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THE SETRUKTURE OF MIKROBES

Beforey ou can consider the many applcation of microbalial biotechnology,


you must be able to distingisah microorganisme from plant and ainmal cells racall
from chapter 2 that calls can be broadly classified based on the pressence { eukaryotes
} or absence { prokaryotes } of the nucleus that contains a call,s DNA therefore, cells
classified as eucaryotic include plant and animal cells, fungsi such as yeast, algae,
and single- celed organisms caled protozoans, wicah include amoebas like those you
may hev setudied in high school biolog. Unlike eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic cells
lauk most membrane bound organelles. such as a nucleus. Prokaryotes include the
domains {domains are taxonamice categori abave the kingdom level for excampel:
archaea, Bacteria, and Eukaya} bacteria and Archaea, organisms thet share
properties df both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. The clluler seteructure of
microorganisms is important in determining both where they will thrive and how teey
can be used in biotechnology. For exampel, many archae live in bot environments
such as very salty conditions or hot environmentes, and as a result they have very
unique metabolic properties. Moreover, structural features of bacteria in particular
make them exellent microorganisms to use for biotechnology researh.

Bacterial cells are much smaller {1-5 um 1 um= 0.001 millimeters} than eukaryotic
cells {10-100 um} and have a much simpler seteructure. Refer 10 figure 2.1 for a diagram fo
prokaryotic cell structure. Bacterial cells also exhibit the following structural feartures:

DNA is not contained within a nucleus and typi cally consists of a single
circular chromosome thet lacks histone proteins.
Bacteria may contain plasmid DNA
Bacteria lack membrane-bound organeles.
The cell well that surrounds the cell {plasma} membrane is structurally
different from the plant and protein substance called peptidogly can, the cell
wall forms a rigid outer barrier thet protects the cell and detrmines their shape.
In Archaea, this structue does not contain peptidoglycans.
Some bacteria contain an outer layer of carboydrates thet form a structure
called the capsule

Most bacteria are classified by the Gram stain, a technique in which dyes are used to
stain the cll well f bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria stain pupler and have cfll well
structures rich in peptidoglycan, whereas gram-negative bacteria stain pink and have
complex cell structures with less peptidoglycan. Bacteria do not form multicelluler
tissues like animal and plant cells. Althougah some bacteria can associate with each
other to form chains or filamenis of many connected cells.

Bacteria vary in their size and shape. The most common shapes include spherical cells
called cocci {singuler, coccus}, rod-shaped cells called bacilli {singuler, bacillus},
and corkscrew-shaped spiral bacteria {figure 5.1}, As you study microbes, you will
learn thet the name of bacteria frequently provides you with a tip about the shapeof
those cells. For instsnce, staphylococci are spherical bacteria thet live on the surface
of our skin. Bacillus anthracis is a rod-shaped bacterium thet causes the illness
anthrexthe single circular chromosome thet comprises the genome of most bacteriais
relatively small. Bacterial chromosomes average in the range of 2 million to 4 million
base pairs in size compared with 200 million base pairs for a typical human
chromosomal. As you learned in chapter 3, some bacteria also contain plasmids in
addition to their chromosomal DNA. Plasmid DNA often contains genes for antibiotic
resistance and genes encoding prteins thet form connecting tubes called pili {see
figure 2.1}, which allow bacteria to exchange DNA between cells. Plasmid DNA is an
essential tool for molecular biologists because it can be used to carry and replicate
pieces of DNA in recmbinant DNA experiments.

Bacteria grow and divide rapidly. Under ideal growuth conditions, many bacterial
cells divide every 20 minutes or so, whereas eukaryotic cells often grow for 24 hours
or much longer before they divide. Therefore, under favorable grouth condition in the
laboratory, a small population of bacteria can divide rapidly to produce millions of
identieal cells. Because bacteria are so small, millions of cells can easily be groun on
small dishes of agar or in liquid culture media. When grown on culture plates, each
bacterial cell typically divides to form circular-shaped colonies thet contain thousands
or millions of cell {figure 5.2a} for many applications in biotechnology, bacteria are
often grown in fermenters thet can hold several hundred or thousand liters of liquid
culture media {figure 5.2b}.

It is also relatively easy to make mutant strains of bacteria thet can be used for
molecular and genetic studies. Mutants cen be created by exposing bacteria to x- rays,
ultravioletlight, and a variety of chemicals thet mutate DNA {mutagens} literally
thousands of mutant strains are available. For these reasons and many more, bacteria
are not only the favorite organisms of many microbiolgists but also ideal model
organisms for studies in molecular biology, genetics, biochemistry, and
biotechnology.

Yeast Are Important Microbes Too

Although the primart focus of this chapter is the pplication of bacteria in


biotechnology, yeast have seved many important roles in biotechnology.in fact,
archnologists have unovered recipes on ancient Babylonian tablets from 4300 B.C for
brewing beer using yeast, which is one of the aldest documented application of
biotechnology. Much more recently, yeast-producing recobinant human antibodies
have been generated. Yeast are single-celled eukaryotic microbes thet belong to a
kingdom of organisms called fungsi. Thre are well over 1.5 milionspecies pf fungsi,
yet only oround 10% of these have been identified and classifed so there is significan
potential for identifying more valuable products from fungsi. For instance, fungsi are
important sources of antibiotics and drugs that lower blood cholesterol. In addition to
having many structures that are similar to other eukaryotic cellssuch as plant and
animal cells, yeast also contain a number of membrance-enclosed organelles in the
cytoplasm,a cytoskeleton, and chromosome structure similar to human chromosomes.
Yeast cells also have larger genomes then most bacteris.morevore, mechanismsof
gene experession in yeast resemble those in human cells these features make yeast a
very valuable model organism for studyling chromosome structure, gene regulation,
cell division, and cell cycle control.

The different types of yeast very greatlyin size, but a majority are larger then bacteria
and spherical, elliptical in shape. Many can grow in the presence of oxygen {aerobic
candition} or in the absence of oxygen {anaerobic condition}

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