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A REVIEW ON THE FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING

OF INTEGRAL ABUTMENT BRIDGES

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ASPECICCER2012

MuhammadA.,AbdullahR.andAhmadY.

2nd4THOctober2012|Surabaya,Indonesia

A REVIEW ON THE FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING OF INTEGRAL

ABUTMENT BRIDGES

Akilu Muhammad*, Redzuan Abdullah

Research student, Associate Prof.,
Department of Structure and Materials, Department of Structure and Materials,
Universiti Technologi Malaysia. 81310 Skudai Universiti Technologi Malaysia. 81310 Skudai
Johor Bahru,Malaysia. Corresponding author: Johor Bahru, Malaysia.
* Corresponding Author
email: akilmuh@yahoo.com

Yusof Ahmad
Senior Lecturer.,
Department of Structure and Materials,
Universiti Technologi Malaysia. 81310 Skudai
Johor Bahru, Malaysia.

ABSTRACT- Reports on the finite element interaction such as soil-abutment and soil-
modelling of Integral Abutment Bridges pile interaction, spring element is mostly
(IABs) adopted by different researchers in used to model the nonlinear soil behaviour.
studying the behaviour of integral bridges The major findings of most of the studies are
are reviewed in this paper. IAB models that soil-structure interaction, temperature
published in twenty two journals are and time-dependent loading, geometry and
presented, the objectives of the Finite curvature of IABs are among the factors
element models are explored and the results affecting the behaviour of the IABs. The
are discussed. Both two and three review also discovered that skewed and
dimensional models with linear and non curved prestressed concrete girder for IABs
linear analysis were adopted by researchers. under temperature and time-dependent
Generally, most researchers use plate and loadings are not fully explored and warrant
shell element for modelling slabs and further research.
abutments while beam element is used for
Keywords: Integral Bridge, Bridge Abutment,
modelling beams, piers, pier heads, piles and Finite Element, Modelling
abutments. For modelling soil-substructure

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ASPECICCER2012:MuhammadA.andAbdullahR.

interaction. Soil-substructure interaction

affects the bridge movement and has been
identified as the major factor influencing the
behaviour of IABs (Faraji et al 2001).

I. INTRODUCTION
Integral Abutment Bridges (IABs) are
bridges whose superstructure and
substructure are rigidly connected. They are
frame type structures having no movement
joints and bearings and any superstructure
movement goes together with the abutments
(see Fig.1). This is different from
conventional bridges where the
superstructure moves independent of the
abutments due to availability of expansion
joints and bearings to accommodate the
movement.
Fig. 1 Typical two span integral bridge
Apart from their enhanced structural (Dicleli, 2000)
performance due to rigidity of superstructure
abutment connection, IABs provide The behaviour of IABs is mostly predicted
significant cost savings on their maintenance through Finite Element Modelling (FEM)
as a result of the absence of joints and using various commercial software. The
bearings and this has led to their popularity studies using finite element modelling
in many countries. In UK and Ireland in include predicting the response of the
particular, designers are now required to structure due to primary effects of dead, live
consider the use of integral form for shorter and imposed loads and secondary effect of
bridges up to 60m span and 300 skew temperature and time-dependent effects of
(Obrien and Keogh 2005). Many creep, shrinkage and cable relaxation (for
transportation agencies in the US and prestressed concrete bridges). This paper
Canada routinely prefer IABs in their presents a review on the different modelling
infrastructure network due to their many techniques adopted by previous researchers
economical and functional advantages to study the behaviour of IABs. The non-
(Dicleli and Erhan 2009). linear interaction between abutments and
foundation and adjacent soil are focused.
In addition to the primary actions of live and
dead loads, IABs being jointless bridges II Modelling Soil-Structure Interaction
experience additional stress from Soil-structure interaction to a great extent
temperature and time-dependent loadings determines the behaviour of IABs since the
such as creep, shrinkage, prestress cable bridges are
relaxation and reaction from soil-structure

