnetotelluric method, I noted that if displacement currents are negligible,
then because of the large conductivity contrast between air and earth,
electromagnetic waves of any angle of incidence will traverse vertically in a
homogeneous or horizontally layered earth. The electric vectors will then be
confined to the horizontal. Thus, the spectrum of plane waves due to a finite
source will also give rise only to horizontal electric fields. A loop source of
wire, when placed above the earths surface, will induce horizontal eddy
currents regardless of its orientation. This result has been established as a
well-known theorem (see, e.g., Weaver, 1970).
Nabighian (1979) showed plots of the current density in the ground
induced by a rectangular loop situated on the surface of the earth. It is
reproduced here as Fig. 51. Nabighian described the downward and outward
traveling current pattern as smoke rings. Further, he showed that the
combined effect of all induced currents in the ground can be approximated
by the effect of a single current filament of the same shape as the transmitting
loop and moving downward with velocity

u = 2-/ (229)
while increasing its horizontal dimensions in proportion to e.
352 STANLEY H. WARD

H I

t / P 10.4

Conrours X loe9 A / m *
1.6

I Contours X 10.~

FIG. 51. Current density in the smoke ring of induced current around a step-varying
A/m2

vertical magnetic dipole on a half-space. (After Nabighian, 1979.)

6.3. Data Acquisition


6.3.1. Time Domain, Frequency Domain, and Decades of Spectrum.
Table VIII itemizes factors to consider in selecting controlled-source electro-
magnetic systems. Figures 10 and 52 illustrate the waveforms typically used
with frequency-domain (FEM) and time-domain (TEM) electromagnetic
VIII. Basis for Selecting Controlled-
TABLE
Source Electromagnetic Systems

TEM or FEM
Decades of spectrum
Signal-to-noise ratio
Lateral and vertical resolution
Source configuration
Transmitter coil size
Depth of exploration
Current channeling
Effects of topography
16. ELECTRICAL. METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 353

f
TRANSMITTER C U R R E N T
(AND PRIMARY MAGNETIC FIELD)

SECONDARY (TARGET) C U R R E N T AND


MAGNETIC F I E L D

FIG.52. Typical time domain transmitted and received waveforms. (After McNeil, 1980.)

systems. Time-domain systems are much in vogue today in shallow crustal


exploration, especially mining and sedimentary basin exploration, because
measurements over a broad spectrum may be made in a short period of time,
whereas FEM systems require much more field time. Further, at present
TEM has an inherently higher sensitivity than FEM because TEM measure-
ments are made in the absence of the primary field. On the other hand, power
is concentrated in a narrow bandwidth with FEM and spread over a broad
bandwidth with TEM. A higher signal-to-noise ratio results with FEM. This
can be countered in TEM if a square wave of low duty cycle is used; it
provides a short on-time and a long off-time with high instantaneous power.
Finally, most commercial state-of-the-art TEM systems operate over two
decades of spectrum, whereas the few state-of-the-art FEM systems operate
over four decades of spectrum. If exploration to great depths is desired,
measurements must be made at long times after cutoff of the current in the
transmitter.
354 STANLEY H. WARD

