Tutorial 1

1. Discuss the relation of water structure with any three of its biological importance.

SECTION D QUESTION 9 PART B 2016: Discuss the properties of water and their importance to
organisms (12 marks)

SECTION E QUESTION 12 PART A 2015: Discuss how water molecules maintain the temperature
of the environment (9 marks).

SECTION C QUESTION 7 2011: The unique properties of water make life possible on Earth.
Select 3 properties of water. For each property, (a) identify and define the property and
explain it in terms of physical/chemical nature and (b) give one example and discuss how
the property affects the functioning of living organisms (17 marks).

o Water is a polar molecule made up of one oxygen atom covalently bonded to two
hydrogen atoms.
o Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen.
o This causes the oxygen to have a partially negative charge and hydrogen to have
partially positive charge due to uneven sharing of electron.
o This produces hydrogen bonding between water molecules
o One water molecule can be hydrogen-bonded to 4 other water molecules.

o Hydrogen bonding causes water to exhibit cohesive and adhesive characteristics.

o Cohesion between water molecules and adhesion between water molecule and the
wall of xylems in plants enables water molecules to be transported from the roots to
the shoots against the gravity.

o Hydrogen bonding causes water to have a very high specific heat capacity as a
large amount of heat is required to break the hydrogen bonds.
o Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat needed to be absorbed or released to
increase or decrease the temperature of 1g of a substance by 1C.
o A high specific heat capacity of water enables water to maintain the internal
environment of cells for optimum metabolic activity as a large amount of heat will
cause only a slight increase in temperature.

o Hydrogen bonding also causes water to have a high latent heat of vaporisation as a
large amount of heat is required to break the hydrogen bonds.
o Latent heat of vaporisation is the amount of heat required to convert water to
vapour.
o This enables the regulation of temperature of the human body by means of sweat
without excessive loss of water.
o This is because a small amount of water can release a large amount of heat.

o Ice is less dense than liquid water.

o This is because as water freezes, water molecules become locked in a crystalline
lattice.
o This causes water molecules to be arranged further apart which causes ice to
expand and have a lesser density than water.
o Water has the highest density at 4C.
o As a result, ice floats and during winter, water forms ice sheets at the surface of water
bodies such as lakes and insulates the water below.
o This enables aquatic organisms to survive during winter.

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2. Draw the structure of -glucose and -glucose. Describe how these structures are
related to the two major functions of polysaccharides.

SECTION B QUESTION 5 PART B 2012: With the aid of a suitable diagram, describe the structure
and function of cellulose (5 marks).

SECTION C QUESTION 8 PART B 2011: With the aid of diagrams, differentiate between starch
and cellulose (12 marks).

-GLUCOSE -GLUCOSE
o Polysaccharides functions as energy storage.
o The polysaccharides that functions as energy storage are starch and glycogen.
o Starch serves energy storage in plants.
o It consists of amylose and amylopectin, which are formed from condensation of -
glucose joined at a-1,4-glycosidic bonds.
o Amylose is a linear, unbranched helix.
o Amylopectin is a linear helix, branched at a-1,6-glycosidic bond.
o The a-1,4-glycosidic bonds can be broken by amylase enzyme.

o Glycogen serves as energy storage in animals.

o It is a large a-glucose polymer more branched than amylopectin
o This allows for a fast breakdown of the molecule during respiration.

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o The second function of polysaccharide is as structural support.
o The polysaccharides that functions as structural support are cellulose and chitin.
o Cellulose serves as structural support in plants and is the major component of cell
wall.
o It is a long unbranched chain of -glucose joined at -1,4-glycosidic bond.

o The chains stick together due to hydrogen bonds to form microfibrils.

o Large bundles of microfibrils form macrofibrils.
o Macrofibrils has high tensile strength that give rigidity to plant cells and prevent them
from bursting.
o Chitin forms exoskeleton of arthropods and cell walls of fungi.

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Tutorial 2

1.Explain how a polypeptide chain becomes a functional protein.