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ASPECICCER2012:MuhammadA.andAbdullahR.
jointless and all movements from primary
loads (live and dead loads) and secondary
loads (temperature and time-dependent
loads) have to be accommodated by soil-
abutment and soil-pile interaction. The
impact of temperature and time-dependent
loads is more pronounced in IABs than in
conventional bridges due absence of
expansion joints to accommodate the
movement. Hence all researchers
incorporate temperature loading in their
behaviour of IABs, while some add time-
dependent loading in addition to thermal
loading to study the behaviour of slab on
prestress concrete girder IABs.
Soil-structure interaction is nonlinear in
nature and is usually modelled using spring
element. For instance, Faraji et al (2001)
implemented a 3D FEM of an IAB system
which explicitly incorporated nonlinear soil
response. The bridge model was subjected to
a thermal loading increment of 44.40C.
Nonlinear soil behaviour was modelled in
GTSTRUDL using nonlinear springs at the
abutment wall and pile nodes. The results
show that the level of soil compaction
behind the abutment wall is an important
factor affecting the overall bridge behaviour.
The level of compaction behind the wall
greatly affects the axial forces and moments
in the deck, increasing both by more than
twice in peak value when the compaction is
varied from the loose to dense soil
compaction range.
Arockiasamy et al. (2004) conducted a
parametric study on effect of predrilled
holes and type of fill in the holes, soil type,
water table elevation and pile orientation on
the behaviour of IABs. They used LPILE
and FB-Pier (finite difference and finite
element software respectively) to model
3
SustainingtheWorldwithBetterStructures&ConstructionPractice
IAB. Soil-pile interaction was modelled
through hyperbolic tip resistance-vertical
displacement (t-z) curves and the lateral
soil-pile interaction is modelled with
nonlinear soil resistance-horizontal pile
displacement (p-y) curves. It was discovered
that the level of compaction of sand in the
predrilled holes affects horizontal
displacement of the pile.
Dicleli (2000) used soil spring and wall
spring models to capture soil-pile and soil-
abutment interaction in his study on rational
design approach for prestressed-concrete-
girder integral bridges. Dicleli and Erhan
(2009) developed live load distribution
formulas for single span IAB girders
through analysis of 2D and 3D FEM of
IABs in SAP 2000 and ANSYS. Linear
springs were used to model soil-structure
interaction assuming a linear elastic
behaviour due to small lateral displacement
of abutments and piles under live load
effects. The same authors again used the
same soil-structure model to develop 2D
Finite Element Models in SAP2000 to carry
out a parametric study on the effect of soil-
bridge interaction on the magnitude of
internal forces in IAB components due to
Live-Load Distribution Factors (LLDFs)
(Dicleli and Erhan 2010). The research
discovered soil-structure interaction has
significant effect on the magnitude of live
load moments in the superstructure and
substructure; however its effect on the
magnitude of live load shear forces is only
significant in the substructure.
Fennema et al. (2005) investigated the
behaviour of IAB under thermal load of
44C through field monitoring and
numerical modelling in STAAD Pro. They
used pile analysis tools and p-y curves in

