Journal of Studies in

Guest Editorial International Education

Volume 13 Number 2
Summer 2009 117-124
2009 Nuffic
The Past, Present, and Future of 10.1177/1028315308331095
http://jsie.sagepub.com
Internationalization in Japan hosted at
http://online.sagepub.com
Akira Ninomiya
Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
Jane Knight
University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Aya Watanabe
Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan

The purpose of this special volume containing five articles dedicated to the
internationalization of higher education in Japan is to provide information, analysis, and
insight on the current goals, rationales, policies, and challenges facing internationalizations
role as way to increase research excellence, profile, and competitiveness within Asia and
the world beyond. Collectively, they paint a picture of a country that is supporting the
higher education sector to be a key actor in helping Japan become the Asian Gateway
to the rest of the world. To understand the nature of internationalization of higher
education in Japan, it is important to review the changes in the international dimension of
higher education during the past decades. Given the pivotal role that foreign students have
played in the history of Japans international academic relations, this topic is at the centre
of a review of what could be called the three primary phases of internationalization
from 1950 to the present day.

Keywords: internationalization; foreign students; global competitiveness; world

rankings; study abroad; Japan; government policy; professoriate; academic
leadership; development assistance

I nternationalization of higher education is a pervasive force, shaping and challeng-

ing the higher education sector. Countries all over the world are embracing the
importance of the international dimension of higher education and developing poli-
cies and priorities in response to the new demands and opportunities stimulated by
globalization (Knight, 2008). Japan is no exception. Well-known for its successful
and ambitious plan in the 1980s to recruit 100,000 foreign students (Gaikokujin
Ryugakusei), Japan has continued to evolve its approach to internationalization over
the past 20 years. The recruitment of foreign students continues to be central to its
national strategy, dramatically illustrated by the Prime Ministers 2007 announcement
that Japan will attract another 300,000 high-quality students by 2020. This ambitious

Authors Note: Please address correspondence to Jane Knight, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education,
University of Toronto, Canada; e-mail: jane.knight@utoronto.ca.

117
118 Journal of Studies in International Education

target will most certainly stimulate further policy, strategy, and attitudinal changes
by Japanese universities as well as other policy sectors.
The purpose of this special volume dedicated to Japan is to provide information,
analysis, and insight on the current goals, rationales, policies, and challenges facing
internationalizations role as way to increase its research excellence, profile, and
competitiveness within Asia and the world beyond. Collectively, the five articles paint
a fascinating picture of a country that is supporting the higher education sector to be
a key actor in helping Japan become the Asian Gateway to the rest of the world.
To promote sustainable development within the global knowledge-based society,
the Japanese government is urging the nations higher education institutions to inter-
nationalize. Although a select number of Japanese universities are highly regarded
in world rankings of universities, many Japanese observers argue that the majority
of their higher education institutions are not sufficiently internationalized compared
with those of other industrialized countries. The first article, Japanese University
Leaders Perceptions of Internationalization: The Role of Government in Review
and Support by A. Yonezawa, H. Akiba, and D. Hirouchi focuses on the interna-
tional character and capacity of Japanese universities. The analysis is based on an
82.5% response rate to a survey sent to all higher education institutions in Japan. The
results of the study illustrate that the internationalization motivations, dynamics, and
structures at the institutional level are highly diverse and require well-considered
government policy initiatives to further guide and foster the process. The context and
possible roles of government and higher education are explored with respect to help-
ing universities become more accessible and attractive to highly talented human
resources from Asia and around the world and substantially contributing to the open-
ing up of Japanese society to the global economy.
Faculty are critical to the internationalization process, but are they committed and
qualified to further the international dimension? The second article, The International-
ization of the Academic Profession in Japan: A Quantitative Perspective by F. Huang
mainly focuses on the internationalization of the Japanese academic profession over the
period 1992 to 2007. The results of national surveys inform the analysis of the changes
in internationalization of Japans higher education shown by the academic profession
over the past 15 years. It raises important questions about the future efforts of Japanese
universities to internationalize their teaching and research work.
The issue of world rankings is at the forefront of many universities agenda, and the
link and use of internationalization to achieve this status is becoming more prevalent.
But, Western models of higher education tend to dominate and bias the ranking sys-
tems. The third article, University Rankings, Global Models, and Emerging Hegemony:
Critical Analysis from Japan by M. Ishikawa focuses on how these dominant models
affect non-Western, non-English language universities, such as those in Japan. Based
on the experiences of one Japanese research university that aspires to become a world
class institution, the struggles and the quest for new identities are examined. The
discussion highlights the fact that the current preoccupation with university rankings
 Ninomiya et al. / Internationalization in Japan 119