SECTION D QUESTION 9 PART A 2015: A protein needs to reach its conformation to be

functional. Describe the structural levels of protein and the important bonds of each level (9
marks).

SECTION B QUESTION 6 PART A 2012: Explain the levels of protein structure and the types of
bond involved (9 marks).

SECTION C QUESTION 7 PART C 2010: Discuss the four levels of protein structure.

o Protein is a chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, formed by condensation

reaction.
o Primary structure of protein is a unique sequence of amino acids arranged in a
polypeptide chain.
o Regular, repeated folding of polypeptide chain due to hydrogen bonding between
N-HO=C forms the secondary structure of protein.
o There are 2 types of secondary structure of protein, a-helix and -pleated sheets.
o Tertiary structure of protein is formed by irregular folding of one polypeptide chain
due to:
o Disulphide bonds
o Ionic bonds
o Hydrogen bonds
o Hydrophobic and Van der Waals forces
o Protein has attained its 3D conformation in this level, which determines its function.
o Quaternary structure of protein is formed by the interaction between more than 1
polypeptide chain in a single protein.

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2. In studying the cell, one of the methods involved is microscopy. Compare between light
and electron microscopes.

LIGHT MICROSCOPE ASPECTS ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

Visible light SOURCE OF ILLUMINATION Beam of Electrons
Dead as electron
Living or dead SPECIMEN
microscope work in vacuum.
Vacuum in order to increase
Air MEDIUM focusing due to the small
nature of electrons.
450 nm (Longer than in 0.004 nm (Shorter than in light
WAVELENGTH
electron microscope) microscope)
MAGNIFICATION
Lower than in electron Higher than in light
(The ratio of objects image
microscope microscope
size to its real size)
RESOLUTION
(A measure of the quality of
200 nm (Lower than in 0.2 nm (Higher than in light
an image by the minimum
electron microscope) microscope)
distance 2 points can be
distinguished as 2 points)
Cheaper COST More expensive
TEM SEM
By electron
By
beam
transmission
scanning a
By refraction of light HOW IMAGE IS FORMED of electron
metal
through
coated
ultrathin
specimen
specimen
surface
Using a
fluorescent
Using a
Using the lens HOW IMAGE IS OBSERVED screen or
computer
photographic
plate

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Tutorial 3

1. What is plasma membrane? Discuss the three models of plasma membrane.

o Plasma membrane is a semipermeable membrane that encloses the cytoplasm and

separates the interior from the external environment.
o The three models of plasma membrane are:

o DANIELLI-DAVSON MODEL
It is made up of phospholipid bilayer.
The polar heads of phospholipid are coated with protein.
It is perforated by pores at regular intervals.
It is a stable, static and rigid structure.

o ROBERTSON
It is made up of phospholipid bilayer as well.
Outer layer is coated with a glycoprotein coat.
There are no pores present.
It possesses a trilaminar structure, which are two dense layers
separated by a lighter layer.

o FLUID MOSAIC MODEL

It is made of phospholipid bilayer.
There are no protein coat present.
Membrane protein are interspersed in between phospholipid.
Proteins and phospholipid move laterally throughout membrane and
lipids can flip-flop across it.

2. Discuss four major components in plasma membrane and their functions.

o The four major components in plasma membrane are:

o PHOSPHOLIPID
They form a semipermeable membrane.
They form a bilayer due to its amphipathic nature.
They affect the fluidity and the permeability of the membrane.
They separate the interior and external environment.

o CHOLESTROL
They reduce membrane flexibility and permeability.
They have different effects on membrane fluidity at different
temperatures.

o MEMBRANE PROTEIN
They consist of globular protein.
They are classified into integral proteins and peripheral proteins.
Integral proteins penetrate the phospholipid bilayer.
Peripheral proteins are proteins that are loosely bounded to the
surface of the membrane.

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 Functions of membrane proteins are:
Regulate the transport of substances into and out of cell
Acts as site of enzymatic activity
Helps in signal transduction
Join cells together by linking with the membrane protein of
neighbouring cell
Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
Cell-cell recognition

o MEMBRANE CARBOHYDRATES
Oligosaccharides attach to globular protein to form glycoproteins.
Oligosaccharides attach to phospholipids to form glycolipids.
They enable cell-cell recognition.