ASPECICCER2012:MuhammadA.andAbdullahR.
predicting laterally loaded pile behaviour,
effect of predrilled holes filled with loose
sand on pile behaviour, influence of integral
abutments on longitudinal bridge stresses
and effect of soil stiffness on pile behaviour
through numerical modelling of linear and
multi-linear soil springs to capture soil-
structure interaction. Rotation about the base
of abutment was discovered to be the
primary mode of movement of the integral
abutment. Observation showed that girder
rotations are opposite of abutment rotations
during bridge contraction and expansion
which suggest a hinge girder-abutment
connection. Girder axial forces were
influenced by the stiffness of the backfill
during bridge expansion and by girder
location within the bridge. Girder tensile
stress developed under thermal design
temperature was found to be significant and
must be considered when designing
prestressed girders. Girder axial forces were
also influenced by creep and shrinkage
effects in the bridge superstructure.
Zordan et al. (2010) developed a 2D and 3D
FEM of a built 400-metre-long IAB in
ANSYS and STRAND 7 respectively.
Parametric and pushover analyses on the
bridge under thermal loads of -500c to +500c
were performed. The parametric study
involved variation of soil properties (from
loose to medium to dense soils) behind the
back-wall and around the piles. Longitudinal
nonlinear spring element (COMBIN39) was
used to simulate the soilstructure
interactions. The research discovered that
negative and positive temperature variations
greatly influenced girder axial forces. The
negative temperature variation had larger
effect than the positive one. Variation in soil
condition behind the abutments and piles
greatly affected bending moment near
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SustainingtheWorldwithBetterStructures&ConstructionPractice
abutment and axial forces near piles under
negative temperature variation. This was due
to the reaction of soil behind the abutment as
a result of passive and active pressures.
Kalayci et al. (2009) used SAP2000 to carry
out 3D nonlinear finite element analysis of
two-span continuous composite curved IABs
using the structural characteristics of an
existing curved IAB, to predict its thermal
response under varying degrees of angles of
curvature (0o to 50o). The soil was modelled
using nonlinear spring elements defined
using a force-deformation curve for each
soil layer. Nonlinear discrete Winkler
springs were attached at 30.5 cm intervals
along the pile depth in both orthogonal
directions to simulate lateral soil resistance
around piles. Results from the analyses
showed that thermal behaviour of curved
IABs depend on bridge curvature and
backfill material type behind abutments.
Abutment displacements with increase in
bridge curvature were more noticeable due
to changes in backfill material type than due
to variation in thermal load.
Huang et al. (2008) conducted a parametric
study on 3D FEM of IAB in ANSYS under
temperature loading (+280 C to -280 C). The
model was calibrated with measured field
data. The variables considered in the study
included pile type, size, orientation, depth of
fixity, type of surrounding soil, fixity of the
connection between the abutment pile cap
and abutment diaphragm, bridge span and
length, and wing wall size and orientation.
Soil springs with nonlinear resistance
displacement relationships represented both
the soilpile and soilabutment interaction
curves along the length of the piles and the
abutments, respectively. The numerical
results indicated that bridge length and soil

ASPECICCER2012:MuhammadA.andAbdullahR.