and league tables gives rise to de facto global standards and models, against which
traditions of national language, education, research, and human resources are chal-
lenged. Such new modes of objectifying academic excellence alter domestic academic
hierarchies and internal dynamics within universities. The article uses these insights to
look critically at new dimensions of knowledge construction and an emerging hegem-
ony in todays global higher education context.
Recruiting international students to Japan has traditionally been seen as the prime
internationalization strategy, but study abroad for Japanese students is now being
seen as an effective way to enhance their international experience and cross-cultural
understanding, and thus contribute to the internationalization of Japanese universi-
ties. The fourth article, The Contribution of Study Abroad Programs to Japanese
Internationalization by T. Asaoka and J. Yano examines results of a major study that
analyzed the attitudes of Japanese students about study abroad, the characteristics of
those who go abroad for a short-term study experience, the factors that help or hinder
them to pursue this experience, and finally what improvements can be made by uni-
versity staff to promote and support study abroad.
The fifth article, The Challenges of Increasing Capacity and Diversity in Japanese
Higher Education Through Proactive Recruitment Strategies by A. Kuwamura looks
at the new plan to recruit 300,000 international students and the implications for uni-
versities who are currently experiencing a sharply shrinking pool of high school
graduates. This has placed Japanese institutions of higher education under further
pressure to both sustain their student enrolments in the already competitive global
higher education market over the coming decade while at the same time increase their
capacity and diversify the campus population and program offerings to attract foreign
students. Will the new plan help to boost enrolments and save the universities or will
they cause even more challenges? The article examines some key issues revolving
around such challenges and stresses the importance of internationalizing both the
institution and individual.
The future cannot be planned, nor can the present be understood, without reference to
the past. This is true for understanding the nature of internationalization of higher educa-
tion in Japan. It is important to review the changes in the international dimension of higher
education during the past decades to fully appreciate the significance of the current and
what can be called the third phase of internationalization policies and initiatives. Given
the pivotal role that foreign students have played in the history of Japans international
academic relations, this topic is at the centre of a review of what could be called the three
primary phases of internationalization from 1950 to present day.
The first stage of international academic relations in Japan was characterized by
a lack of any national policy for foreign students, because Japan from 1945 to 1951
was under the occupation of the United States. Instead of inviting foreign students
to Japan, the priority was to send Japanese to the United States through Scholarship
Programs such as Garioa-Eloi (1947-1951) and Fulbright (1946-present). The objec-
tives for those students who went abroad was to learn about democracy, contribute
120 Journal of Studies in International Education