TABLE
IX. Evaluation of Frequency-Domain (FD) and Time-Domain (TD) Electromagnetic
Methods
~~~~ ~

Transmitter-receiver Alignment
Spectrum Bandwidth separations errors

FD Four decades Narrow Large Problem


TD Two decades Broad Small No problem

Instantaneous
Timeheading Signal Noise power

FD Large Model-specific Low Low


TD Small Model-specific High High

For deep crustal exploration, one might expect FEM to be favored over
TEM because of the higher signal-to-noise ratio expected with narrowband
(FEM) than with broadband (TEM) systems. While SanFilipo and Hohmann
(1982) confirm this idea, further study of the problem is needed, especially
since the signals received from the subsurface targets are model-specific.
Table IX summarizes the known relative advantages of FEM and TEM.
Apart from these, one should note that a single coil can be used as both
transmitter and receiver in TEM. This has not yet been exploited in geo-
thermal or deep crustal exploration, but it is a feature of SIROTEM
(McCracken and Buselli, 1978), which has been used in mining and sedi-
mentary basin exploration. Further, alignment errors between transmitter
(Z) and receiver (Rx)are unimportant in TEM because only of secondary
(scattered) fields are measured, whereas in FEM measurements are always
made of primary (source) and secondary fields combined.
One can depart from the basic waveforms of Fig. 10 and 52 to achieve
specific objectives. Duncan et al. (1980) and others reported the use of a
pseudorandom binary sequence (PRBS) but have yet to demonstrate that this
modestly broadband system enjoys advantages of FEM narrowband systems
which also employ cross-correlation to extract signal from noise. Several
other waveforms have been used in mining exploration (see, e.g., Barringer,
1962; Lamontagne, 1975; Won, 1980).
6.3.2.Source Configurations. Figure 53 portrays five basic transmitting
source configurations used in mining exploration. For detailed discussions
of the many variants on these basic source types, see Grant and West (1965),
Ward (1967), and Telford et al. (1976).
The two-loop array (Fig. 53a) is moved in-line or broadside across the
expected strike of the structure. In the frequency domain, real and imaginary
parts of secondary magnetic fields are recorded as a percentage of the
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 355
Two-loop Large source loop

Single -loop
Tx 8 Rx Ax

Section Plan
FIG.53. Five basic source types used in electromagnetic exploration : (a) coplanar horizontal,
coplanar vertical, or coaxial loop pairs; (b) large rectangular source loop to which a single
horizontal or vertical receiving coil is referenced; (c) single loop which is used sequentially as
transmitter and then as receiver in the time domain or whose impedance is measured in the
frequency domain; (d) Grounded wire source to which electric and magnetic field components
are referenced ; (e) vertical transmitting loop, tilt angle and ellipticity measured by receiver.

primary field. The phase reference is hard-wired from the transmitter to the
receiver, by which means the primary field is also canceled. In the time
domain, the secondary transient is simply recorded and stacked at the
receiver. Measurements are made every 25 or 50 m along the traverse with
the transmitter and receiver separated by 100-200 m.
The large source loop portrayed in Fig. 53b ranges in dimensions from
200 x 400m to 500 x 1OOOm. Measurements are made in the frequency
domain of the field strength and phase of one to three magnetic field
components or of field strength ratio and phase difference with a pair of
horizontal coplanar or vertical coaxial coils. For the former, synchronized
crystal clocks at the receiver and transmitter provide a phase reference for
coherent detection. Measurements of one to three components are also made
in the time domain, for which crystal clocks provide a time reference for
stacking. Traverses of the receiving coils are made outside the loop on lines
perpendicular to a long side of the loop, and hence nominally perpendicular
to the geologic strike. In the time domain, measurements are also made inside
the loop when one wishes to minimize current channeling (B. Spies, 1982,
356 STANLEY H. WARD

personal communication). Typical reading intervals are 25-50 m. If two


receiving coils are used, they are separated by about 50 m.
Lajoie and West (1976) demonstrated that the size of the large source loop
can be matched to the size of the target in order to achieve an optimum