types surrounding the piles had a significant

impact on the behaviour of IABs.
A nonlinear 2D and 3D FEM of IAB were
developed by Civjan et al. (2007) using GT
STRUDL to carryout parametric study on
the effect of backfill properties and soil
restraint on piles with regard to bridge
distortions and maximum moment occurring
in the piles. Soil-structure interaction was
modelled using spring element. The result
indicates that bridge expansion is
predominantly affected by backfill Fig. 2: FE mesh of HP pile embedded in
conditions whereas contraction is influenced sand (Khodair and Hassiotis 2005)
by pile restraint conditions. Pile moments
are minimized when denser backfill and In another research, Noorzaei et al. (2010)
lower pile restraint are provided. implemented a 2D FEM of an IAB which
explicitly incorporated the nonlinear soil
Khodair and Hassiotis (2005) used a 3D response. The soil mass was modelled as
non-linear finite element model of concrete eight node isoperimetric quadrilateral
slab on steel girder IAB (Fig. 2) to study the element at near field and five node
effect of thermal loading on the soil-pile isoparametric infinite element to simulate
system. Finite Element software, the far field behaviour of the soil media.
ABAQUS/Standard was used in the They used Duncan and Chang hyperbolic
modelling and the result compared with model to represent the nonlinearity of the
finite difference software, LPILE. Eight- soil mass. The study also showed that the
nodded Solid continuum element was used soil nonlinearity has significant effect on the
to model the piles and the sand-pile response of the structure. Where
interaction was modelled using surface to displacement obtained on basis of
surface contact algorithm in nonlinearity is 1.5-2.0 times higher than that
ABAQUS/Standard where the `exterior obtained from linear analysis.
surface of the pile was modelled as the
master and the interior surface of the sand as Dicleli and Albahais (2003 and 2004b) used
slave. They discovered that the influence of SAP2000 to analyse 2D nonlinear FEM of
the lateral loads imposed by the slab on steel girder of IABs (Fig. 3) in their
superstructure on the piles is confined within study on maximum length limit of IABs
a small volume of soil around the piles. As built on clay and on sand as a function of the
such, the lateral loading is not transferred to ability of steel H-pile supporting thermal
mechanically stabilised earth wall that induced cyclic displacement and flexural
supports the bridge foundation. capacity of the abutment. The pile was
modelled using beam element with
nonlinear hinges to simulate the inelastic
deformation of the steel H piles under
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ASPECICCER2012:MuhammadA.andAbdullahR.
thermal loads. Horizontal truss elements
with plastic hinges were attached at each
node along the pile to model the nonlinear
force-deformation behaviour of the soil.
Results from the research recommended that
the length limit of concrete girder of IABs
built on clay to be 210m in cold climates
and 260m in moderate climates while for
steel girder IABs the length limit is 120m in
cold climate and 180m in moderate climates.
For the IABs built on Sand, they
recommended maximum length limit of
concrete girder of IABs to be 190m in cold
climate and 240m in moderate climates
while for steel girder the length is limited to
100m in cold climates and 160m in
moderate climates. Dicleli (2005) further
investigated the effect of temperature-
induced displacements on the behaviour of
integral abutments using a similar modelling
system as in Dicleli and Albahais (2003 and
2004b). He discovered that the magnitude of
internal forces in the abutments and the
backfill pressure is related to thermal
induced abutment displacements.
Compacted backfill leads to high backfill
pressure, bending moment and shear force in
the abutment. Dicleli and Albahais (2004a)
used similar soil-structure model to
investigate the performance of abutment-
backfill system under thermal variations in
IABs built on clay using SAP2000. The
result showed that non compacted backfill
and pile orientation to bend along weak axis
enhance the flexural capacity of abutments
which helps to increase length limits of
IABs.
6
SustainingtheWorldwithBetterStructures&ConstructionPractice
Fig. 3 2D bridge model (Dicleli and Albhaisi
2003 and 2004b)
Erhan and Dicleli (2009) analysed numerous
2D and 3D structural models of IABs in
their research on Live load distribution
equations for integral bridge substructures.
Effect of various superstructure and
substructure properties such as span length,
girder spacing, girder stiffness, abutment
height, pile size, pile spacing and foundation
soil stiffness are considered in the analysis.
The analysis results were used to compute
live load distribution factors (LLDFs) for the
abutments and piles of IABs as a function of
the above mentioned properties. Soil-
structure modelling was achieved with the
use of linear springs connected at the
abutment-backfill interface nodes along the
height and width of the abutment and also
attached at each node along the piles in both
orthogonal directions to model soil-pile
interaction effects. The research findings
revealed that span length and girder size
have significant effect on distribution of live
load moment in the abutments.
Baptiste et al. (2011) conducted parametric
study to establish a practical limit for the
maximum length of prestressed concrete

