Time scale of radioactive clock

(t1/2) determines its range of application: history (2000 y), archaeology (10 000 y),
anthropology (100000 y), evolution >10 My, geology (100 My), cosmology (10Gy)

Radioactive Parent half-life (y) Stable Daughter

Potassium 40 9 Argon 40
1.310

Rubidium 87 10 Strontium 87
4.810

Thorium 232 10 Lead 208

1.410

Uranium 235 8 Lead 207

7.0410

Uranium 238 9 Lead 206

4.4610

Chlorine 36 5 Argon 36
3.010

Aluminum 26 5 Magnesium 26
7.1610

Carbon 14 5730 Nitrogen 14

Review of the Radioactive Decay Law
decay of a radioactive
t
substance with decay
constant: =ln2/t1/2
N ( t) = N0 e
dN
dt = N

dN
N = dt

N ( t) = N ( t0 ) e t
Comparison of time-scales
history & archaeology

archaeology & anthropology

anthropology,
evolution & geology
Chapter 3-2: Carbon Dating Method
Carbon dating is the most frequently used dating technique it
14
measures the present amount of C in the sample N(t)
14 12
and compares it with the initial R= C/ C ratio value in the
sample N0. This comparison yields the age of the sample t:
t
ln N (t)
1
N (t) = N0 e ln N (t) = =
t t N0
N0
0
1 N 1 N (14C)t =0
with N0 = R N( 12C)
t= ln = ln 14
= N (14C)
N (t) N ( C)t =t
R
N (12C)
 14 Cosmic Ray bombardment
Basis of C-Method
creates free neutrons
nuclear reaction with the
14 14
atmospheric N(n,p) C
produces an average
14 12 -12
ratio of C/ C10
rapid chemical reaction with
O2 (21%) in the atmosphere
14 14
C + 1/2O2 CO + O
14 14
CO + HO CO2 + H
average 6-8 years exchange
rate with biosphere warrants
14
uniform distribution of C
uniform implementation in
biomaterial by photosynthesis
breathing, eating etc.
Carbon Dating -Reminderer
 Cosmic Ray Production
14
The production of C depends on:
cosmic ray flux (sun activity)
earth magnetic field (cosmic ray focusing)
t 14 t
N = P(1 e )
= (n, p) N ( N ) n (1 e )
0

equilibrium between production and decay will be reached
14 12
which is about 40 tons of C. The total abundance of C
12 14 12
has been estimated to about 3.810 tons; the C/ C ratio
14 12 -12
is: R( C/ C)10
 14
C distribution
14
C distributes through
biological and chemical
processes in earth
material. It binds with
Oxygen to form CO2. It
mixes rapidly through
atmosphere as shown
in bomb test and fallout
analysis (e.g. Tschernobyl).
14
C mixes with earth
surface material in cyclic
modes; the cycle time
determines the average
14
abundances of C in
material. Small fraction of
14
0.7 tons C is average amount in atmosphere, fast mixing (10 years cycle time) with
surface water by evaporation processes and rain warrants similar abundance (1 ton)
to be stored in ocean surface water. Deep ocean water is highly enriched (3500 tons)
due to slow 10000 years cycle time. Biological exchange through photosynthesis and
14
exchange is about 5 to 10 years , ca 1.1 tons of C is stored in plants and creatures.
 14
Deviation of C from Standard Value
empirical deviations have been observed
in comparison with other methods tree ring
method & uranium dating. What is the reason?

600

500

400

300

1
C [

200

100

-100
30,000 20,000 10,000
Age [years]

14
10 C translates roughly into 3% age uncertainty
Change in earth magnetic field
14
The variations in C deviation
correlate with the fluctuations
in earth magnetic field. The
earth magnetic field changes
with a 10000 y cycle. Field
fluctuations cause cosmic ray
flux modifications which affect
14
the overall C production rate.
14
The C age deviation can be
fit with a sinusoidal curve with
a period of 9000 y well in
agreement with the earth
magnetic field period.
Fine structure of deviation
14
# of sunspots C concentration in
Georgian wine during
the 40 year period of
rel.
14
C concentration
1908 to 1952 shows
direct correlation with
the solar flare activity
(number of sunspots
shows a 11 year period
cycle). Solar flares
originate large fraction
of cosmic ray flux.
year
Man-made deviations

rapid increase of
14
atmospheric C
production during
nuclear bomb tests
 Modern Times

14 14
C content in pre-1950 wines in C content in vintage
Comparison with atmospheric whiskies in comparison
14 14 14
C. The decline in C is due to with atmospheric C
the increase of fossil fuel burning from atomic bomb tests
by industry and traffic (coal, oil).
 dating a dead rabbit
rabbits are frequent victims of road traffic

Suppose you want to date their

time of death, you would find that
they died 10000 years ago? why?

