Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
M. Emin EMIROGLU
Firat University, Faculty of Engineering, Civil Eng. Dept. Elazig, TURKIYE
(Received: 07.05.2007 ; Accepted: 28.07.2008)
1. Introduction
During the early stages of planning and affecting the selection of the type of dam and the
design, the selection of the site and the type of dam types to be constructed on the different
dam should be carefully considered. It is only in foundations were discussed according to
exceptional cases that an experienced engineer experiences.
can say that only one type of dam is suitable for a
given dam site. Except in cases where the 2. Dam Types
selection of type is obvious, it will be found that The dam types known at present are as
preliminary designs will be required for several follows [1]:
types of dams before it can be shown which is the
best solution from the standpoint of direct costs Embankment Dams
and all other factors. It is, therefore, important to Homogeneous earthfill dam
emphasize that the project is likely to be Earthfill with toe drain dam
expensive unless decisions regarding selection of Zoned earthfill dam
the type are based upon adequate study after Earthfill with horizontal drain dam
consultation with competent engineers. Earthfill with vertical and horizontal drains
The selection of the best type of dam for a dam
particular site calls for thorough consideration of the Earth and rockfill, central core dam (CCRD)
characteristics of each type, as related to physical Earth and sand-gravel, central core dam
features of the site and the adaptation to the purposes Earth and rockfill, inclined core dam (ICRD)
the dam is supposed to serve, as well as safety, Concrete face rockfill dam (CFRD)
Bituminous concrete face earth and rockfill
economy, and other pertinent limitations. The final
dam
choice of type of dam is made after consideration of
Steel face rockfill dam
these factors. In this study, factors
Thin membrane face earth and rockfill dam
M. Emin Emiroglu
Concrete Gravity Dams mean settlement problems for core type dams
Lean roller compacted concrete (RCC) dam and it might be better to construct some type of
Medium-paste RCC dam concrete dam (e.g. RCC). One of the primary
High-paste content RCC dam factors in determining the suitability of a site
The faced symmetrical hardfill dam (FSHD) for an arch dam is the width -to-height ratio.
Roller compacted dam (RCD) Ideally, the ratio should be relatively small (4
Conventional concrete gravity dam (CCD) or less) for the use of thin arch dam. The V-
Prestressed dam shaped dam site are, generally, more favorable
to the design of an acceptable arc dam than are
Arch Dams U-shaped dam sites. Although not often a
Thin arch dam controlling factor in the selection of the type of
Conventional concrete arch gravity dam dam, a symmetrical or nearby symmetrical
RCC arch gravity dam dam site is desirable for an arc dam. Another
Cupola (double-curvature arch) dam dam type (e.g. CFRD) may prove to be a more
economical structure if the dam site is
Buttressed Dams extremely asymmetrical.
Flat slab buttress dam Valley Shape.
Round-head buttress dam Gorge.
Diamond head buttress dam Narrow V-shaped.
Decked buttress dam Wide V-shaped.
Multiple arch dam Narrow U-shaped.
Wide U-shaped.
3. Factors Affecting the Selection of the Type Wide valley.
of Dam Quite wide valley.
Valley with irregular cross-sections.
Topography Simplicity of constructing a road to the
dam site.
Topographic considerations include the The existence of deep gorges with
surface configuration of the dam site and of the extremely steep abutment walls and the
reservoir area and accessibility to the and to difficulty of transport of earth material to
construction materials. Topography, in large dam site.
measure, dictates the first choice of the type of The possibility of valley to transport
the dam. A few examples are given below earthfill material in every level.
related to this issue: Changes in valley cross section.