response. They concluded that the source dimensions should be of the order
of the target dimensions if the target is a three-dimensional body.
A scaled-up version of this system suitable for deep crustal studies is
represented by the experiments reported by Connerney et al. (1980), in which
the electrical resistivity of the crust was determined to more than 30 km.
In the time domain it is possible to use a single loop, first as a transmitter
and then as a receiver (Fig. 53c). Fast switching of the loop from the trans-
mitter to the receiver facilitates this approach. The loop is moved along a
traverse normal to the geologic strike between measurements, with receiving
stations being occupied every 50 or 100 m. The loop typically range from 50
to 100 m to the side. The method is also used in shallow sedimentary basin
applications.
The fourth transmitting source, shown in Fig. 53d, is a grounded bipole.
As used in the controlled source audiomagnetotelluric method, the bipole is
typically 1-2 km in length. Readings are made over the frequency range
10 Hz to 10 kHz of components of electric and magnetic fields parallel and
perpendicular to the bipole and also of the vertical magnetic field. If
measurements are made three to five skin depths away from the source, a
plane wave formulation can be used in the interpretation. Skin depths are
calculated for the most resistive medium. The bipole is oriented parallel to
the strike to excite the TE mode, whereas it is oriented perpendicular to the
strike to excite the TM mode. The method is being used increasingly for
applications in mining, geothermal, and sedimentary basins ; the measure-
ment station intervals depend on the scale of the problem (Goldstein and
Strangway, 1975; Sandberg and Hohmann, 1980; Bartel and Wayland,
1981). The grounded bipole studies of Sternberg (1979) and of Duncan et al.
(1980) can be considered related to CSAMT, but their measurements were
made closer to the grounded bipole than is typical of CSAMT.
The fifth transmitting source, shown in Fig. 53e, is a coil whose plane is
vertical, i.e., a horizontal magnetic dipole. The receiver is located in the plane
of the coil and rotated about an axis joining transmitter and receiver. The
tilt of the major axis and the ellipticity of the ellipse of magnetic field
polarization are measured. In typical use, in which it is called a rotating
vertical loop, the transmitter is fixed at a central point on a survey grid and
the receiver is moved in increments along adjacent lines as in Fig. 53f. The
plane of the transmitting loop is rotated so as to contain the receiver, In this
fashion, the transmitted primary field is always horizontal at the receiver,
regardless of elevation differences between transmitter and receiver. Thus
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 357

any inclination of the total field at the receiver is an indication of a secondary


field.
With inductive CSEM, there has been no systematic and objective
comparison of the wide range of transmitting and receiving coil pairs which
may be used in exploration for various targets. The reasons for this are the
size of the task and the lack of availability of all of the computational
methods required to make such a comparison.
For deep crustal exploration the selection of systems becomes considerably
simplified-for example, compared to the options for mining exploration.
To start with, the source is most likely either a grounded bipole or a square
coil. Once one has gone to the considerable logistical trouble of laying out
the source, it makes the most sense to collect all three orthogonal components
of magnetic field and the two horizontal orthogonal components of electric
field. However, costs, logistics, and objectives may dictate otherwise. A large
single loop, serving first as transmitter and then as receiver, has not been used
for deep crustal studies, as noted earlier. An objective comparative analysis
of the advantages and limitations of each of these sources, and of MT/AMT
in various one-, two-, and three-dimensional terrains, is a highly desirable
objective for future analysis.
6.3.3. Time and Frequency bands. For mining exploration, the typical
frequency band used is 100-3000 Hz, but this is extended in some systems to
5-50,000Hz. In the time domain, samples of the induced transient are
typically made over the range 0.5-50 ms, but in some systems this is extended
to 0.1-100 ms. These time and frequency bands are also used in coal and
sedimentary basin exploration. For geothermal exploration, where greater