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Tutorial 4

1.Discuss the different types of meristem and how these meristems develop into permanent
tissue.

o Meristems are cells that are capable of cell division.

o There are three types of meristems:

o APICAL MERISTEM
Found at the shoot tips and root tips
Cell division in this meristem results in primary growth of plant
Apical meristem will then grow to form primary meristem.
Primary meristem consists of:
Protoderm
These will develop into the epidermis.
Procambium
These will develop into primary vascular tissue.
Ground Meristem
These will develop into ground tissue.

o LATERAL MERISTEM
Found mainly in woody plants
Cell division of this meristem results in secondary growth
Extends throughout the length of plant
Lateral meristem consists of:
Vascular cambium
These will develop into secondary vascular tissue.
Cork cambium
These will develop into cork cells.

o INTERCALARY MERISTEM
Found only in monocotyledons.
At internodes of bamboo for rapid elongation.
At base of grass leaf blades to help regenerate damaged leaves.

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2. Compare and contrast between parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma tissue in
terms of cellular morphology and function

PARENCHYMA COLLENCHYMA SCLERENCHYMA

SIMILARITIES
o All are permanent tissue
o All are part of ground tissue system
o All provides support to plant
DIFFERENCES
Presence of It lacks secondary It lacks secondary It has thick
Secondary Wall walls walls secondary walls
Presence of Air It is arranged loosely It has very little air It has little air spaces
Spaces between with many air spaces
Cells spaces
Function(s) 1. It acts as a 1. It provides support 1. It provides support
support when and strength. and strength.
parenchyma cells
become tightly 2. It allows plants to 2. It provides rigidity
packed when turgid. bend without as cell walls are
breaking (Flexible). impregnated with
2. Gaseous lignin.
exchange is possible
due to intercellular
air spaces.

3. It enables
photosynthesis as
parenchyma tissue is
found within the
inner portion of leaf
(mesophyll).
Found in It is found in all major It is found at rapidly It is found in parts
parts of a plant. growing areas and that have stopped
needs strength growing but needs
where secondary strength.
growth does not
occur.
Condition at It is alive at maturity It is alive at maturity It is dead at maturity
Maturity
Other It comprises of large It has unevenly thick Pits are found in
Characteristics living cell with thin corners packed with between cells for
wall cellulose and pectin immature
in the primary walls sclerenchyma cell
communication.

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Tutorial 5

1.Discuss the variety of surface epithelial cells and where they are found in the human body

o Surface epithelial cells are epithelial cells that are exposed to the external
environment.
o Epithelial tissue can be divided into:

1. SIMPLE SURFACE ET
o It is composed of only one layer of cells.
o It is located where substances are secreted, excreted or absorbed.
o It can be further divided into:

o SIMPLE SQUAMOUS
It is made of flattened cells with central disk-shaped nucleus.
It is found where rapid diffusion is essential for example heart, kidney,
and blood vessels.
It is thin to facilitate diffusion and smooth to facilitate passage of fluids
and lubricate movement between adjacent surfaces.

o SIMPLE CUBOIDAL
It is made of cube-shaped cells with central round nucleus
It is found as glands, for example salivary ducts and pancreatic ducts
and germinal epithelium covering the ovary and make up the
seminiferous tubules.
It has both secretory and non-secretory function

o SIMPLE COLUMNAR
It is made of tall and narrow cells with oval nuclei at the base of cell.
It is found lining the intestines, alimentary canal and kidney ducts.
The apical surface has microvilli.
It may be ciliated, with cilia capable of rhythmic, rapid beatings in
certain directions or non-ciliated.
Ciliated cells are found in respiratory tract while non-ciliated cells are
found as stomach and intestinal lining.
Its functions are
Secrete mucus, which contains mucin, through goblet cells.
Increase absorption with the presence of microvilli.
Sensory reception in the nose and ears.