The curve of the river in plan, and changes The condition of the river in plan (curve
or flat).
in valley cross section, may favor adoption of an
Local changes in slope of the abutments.
upstream sloping core rather than central core to
Gradient of abutments of the valley.
reduce the quantities of earthfill. Local changes
Bottom width of the valley.
in slope of the abutments may lead to differential
settlement and cracking, necessitating more
Geotechnical and geological structure of
extensive filter drains, or favoring CFRD
construction. A narrow stream flowing between the dam site
high, rocky walls would naturally suggest a
Foundation conditions depend upon the
concrete overflow dam. The low, rolling plains
geological character and thickness of the strata
field would, with equal fitness, suggest an
which are to carry the weight of the dam, their
earthfill dam with a separate spillway. Earthfill
inclination, permeability, and relation to
dams have been constructed in almost every
underlying strata, existing faults, and fissures. The
conceivable type of topography but are generally
foundation will limit the choice of type to a certain
not used where deep gorges with extremely steep
extent, although such limitations can frequently
abutment walls are present. Broad valleys lead to
be modified, considering the height of
central core dams. Steep canyon walls at the dam
site can
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Influences on Selection of the Type of Dam
the proposed dam. For example, a foundation of consideration in the selection of the type of dam.
competent rock is essential for any arch dam. The In cases where the river section of a wide valley
rock should be sound and durable to provide a provides a competent rock foundation close to the
satisfactory foundation for the life of the structure. surface and the overburden increases towards
Another of example of this issue, if a high dam is either or both abutments, composite dams
being considered, compressive strength of the (concrete dam + embankment dam) can be
foundation is an important selected.
Foundation type.
Rock.
Alluvium.
Gravel.
Silt and fine sand.
Clay.
Non uniform (lithologies).
Condition of the bearing capacity of the foundation of rock.
Very good (>7 MPa)
Good (4 to 7 MPa)
Medium (2 to 4 MPa)
Low (1 to 2 MPa)
Very low (<1 MPa)
Condition of the bearing capacity of the foundation of alluvium.
Good (>600 kPa)
Medium ( 200 kPa to 600 kPa)
Low (<200 kPa)
Condition of the bearing capacity of the foundation of gravel.
Good (>600 kPa)
Medium ( 200 kPa to 600 kPa)
Low (<200 kPa)
Condition of the bearing capacity of the foundation of silt or fine sand.
Good (>300 kPa)
Medium ( 100 kPa to 300 kPa)
Low (<100 kPa)
Condition of the bearing capacity of the foundation of clay.
Very good (300-600 kPa)
Good (150-300 kPa)
Medium (75-150 kPa)
Low (<75 kPa)
Shearing resistance of the foundation materials.
The existence of the wedge or block failures.
Condition of necessity of the foundation grouting.
Very low (0.0 to 12.5 kg/m)
Low (12.5 to 25.0 kg/m)
Moderately low (25 to 50.0 kg/m)
Moderately high (50 to 100 kg/m)
High (100 to 200 kg/m)
Very high (>400 kg/m)
Modulus of elasticity of the rock foundation.
Good (>3.40 GPa)
Medium (2 to 3.40 GPa)
Low (1 to 2 GPa)
Very low (<1 GPa)
Modulus of elasticity of the non-rock foundation.
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M. Emin Emiroglu
The existence of deeply weathered rock at higher levels of the dam site.
Condition of the permeability of the foundation.
Stability of the abutments.
Safety of the abutments of valley.
The presence of instability on the left or right abutment due to large triangular wedge blocks dipping
steeply towards the river.
The existence of joint patterns in an abutment (their orientation, inclination and filled with clay or
silt etc.).
The existence of badly fractured rock in abutments.
Presence of differential deformation of the foundation along the axis of the dam.
Bedrock depth below stream channel.
The possible landslide or rock slide areas at the dam site.
Compressibility of the foundation.
The nominal value of hydraulic gradient, for seepage under a dam varies by at least one order of
magnitude according to type.
The association between the dam height and the alluvium depth.
Depth of the alluvium more than the dam height.
Depth of the alluvium approximately near the dam height.
Depth of alluvium approximately half of the dam height.
Depth of the alluvium much less than half of the dam height.
Condition of the relative density of the sand-gravel foundations.