depth of exploration is desired, frequencies as low as 0.1 Hz have been used
(Goldstein et al., 1982). In deep crustal exploration, frequencies as low as
0.05 Hz have been used (Connerney et al., 1980) in purely inductive systems.
6.3.4.Electronic Equipment. The receiver and transmitter described for
use with the resistivity and induced-polarization methods (Tables I1 and 111)
would serve for electromagnetic systems operating over the frequency range
to 2000 Hz.
A commercially available time-domain electromagnetic system of modern
design, the Geonics EM-37, has the following characteristics. The trans-
mitting loop varies in dimensions from 40 x 70x11 to a maximum of
300 x 600 m. The current pulses have a repetition rate of 3 or 30 Hz and a
maximum amplitude of 20 A. The transient is sampled at 20 time channels.
Successive operation at 30 and 3 Hz effectively allows readings at 30 time
channels from 80 ps to 80 ms. The output from each channel can be read from
a digital LED display or can be recorded digitally with the addition of an
extra box. The transmitter can be synchronized to the receiver via dual-
precision crystal clocks, hardwire, or radio link (Nabighian, 1982).
358 STANLEY H. WARD

6.4. Data Processing


Modern digital receivers sample the waveform at discrete times and store
the samples as numbers in the computer memory. Notch filtering at 60 and
180 Hz reduces noise due to power lines. Stacking of signals in the time
domain and correlation detection in the frequency domain are routinely used.

6.5. Interpretation
6.5.1. One-DimensionalEarth Models. The review article by Hohmann
(1982) covers the state-of-the-art numerical methods used in the interpreta-
tion of electromagnetic data. The half-space and horizontally layered earth

r
are one-dimensional models. The frequency-domain response of a vertical
magnetic dipole of moment m over a layered earth is given by

H,(P, X) = - R(1, P, X)Jo(1r)A2 d1 (230)


41c 0

and

Hr(P, X) = -
Im
471 0
R(1, P, X)Jl(1r)A2 d1 (231)

where Jo(1r) and Jl(1r) are Bessel functions of the first kind of orders 0 and
1 , respectively, 1 is the Hankel transform variable, and R(1, P, X) is the
kernel of the integral and is a function of the model parameters. The
unknown model parameters are the components of the n-dimensional vector
P, and hence are the layer conductivities aj(i = 1 to n) and the layer thick-
nesses hi(i = 1 to n - 1). Therefore, there are m components of P,where
m = 2n - 1. The system parameters forming the vector X are the source-
receiver separation rand the angular frequency of the transmitter o.Glenn
el a/. (1973) define

R(1, P, X) + 1 = Z d ( Z 1 + 2,) (232)


where

2, = z,
22 + 21tanh(iklh1)
(233)
21+ 22 tanh(ik1h)
that is, the plane wave impedance at the top of an n-layered structure as given
by Eq. (125).
The time-domain response of a layered earth is obtained by taking the
inverse Laplace transform of Eq. (230) or (231).
Forward application of equations such as (230) and (23 1) is rapidly being
replaced by inverse solutions in whichR(A, P,X) is estimated by least-squares
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 359

1 . I ~ . . . I ..-

OBSERVATION
- 3 LAYER
0
- MODEL - 25

-
-
- -
+-5-
-lo*
- .
I * I ...... I . ...-
10 10 lo3 lo4 lo5
F R E OUE NCY Hr -

R E S I S T I V I T Y Qm
3

(b)
FIG.54. (a) Horizontal magnetic dipole sounding for a receiver 30.5 m south of transmitter
(after Ward et a/., 1976); (b) deduced vertical resistivity profile.
360 STANLEY H. WARD

inversion methods. Pertinent references include Glenn et al. (1973), Ward et


al. (1974, 1976), Glenn and Ward (1976), La Brecque (1984), and Fullagar
and Oldenburg (1984).
Figure 54a, from Ward et al. (1976), shows ellipticity and tilt angle
observations relative to a horizontal magnetic dipole 30.5 m distant from the
receiver. The solid line is an inversion computed for a three-layered earth.
The model is shown in Fig. 54b.
6.5.2.Two-dimensional Earth Models. Hohmann (1982), in his review
of numerical models applied to electrical methods, gives a number of useful
references, including Coggon (1971), Hohmann (197 l), Jones and Price
(1971), Parry and Ward (1971), Swift (1971), Stoyer and Greenfield (1976),
Lee (1978), Brewitt-Taylor and Weaver (1 979), and Lee and Morrison (1 980).
Plane-wave and line-source excitation of a two-dimensional earth is readily
treated. However, tested and reliable algorithms for a 2-D body in the
presence of a 3-D source are currently questionable. No inverse techniques