toward reconstruction of Japan on return, and further mutual understanding with

other countries.
Following this period of relative isolation, the postwar Japanese Government set
up in 1954 the Japanese Government Scholarship Program for Foreign Students. The
purpose of these scholarships was to encourage international cultural exchange, to
promote mutual friendship, and to contribute toward the human resource development
in other countries (Japanese National Commission for UNESCO, 1953a, 1953b;
Ministry of Education, 1954). The foreign student policy of this period was strategi-
cally used to promote a better understanding of Japan and to wipe out the image of
prewar militaristic Japan who had invaded Asian countries. It was the same year that
Japans overseas development assistance (ODA) work was started. Both actions indi-
cated Japans return to looking internationally again.
The challenges facing foreign students studying in Japan during this period were
many and diverse. They had to adjust to all classes taught in Japanese, national
entrance exams, teaching methods, and even local housing conditions. Acceptance
by the local community was an issue as they were not familiar with foreign students
behavior and cultural practices and thus tensions began to germinate.
The second stage, from the 1980s to 2000 saw a major change of policy and an
ambitious plan unveiled by the Prime Minister in 1983 to recruit 100,000 foreign
university students to enroll in Japans institutions of higher education. According to
the Ministry of Education, Culture, and Sports, the main aim of foreign student
policies at this time was to contribute to the improvement of the education and
research, to promote mutual understanding and international cooperation with other
countries, and to facilitate human resource development in developing countries
(Committee for International Student Policies Toward the 21st Century, 1983)
At this stage, overseas development assistance of Japan was significantly
expanded through the establishment of the Japan International Cooperation Agency
(JICA). The foreign student policy became more Asia and developing country cen-
tered, although the highly specialized Japanologist students still came from Europe
and America. Two important developments took place during this period. The first is
that ODA took the privately funded (not government sponsored) foreign student into
consideration and secondly, a new policy was introduced to encourage short-term
and nondegree student exchanges with developed countries, especially designed to
overcome an imbalance between the number of Japanese students in the United
States (more than 40,000) and the number of American students in Japan (about
1,000). To this end, short-term courses of 1 year were offered in English. This pro-
gram was modeled the on Junior Year Study Abroad Programs and was offered by
national universities in Japan. This foreshadowed future demands for more liberal
student mobility policies to respond to the demand from European students and later
Australian students.
During this period, the massification of the higher education in Asia was matched
with an increase in their numbers studying in Japanprimarily privately funded
 Ninomiya et al. / Internationalization in Japan 121

undergraduate foreign students. This included foreign students studying at special

colleges to learn Japanese in preparation for the university entrance examinations.
Although these types of language students (Shugakusei) were not officially counted
as foreign students, they eventually increased the number of foreign students through
enrolment in universities.
But the increase in foreign students was not without its problems. Criticisms of
antisocial behavior by foreign students appeared and allegations were made that for-
eign students were using study as a camouflage for gaining employment in Japan.
Signs of No More Foreign Students began to appear not only on the campuses but
also in the communities (Ninomiya, 1988).
In spite of these problems, the prospect of increasing the number of foreign stu-
dents in Japan became very attractive to Japanese universities. However, there was
stiff competition from Europe and the United States who were equally interested in
recruiting Asian students. Therefore, the government developed new measures to
reduce the barriers of studying in Japan. Special attention was given to the accom-
modation and financial problems related to the high costs of studying and living in
Japan. International student support centers were also created in universities where
there were increasing numbers of foreign students.
Language issues have traditionally presented challenges to foreign students;
therefore in the early 1980s, the government encouraged national universities to
establish graduate-level programs and courses taught in English. The ability to sub-
mit an academic dissertation in English and to receive the examination in English
was also approved. These measures were particularly successful in attracting more
foreign PhD students to Japan.
Perhaps, the most fundamental and far-reaching change during this period was that
the international role of universities, especially the contribution of foreign students,
began to receive the recognition and importance it deserved. (Committee for
International Student Policies, 1999) A better understanding and greater appreciation
of ODA evolved and university mission statements began to recognize the value and
contribution of internationalization to their research, teaching, and service work.
However, not everyone was supportive as there were many Japanese professors who
were not in favor of more foreign students because of the excess work they caused and
the lack of adequate support by the university (Ebuchi, 1989; Ninomiya, 2003).
With the advent of globalization, the competitiveness of Japanese universities
became a critical agenda item. The need to accept excellent foreign students especially
in the fields of science and engineering was recognized and recruiting bright foreign
students as part of the research strategy of the university became an important pillar of
Japans approach to internationalization. This marked a major change in the thinking
and policy regarding the role of foreign students. No longer were foreign students
thought about in ODA terms, they were now an important strategy to increase global
competitiveness.
In the third stage of internationalization, 2000 to the present, the quality not
only quantityof foreign students became the focal point of policy (Central Council
122 Journal of Studies in International Education