Very loose (0-15)
Loose (15-35)
Medium dense (35-65)
Dense (65-85)
Very dense (85-100)
Elimination or reduction of transportation and the selection of type of dam is usually based
expense for construction materials, particularly upon economy. A few examples are given below
those which are used in great quantity, will affect related to this issue:
a considerable reduction in the total cost of the An abutment supply of a single material
project. Therefore, sometimes the most points to the use of a homogeneous dam.
economical type of dam is the one for which Sufficient quantities of both previous and
acceptable construction materials exist within a impervious materials lead to the use of zoned
relatively short distance from the site. The whole dams. If the local supply of aggregate is not
question of suitable construction materials and adequate or the distance cement must be
reasonable haul distance is one of economics, transported from the source is long, concrete
gravity dam should not be selected. Instead of the
dam type, CFRD can be selected.
The haul distances and costs of transportation of suitable materials to the dam site.
The availability of suitable earthfill within economic haul distance.
Quantity and quality of available materials.
The uniformity of the available earthfill.
The existence of material in thin bed formal and despoliation very large area of beautiful land or in
adequate thickness.
Groundwater level of the borrow area.
Usability of the excavated material in dam.
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Influences on Selection of the Type of Dam
The quantities and properties of the materials from the required excavation for the spillway,
foundation cutoff trench, outlet works and other appurtenant structures.
Supply of materials.
Cost of the expropriation of the material in the borrow area.
Soils for embankments.
Rock for embankments and riprap.
Sandy clay, clayey sand and gravel-sand-clay soils.
Concrete agregate (sand, gravel, crushed stone).
Cementitious materials
Portland cement
Flyash
Ground fines
Calcined clay
Limestone fines
Ground granulated blast furnace slag
It is often economic to construct a dam in two Safety, of course, is the first consideration. It
or more stages. In water supply, irrigation or is impossible to build with safety some types of
hydropower projects, demand in the early years dams if certain foundations and other
can be met with a lower dam and smaller storage. characteristics of the site exist. Consideration of
If staging is planned, this favors adoption of these factors will often decrease considerably the
CFRD or ICRD. number of possible types from which to choose.
Safety, construction feasibility, adaptability An earth dam must be protected from damage
of type features, cost, and existing conditions, caused by the erosive action of waves beating on
such as climate, geology, availability of materials, the upstream slope. The severity of the wave
and topography, are thoroughly evaluated to assist action and amount of protection needed for the
in making a type choice. However, except in the embankment are related to the length of the
rare cases where site conditions preclude reservoir surface over which the wind velocities
consideration of more than one type, the choice in the locality.
depends to a certain extent on individual
preferences which reflect the judgment and Probable ice action
experience of the designer.
Ice load is usually important only for small
Contracts, standards, and conservative dams. Ice load can be important in circumstances
decisions for every country where ice sheets form to appreciable thicknesses
and persist for lengthy periods. In such situations ice
Conservative designs may be advisable for pressures may generate a considerable horizontal
dams in parts of the world where experienced thrust near crest level. The pressure exerted on the
contractors and supervisory personnel are not dam is complex function of ice thickness, scale and
available. Even in the United States, earth dams rate of temperature rise resulting in expansion, and
constructed by U.S. Bureau of Reclamation just the degree of restraint existing at the perimeter of
after World II, when no dams had been built for a the ice sheet.
long period, were provided with somewhat flatter
slopes than usual, mainly because it was feared Foundation excavation
that the personnel would not have the skill
necessary to produce embankment of high quality. Economic considerations dictate that the
excavation volume should be minimized.
Simplicity of river diversion
Whether the water intakes structures to be
All construction considerations contribute to passed through the dam
the selection of type. Certain features, such as
relative simplicity of diversion, may favor the In some cases, passing through the dam of
selection of a concrete gravity dam. Diversion can water intake structures may be necessary. This
be made over low blocks or through permanent or case may influence the selection of the type of
temporary sluices. Forming is simple. To these dam.
advantages may be added the fact that the dam can Discharge of the river
be designed for overtopping during construction
without serious damage. These factors affect the Narrow valleys, good foundations, and large
construction schedule and thereby the cost. stream flows tend to favor the selection of
concrete dams, whereas wide valleys, poor
foundations, and small stream flows tend to favor
embankment dams.