have been attempted. Figure 55 shows a comparison of finite-element
computations by Coggon (1971) and integral-equation computations for the
vertical magnetic field over a 2-D conductor excited by a line source. The

140

I50

160
- HOHMANN
o COGGON

-1-170

FIG.55. Integral-equation(solid lines) and finite-element (circles) computations of amplitude


and phase of normalized vertical magnetic field over a 3-D body near a line source. (After
Coggon, 1971), and Hohmann, 1971.)
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 361

agreement is excellent, confirming the validity of both solutions. Checks such


as these are essential when using numerical methods.
6.5.3.Three-Dimensional Earth Models. Once again I refer to
Hohmanns (1982) review article, which cites articles by Lines and Jones
(1973), Hohmann (1975), Wiedelt (1975), Lajoie and West (1976), Lee et al.
(1981), Pridmore et al. (1981), and Tripp (1982). More recently W. A.
SanFilipo (personal communication) seems to have found at least two
approaches to solving this class of problems.

6.6. Problems with Inductive CSEM Methods


6.6.1. Natural Field Noise. Figure 17 illustrates a typical natural
magnetic field spectrum. Its field strength characteristics are a low near 3 Hz,
a rapid increase with decrease in frequency below 3 Hz, an interim peak just
below 100Hz,and a trough near 2000Hz followed by a rise at higher
frequencies. Shallow CSEM for mining, geothermal, and sedimentary basin
studies utilizes the frequency range from 1 to lo5 Hz.
As noted earlier, in the range 1to lo5 Hz natural field noise arises in atmos-
pheric discharges, especially those associated with lightning, The major
worldwide centers of lightning storms are in Indonesia, Central America and
northern South America, and north-central Africa. These thunderstorm
centers shift north in northern hemisphere summer and south in southern
hemisphere summer. The energy from these major lightning discharge
centers propagates in a waveguide bounded by the ionosphere and the earths
surface. At any point on the earths surface the measured noise includes this
waveguide-propagated energy plus atmospheric discharges from nearby
sources. The resulting spectrum of noise exhibits a wide dynamic range and
a very transient type of individual peak. Schemes to deal with such a difficult
noise source include truncation of the highest peaks by limiters and data
point removal in digital systems designed to accept data points only within
a prescribed range of amplitudes. Narrowband CSEM systems effect signal-
to-noise enhancement and are used as frequency-domain systems. Broad-
band CSEM systems can only use stacking and data point removal.
6.6.2. Cultural Noise. As Table VII indicates, cultural developments
create active and passive noise. Circuits completed through fences, pipelines,
power lines, telephone lines, rails, and other conductive cultural structures
produce anomalies largely unrelated to subsurface geology. These sources of
noise can, in rare instances, be reduced by removing the offending structure
but, by and large, they can be avoided only by placing transmitters and
receivers well away from them. This is not always possible in areas of
concentrated industrialization, and hence important geological problems
simply cannot be attacked in such areas.
362 STANLEY H. WARD

Some of these cultural developments also serve as sources for narrow- or


broadband electric and magnetic field noise, especially power lines, tele-
phone lines, and electrified rails, as Table VII indicates. The problem is
compounded by the fact that these active sources of cultural noise induce
eddy currents in the passive cultural noise sources such as fences and pipe-
lines. Notch filters centered at 60Hz (50Hz) and 180Hz (150Hz) are
characteristically used in CSEM systems to eliminate power line noise.
6.6.3.Geological Noise due to Overburden. Overburden can be
described variously as unconsolidated sediments, weathered rock, or both.
It may be resistive or conductive. Weathered rock is invariably conductive
because the geological process of weathering leads to (a) increased porosity,
(b) increased presence of clay minerals with their surficial electrical con-
ductions, and (c) increased concentrations of ions in the pore waters of the
weathered rocks. In dry climatic environments, evaporation strongly
increases the concentration of ions in the pore waters, on the average.
Dilution of these ions takes place during the rainy season in dry or wet
environments. A worldwide study of these factors indicates that the shallow