Rabbits live on grass exposed to the CO2 fumes of car engines

burning fossil fuel. The age of the fossil fuel is about 10 Million
14
years with considerable lower C content than average CO2 in
air. Photosynthetic absorption into the grass with subsequent
feeding and digestion of the local rabbit makes it appear old for
14
the unaware and unobserving C dating analyst.
 14
Methods of C dating
absolute dating techniques carry too large uncertainties, therefore
12
relative dating by comparison to C content in sample material.
14 14
t=
1 C(t = 0) C(t = 0)
ln = 8284 ln
14 14
C(t) C(t)
C
14 C(t = 0)
12

t = 18500 lg
14 12
C C(t)
14 12 -
C/ C abundance at t=0 assumed to be 1.310
12 14
but corrected for C variations in time.
 Reminder Example
1 mole of any kind of A wooden pillar found in a cliff dwelling
material contains 12
weights 10 kg, calculate the C content
23
NA=6.02210 particles
(Avogadros number)
12
1 mole of C has A=12g The piece of wood has a mass of 10 kg.
This translates into a number of 12 C atoms :
N( 12 C) = N A [nuclei / mole] M [g] =
A [g / mole]
= 6.023 10 23 [nuclei / mole] 10 103 [g]
12 [g / mole]
N(12 C) = 5.02 10 26 [nuclei]
 14
How can we count the C content?
Three standard methods are applied:
Liquid Scintillation Spectrometry LSC
Gas Proportional Counting GPC
Accelerator Mass Spectrometry AMS

-
14 C
14 N
14
LSC and GPC refer to direct measurements of the C
activity, by the use of conventional radiation detection
devices (scintillator & proportional counter) to measure
-
the 0.156 MeV low energy radiation. AMS is a method
14
to count the number of C atoms from a small sample.
 Chemical Preparation for LSC
sample must be chemically prepared; low energy particles
will not be able to leave solid body (internal absorption)

Conversion of sample carbon to counting solvent benzene C 6H6.

Mixing with liquid scintillator material. particles are absorbed
and converted into light which is detected with photomultiplier
systems at a typically 10-40% detection efficiency.
 Preparation for GPC
Carbon sample is chemically
converted into a CO 2 gas and mixed
with counting gas of high ionization
properties. The activity is detected with
a Geiger Counter which measures the
electrical signal due to the ionization of
the gas from the ionizing effects of the
low energy radiation.
 Background Problems
Both counting systems, LSC & GPC only count the
number of radioactive events. They cannot identify
the source of the activity. They only can operate
successfully if it is assured that the detected event
14
actually has originated in the C decay. That
requires background suppression techniques. The
main background is originated from the cosmic rays
and natural radioactivity contained in the surrounding
laboratory environment (walls etc). The detectors
therefore must be shielded with lead (or other means)
for reducing the background at low count rates.
 Required sample size

smaller samples lead to unacceptable uncertainties

due to low count rates and large statistical errors!
 Statistical Uncertainty
each measured number has a certain statistical uncertainty

N N
3200 initial abundance 320057 initial abundance

count rate
count rate

decreasing
abundance

time in 1000 years time in 1000 years

Statistical Limitations
N N (1 %)
10000 100
1000 32 (3%)
100 10 (10%)
10 3.2 (32%)

As higher the initial sample

size, as higher the activity count
(for a fixed counting time) as
lower the relative counting error
N / N, as lower the
statistical uncertainty of the
age determination.
Statistical Uncertainty: Example
N0 = 3200

0 t1 2 = 5730 y = 1.21104 y 1
1 N N (t) = 100 10
t= ln
t= 1 3200 = 27 855
N (t) 4
ln
y
1.21 10 110
y 1
t= 1 3200 = 29 513
ln
1.21 104 90 y
y 1

about 1660 years statistical uncertainty at this date;

this corresponds to an overall uncertainty of ~6%
-7% in age determination!
 Probability Distribution
Due to inherent uncertainties
14
in the C dating method, the
results are given in terms of
probability distribution, with
the half-width of the curve
expressing the uncertainty in
age determination. The
overall probability that the
age falls within a specific
time window corresponds to
the area under the curve.
1 means, object has the age
of 4000 50 years with
68% probability; 2
means age
of 4000 100 years with
95% probability; 3 etc.