for Education, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology

[MEXT], 2003). A review of the criteria and method of selecting foreign students of
the Japanese government Scholarship Programs was undertaken to ensure that the
process was more rigorous, transparent, competitive, and fair. At the university level,
the selection procedures of international students were also revamped to guarantee
that excellent students were recommended for the Japanese Government Scholarship
Program. The government urged universities to introduce stricter management of
foreign students, especially their attendance and achievement. This major policy
shift was designed to promote excellence above all, signaling a new strategic
approach to increase Japans global competitiveness.
The Asian Gateway Initiatives proposal (Council for Asian Gateway Initiatives,
2007) and the Plan of 300,000 Foreign Students (Government of Japan, 2008)
illustrate the key strategies of the third period of internationalization and indicate
another major change in the national internationalization policy. MEXT established
the Special Committee of Foreign Students of the Central Council for Education to
develop an action plan to realize the goal of 300,000 foreign students by 2020. It was
released in July 2008, followed by a budget statement in August 2008. The basic
premise of these proposals is as follows: It is necessary for Japan to have more than
300,000 foreign students if Japan wishes to be Opened Japan and furthermore, it
is the role of Japan to become the Asian Gateway by having at least 5% to 10% of
international student mobility in our international strategy. It remains uncertain how
this plan will unfold as there are mixed reactions among the higher education section
with respect to the objectives and feasibility of the new policy and proposal.
The implications of this policy are many. Although the intention is to significantly
increase numbers, restrictions will have to be imposed by universities on foreign stu-
dents recruitment in order to maintain the high quality of students. The Immigration
Bureau will be more careful in issuing the visa of study abroad in Japan (Immigration
Bureau, 2003, 2005). It is expected that many graduating students will remain in Japan
for a period to work at Japanese universities and companies and contribute to improving
the global competitiveness of Japan. This has massive implications regarding the
acceptance and integration of foreign workers into a traditionally homogenous Japanese
society.
At the same time, the government is putting more emphasis on short-term student
exchange for Japanese students in order for them to experience different cultural
contexts and gain experience in foreign universities. Universities are encouraged to
set up better organizational systems and scholarships to send more students abroad.
Thus, internationalization of Japanese universities moves from a passive stance to a
more proactive and perhaps elitist one. Although the international contribution to other
countries through ODA are still important, there is no question that goal of internation-
alization has undergone a major shift toward recruiting high-quality foreign students who
can contribute to the research agenda of host universities and help increase the overall
competitiveness of Japanese universities in this era of globalization. Japanese universities
 Ninomiya et al. / Internationalization in Japan 123

are increasing the number of international partnerships to pursue twinning and joint/
double degree programs. Furthermore, universities are creating more scholarships and
setting up offices in foreign countries all for the goal of attracting high-quality foreign
students. In short, the business of increasing the share of the international student
market is now a priority for Japan to meet its goal of 300,000 more foreign students in
12 years.
Japan has clearly demonstrated its belief that a university will not attain global
competitiveness and appear at the top of world league tables without an active and
excellent foreign student population and similarly without an excellent Japanese
student cohort who can be active in the world. It is not an exaggeration to say that
the internationalization is a lifeline of the university in Japan in terms of increasing
low enrolments and optimizing its research output and competitiveness.
Japan has seen a remarkable shift from developing country capacity building
through ODA in its first stage of internationalization to status building for global
competitiveness in the third stage. The impact of the 300,000 foreign students plan
and the Asian Gateway proposal is not known. It is a critical time for higher educa-
tion in Japan and this is why a special volume of the Journal for the Studies in
International Education has been dedicated to the current policies and priorities for
internationalization.

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Akira Ninomiya is Executive and Vice-President for Research at Hiroshima University and Professor of
Comparative and International Education. He was the Director of the Center for the Study of International
Cooperation in Education at Hiroshima University. He has cochaired the Special Committee of Foreign
Students of the Central Council for Education in 2007 and 2008.

Jane Knight focuses her research and professional interests on the international dimension of higher
education at the institutional, system, national, and international levels. Her work in more than 60 coun-
tries brings a comparative, developmental, and international perspective to her teaching, policy work, and
research. She is an adjunct professor at Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto,
and a Fulbright New Century Scholar 2007-2008.

Aya Watanabe is an associate professor at the Research Center for Higher Education, Kumamoto
University, Japan. Her main areas of research are the internationalization of higher education, especially,
international exchange among universities and a comparative study of education system and policy
between Finland and Japan.