resistivity profile is closely related to local climatology, glaciation, and
tectonic style. The depth of overburden related to weathering seldom exceeds
100 m but can easily reach 2 km for valley fill in the Great Basin of the United
States.
Sedimentary rocks in such areas as the Gulf Coast oil-producing region of
Texas and Louisiana commonly exhibit resistivities as low as 1-10 h2-m due
to interstitial brines (Pirson, 1963). This also is true of some geothermal areas
such as the Imperial Valley in California (Meidav and Furgerson, 1972) and
of deep valley fill containing evaporites in Nevada and Utah (Ward and Sill,
1976). Values as low as 0.1 0-m have been recorded in some of these areas.
In a broader context than has been used here so far, these conductive
sediments also can be treated as overburden if one is attempting to study the
electrical properties of the deep crust. If a surficial conductive horizon, i.e.,
overburden of any sort, overlies a substratum to be studied with CSEM, the
percentage of current entering the substratum becomes of utmost impor-
tance. Figure 56 illustrates the fraction of current f(a) confined to the
overburden as a function of Q = 2Sp/L, where S is the conductivity-
thickness product of the overburden, p the resistivity of the basement, and
L the distance between the current electrodes (Edwards and Howell, 1976).
To ensure that, say, 80% of the current persists below the overburden, a! must
be about 0.3. If the overburden is 1 km thick with resistivity 10 h2-m and the
resistivity of the bedrock is lo3h2-mynot unreasonable numbers in areas of
thick conductive overburden, then the distance between current electrodes
must be lo00 km to ensure that 80% of the current flows in the bedrock. This
is an incredible requirement which clearly demonstrates the difficulty of
16. ELECTRICALMETHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 363

0.03 0.I
I
0.3
I
1.0
L
3.0
I
10.0
I
30.0 +
a
FIG.56. Fraction of currentf(a) confined to the overburden as a function of a. (See text.)
(After Edwards and Howell, 1976.)

electrically detecting geological structure beneath conductive overburden


with bipolar electric sources. The analysis has been made for dc and may not
apply strictly for ac.
When horizontal coil sources are used, induction in the overburden is
strictly controlled by 61 , the induction number of the overburden. This
induction number can be decreased by lowering the angular frequency. For
example, given an overburden 1 km thick with 10 Q-m resistivity excited by
an inductive coil source with measurements made at 3 x 10-*Hz at a
distance of 10 km from the source, the value of 61is 0.2, well below values
resulting in significant overburden response (Wait, 1955). For MT the
situation is probably better because the skin depth for the same earth model
given by
6=5 0 3 m (234)
is 15 km, implying that the l-km-thick overburden of resistivity 10 0-m is vir-
tually transparent to plane electromagnetic waves of frequency 3 x Hz.
From the discussion above it might be concluded that the order of
preference for sources to be used in regions of high surficial conductivity is
(a) plane waves, (b) inductive coils, and (c) grounded bipoles. This is, of
course, only a partial analysis of the problem, but it does show the nature
of the difficulties of probing the crust in regions of thick conductive over-
burden or sediments. Geometric decay of fields from the three source types
and attenuation of electromagnetic waves from each source type are other
factors to consider (Hohmann and Ward, 1981).
6.6.4. Resolution and the Effect of Geological Noise. To facilitate
vertical resolution, i.e. , resolution of the resistivities and thicknesses of
364 STANLEY H. WARD

horizontally layered media, an inductive electromagnetic system would have


to sample at three or four frequencies per decade. At least four decades of
spectrum are required if one wishes to explore both shallow and deep layers.
If lateral inhomogeneities are superimposed on the layering, there must also
be an adequate spatial density of receiving stations over a distance sufficiently
large to permit delineation of all inhomogeneities of interest. A broad
spectrum is necessary if the Bj of the inhomogeneities cannot be predicted in
advance. Data are then best plotted as contours of field quantities in
frequency-distance space. This will be illustrated in the discussion of the
CSAMT method below.
Roving two-loop sources, described below, provide the best lateral reso-