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Influences on Selection of the Type of Dam
The design flood peak flow; In dry climates where lack of water may
prevent the use of earth core material a diaphragm
Very large (>10 000 m3/s) type rockfill dam can be used. For large rivers,
Large (7 500 to 10 000 m3/s) this item is relatively unimportant except for
Medium (2 000 to 7 500 m3/s) quality of the water. For small streams and
Little (500 to 2 000 m3/s) offstream reservoirs, water for construction
Fairly little (<500 m3/s) purposes may be difficult to obtain.
The reservoir water may include the Appearance does not usually influence the
dissolved chemicals (e.g. acids) that might be selection of the type of dam. After the choice is
harmful for concrete. This case may influence the made, every effort is made to achieve a pleasing
selection of the type of dam. appearance.
The water difference between headwater 4. Typical Cross Sections for Types of Dams
and tailwater to be Constructed on Different Foundations
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M. Emin Emiroglu
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Influences on Selection of the Type of Dam
through the foundation. Therefore, to maintain equilibrium, designers extend the slip surface using
flatter slopes or toe berms. Since there may be considerable settlement of the dam if the clay is
unconsolidated and the moisture content is high, clay foundations ordinarily are not suitable for the
construction of concrete gravity dams, should not be used for CCRD, ICRD, CFRD, bituminous
concrete face earth and rockfill dam, steel face rockfill dam. Clay foundations are acceptable for
consideration of a gravity dam under 15 m in height and with a difference between headwater and
tailwater less than 6 m. Foundations for rockfill dams must be capable of resisting settlement and
deformation.
Sand drains are useful for clay foundations. In addition to this, staged construction of the
embankment with pore pressure monitoring could be adopted. Cross sections belong to dam types to
be constructed on the clay foundations are given in Fig. 3. These cross sections were developed
according to experiences.
Arc dams are suited to narrow gorges, subject to uniform sound rock of high strength and limited
deformability in foundation and abutments. Concrete gravity dams are suited to wide valleys,
provided that excavation depth is less than 5 10 m. Buttress dams are suited as gravity dams, but
higher contact stresses require sound rock. Rockfill dams are constructed on the rock foundations.
Therefore, dam types above mentioned are not suitable for silt or fine sand foundations. However,
this foundation type is acceptable for consideration of a gravity dam under 15 m in height and with a
difference between headwater and tailwater less than 6 m and introducing necessary foundation
treatment. Silt or fine sand foundations are suitable for the construction of earthfill dams. But,
foundation treatment is necessity.
Cross sections belong to dam types to be constructed on the silt or fine sand foundations are
given in Fig. 4.
Non Uniform Foundation
Occasionally, situations may occur where reasonably uniform foundations of any of the
foregoing descriptions cannot be found and where a non uniform foundation of rock and soft material
must be used if the dam is to be built. Such unsatisfactory conditions can often be overcome by special
design features. Each site, however, presents a problem for appropriate treatment by experienced
engineers.
Only one dam or composite dam can be constructed on the non uniform foundations. Composite
dam use the advantages of both the embankment dam and the concrete dam. They generally consist of
concrete gravity (conventional or rcc) or buttress sections in combination with earthfill or rockfill sections.
The concrete dam portion incorporates the ability to pass flood flows over or through the section during
construction and act as the spillway after construction, and the earth or rockfill sections take advantage of
flow cost construction and local materials. Except for the hydraulic considerations mentioned above
topography is the main reason for the selection of a composite dam. The topography for combination dams
is usually associated with plains locations or zone of land where plains and mountains meet, but seldom
with mountains terrain itself. Wide valleys often provide favorable sites for the use of combination dams.
Foundation conditions are the second most important factor in selecting a combination type dam. In cases
where the river section of a wide valley provides a competent rock foundation close to the surface and
overburden increases toward either or both abutments, composite dam can be economical. If a combination
concrete-embankment structure is being considered, the concrete portion must have a foundation of
acceptable quality. Cross sections belong to dam types to be constructed on the non uniform foundations
are given in Fig. 5.