2. STRATIFIED SURFACE ET
o It is found where body lining has to withstand wear and tear.
o It can be further divided into:

o STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS
It is made of multiple layers of cell with most apical cells being
squamous.
Apical surface may be keratinised (covered by tough, non-living
keratin protein layer) to resist friction, abrasion and impermeable to
water.
This is found on skin.
Apical surface may be non-keratinised but form wet mucous surfaces.
This is found in eye cornea and lining of upper gastrointestinal tract.

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 o STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS
Example is sweat gland ducts.

o STRATIFIED COLUMNAR
Example is salivary glands.

3. PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR
o It appears to be layered but all cells rest on the same basement
membrane and nuclei are at different levels.
o Apical surface may be ciliated and this is found lining the respiratory tract
at the trachea, bronchus and bronchioles.
o Apical may be non-ciliated and this is found lining the male urethra.

4. TRANSITIONAL SURFACE ET
o It is made of cell which has a transitional shape between a cuboidal and
a squamous cell.
o In relaxed state, it is 4-5 cells thick with cuboidal shape.
o In stretched state, it is 2-3 cells thick with squamous shape.
o It is found exclusively in urinary tract passages.

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2.Compare and contrast between hyaline, elastic and fibrous cartilage

HYALINE CARTILAGE ELASTIC CARTILAGE FIBROUS CARTILAGE

SIMILARITIES
1. Cartilage functions as support and as a shock absorber in
human.
2. The main cells are chondrocytes.
DIFFERENCE
Main cells Chondrocytes are Chondrocytes are Chondrocytes are
contained in lacuna contained in lacuna seldom housed in
with each lacuna
containing 1, 2, 4 or
8 chondrocytes.
Main Fibres It has collagenous It has elastic fibres as It has collagenous
fibres as main fibres. main fibres. fibres arranged in
bundles, giving
herringbone pattern
Matrix It has chondroitin It has chondrin as It has chondrin as
sulphate as matrix. matrix. matrix.
Found at 1. It is found as 1. It is found at the 1. It is found as
embryo skeleton external ear intervertebral discs
of vertebral column
2. It is found on 2. It is found at the
articulating surfaces epiglottis 2. It is found as
of bones ligaments

3. It is found in nose 3. It is found at the

and trachea pubic symphysis

4. It is found as
tendons

Function(s) 1. It provides smooth It provides elasticity 1. It provides tensile

surfaces for smooth and flexibility to strength
movements at joints allow for quick
recovery after 2. It provides rigidity
2. It provides distortion
flexibility
Characteristic It is the most It is tough but It is the strongest and
common of bendable least flexible of all
cartilage cartilages

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Tutorial 6

1. Describe the process of mitosis.

2. Describe the process of meiosis.

Tutorial 7

1. Explain the hypothesis of mechanisms of enzyme action.

1. LOCK AND KEY HYPOTHESIS

o Substrate and active site are exactly complementary.

o Substrate fit into rigid active site and form enzyme-substrate complex.
o Reaction occurs and products formed are released.

2. INDUCED FIT HYPOTHESIS

o Substrate and enzyme does not fit exactly.

o Substrate collide with flexible active site, induce slight change and becomes
complementary to form enzyme-substrate complex.
o Reaction occurs and products formed are released.
o More widely accepted because close fit causes stress and distortion of substrate
chemical bonds, which breaks it to form new bonds and therefore new products.

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2. Describe allosteric inhibition and give example.

o Allosteric inhibition is also known as non-competitive reversible inhibition.

o It is non-competitive as the inhibitors structure is unlike the substrates structure.
o Therefore, it does not bind to the active site but at the allosteric site.
o It is also reversible as it only binds to the allosteric site temporarily.
o When the inhibitor binds to the allosteric site, it alters the enzyme structure, causing
the rate of reaction to decrease.

o An example of allosteric inhibition is the control of ATP production by cellular

respiration.
o When concentration of ATP is high, it acts as an allosteric inhibitor and inhibits
biochemical reactions.
o When ATP concentration falls, ATP leaves the allosteric site and cellular respiration is
no longer inhibited.

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