lution. However, for deep crustal electromagnetic exploration it is necessary
to use a fixed transmitter, either a loop or a grounded bipole, so it is also
necessary to accept the lateral resolution achievable with these sources.
It is well known (Madden, 1971) that inductive techniques, passive or
active, usually provide information on conductivity-thickness products of
conductive layers, whereas they usually provide only thickness information
on resistive layers. In contrast, resistivity techniques usually provide
information on resistivity-thickness products for resistive layers and
conductivity-thickness products for conductive layers. Vertical resolution of
resistive and conductive layers is well illustrated via inversion (see, e.g.,
Fullagar and Oldenburg, 1984). Joint inversion of inductive and resistive
data sets can markedly improve the resolution (Petrick et al., 1977).
6.6.5. Topography. Three effects of topography on measurements
made with an inductive electromagnetic method are elevation errors, align-
ment errors, and current channeling in ridges. Variations in elevation of the
receiver relative to the transmitter will produce elevation errors in electric or
magnetic fields along a traverse, relative to the fields that would be observed
over a flat surface. These can be severe for short separations between trans-
mitter and receiver, which might occur in shallow geothermal exploration.
If topographic relief is large, one seeks to ensure that a square coil or bipole
source is horizontal and that measurements are made of horizontal and
vertical magnetic and horizontal electric fields. Alternatively, the plane of the
transmitting coil must contain the axis or the plane of the receiving coil, and
orthogonal magnetic field components are measured relative to this axis or
plane. If either of these alternatives is ignored, alignment errors will result.
If, for example, a transmitter is located below and adjacent to a ridge,
induced currents will occur in the ridge at the higher frequencies and will
contribute a source of noise which may obscure subsurface features.
6.6.6. Current Channeling. Current channeling was discussed pre-
viously for MTIAMT. It is most pronounced for MT where plane waves
are involved. It becomes of increasing importance at lower frequencies
16. ELECTRICAL METHODS IN GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 365

X. Relative Importance of Current Channeling


TAEZE
in Various Electromagnetic Methods"

Most MT
AMT
AFMAG
VLF
CSAMT
UTEM (Univ. Toronto)
TURAM
EMP (Newmont)
GEOPROBE
Vertcal Rotaining Loop
PEM (Crone)
MAX MIN I1
Shootback
Least SIROTEM

Detecting contact follows the same order.

(Wannamaker et a)., 1982). It diminishes as the size of the transmitting


source decreases. If the receiver is restricted to regions close to the trans-
mitter, the Oi referred to earlier may be so small that the system may not
observe the current channeling. For a one-, two-, or three-dimensional
source, current channeling may occur along one or all axes of the body,
depending on the direction of propagation of the plane wavelets associated
with the source. Finally currents can be channeled from regions exceptionally
remote from the body, especially for plane wave excitation.
Table X shows an ordering of passive and active electromagnetic systems
according to their intiation of current channeling. The order is subjective,
but probably correct in principle. Current channeling will lead to enhanced
detection of three-dimensional inhomogeneities in some circumstances.
However, unless it is taken into account, estimation of the parameters of a
three-dimensional body may be grossly in error (see, e.g., Ward et al., 1974).
6.6.7. Depth of Exploration. Aruleof thumb used by most geophysicists
is that the depth of exploration is 0.3 to 1.0 times the separation between
transmitting and receiving coils. Depth of exploration is controlled mostly
by target response, geological noise, and separation between transmitter and
receiver (Hohmann and Ward, 1981).

Acknowledgments
I am grateful to my colleagues G. W. Hohmann, W. R. Sill, and P. E. Wannamaker for
collaborating on several reports and manuscripts from which I have drawn most of the material
for this chapter. Joan Pingree typed the manuscript and Doris Cullen and Sandra Bromley
supervised preparation of the illustrations. I am grateful to the Earth Science Laboratory of the
University of Utah Research Institute for funding the typing and drafting.
366 STANLEY H. WARD

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