ASPECICCER2012:MuhammadA.andAbdullahR.
girder IABs and identified potential distress
in IABs at extreme lengths. The 3D
nonlinear numerical models used solid
elements for soil-pile interaction, abutment-
pile interaction, and construction joint detail.
The loads on IABs were ambient
temperature, temperature gradient, time-
dependent loads, and backfill pressure. The
research started with initial bridge length of
305 m considering the effects of: (a)
abutment height; (b) soil stiffness; (c)
backwall to abutment stiffness; and (d) pile
orientation on IAB response. Results of the
parametric study showed that taller
abutments, moderate construction joint
stiffness, low soil stiffness, and strong axis
pile orientation are best suited for IABs at
extreme lengths. The length limitation study
identifies that pile moments and concrete
stress at the abutment-pile connection, and
construction joint reinforcement are critical
components in IAB responses and limit the
bridge length. The study suggested a
maximum length of 457 m on the basis of
IAB critical responses.
III. EFFECT OF TIME-DEPENDENT
LOADING
Studies conducted on the behaviour of IABs
under temperature and time-dependent
loading has shown that time-dependent
loading has significant effect on the
behaviour of IABs. Arockiasamy and
Sivakumar (2005) modeled the substructure
as discrete springs for translational and
rotational degrees of freedom to capture the
nonlinear soil-structure behaviour in their
FEM that predict instantaneous linear and
nonlinear thermal and time-dependent
behaviour of continuous composite IABs.
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SustainingtheWorldwithBetterStructures&ConstructionPractice
The study found that time-dependent
delayed deflection contributed to about
100% increase in the total deflection in both
fixed and simply support conditions. They
also discovered that abutment, backfill, wing
walls and its footings, and piles supporting
abutments, contribute to the total
substructure stiffness. In order to have the
smallest spring stiffness, the height of the
abutment may be kept as short as possible to
reduce the soil pressure and also to reduce
the stiffness of the substructure system.
Pugasap et al. (2009) used 2D and 3D finite-
element models to carry out long-term
response prediction of prestressed concrete
girder of IAB under thermal and time-
dependent loading. The results were verified
with measured response from three
instrumented IABs. Soil-structure
interaction was modelled using nonlinear
springs in ANSYS. The research revealed
that the ratio of long-term to short-term
predicted abutment displacement ranges
between 1.5 to 2.3 which indicates the
importance of long-term behaviour in design
of girder axial forces and pile bending
moment. Time-dependent effect of creep
and shrinkage dominate the long-term top
abutment displacement while bottom
abutment displacement was dominated by
both the time-dependent effects and the soil-
pile elastoplastic behaviour.
Kim and Laman (2010a) developed a
numerical analysis method for prediction of
long-term behaviour of IABs. To verify the
numerical modelling methodology, four
numerical models of field tested IABs were
built and their analysis results compared to
field monitored responses. They used 2D
FEM of IAB in ANSYS for long-term
simulation considering the key features of
backfillabutment interaction, pilesoil

ASPECICCER2012:MuhammadA.andAbdullahR.

interaction, construction joint, temperature

variation, temperature gradient, and time-
dependent effects. Soil-pile interaction was
modelled using nonlinear spring and
rotational spring (Fig. 4). The models were
used to conduct 75 year time-history
simulation of soil-structure interaction and
nonlinear behaviour of construction joint
between the abutment and back wall.
Winkler spring models were adopted for
abutmentbackfill interaction based on
classical Rankine active and passive
pressure theory. The construction joint
between the backwall and abutments located
below the girder bearing was modelled
based on joint momentrotation
characteristics. Loads applied to the
numerical models are: (1) backfill pressure
on abutments; (2) time-dependent effects of
the concrete superstructure; (3) ambient
temperature variation; and (4) temperature
gradient along the superstructure depth. The
proposed numerical modelling
methodologies enable long-term bridge
response prediction, recognizing that an IAB
has significant time-dependent response
changes as a result of irreversible soil
structure interaction and time-dependent
effects of the superstructure in the case of
prestressed concrete girders. Both measured
and numerical responses indicate that soil
structure interaction and time-dependent
effects significantly influence long-term
IAB behaviour. Bridge total length was
discovered to have significant effect on
abutment top displacement, while abutment
bottom displacement was influenced by
abutment height. Girder bending moments
due to thermal load was found to be
significant and was recommended to be
included in the girder design evaluation.
Fig. 4: 2D numerical model (Kim and laman
2010)
In another research, Kim and Laman
(2010b) used similar modelling approach to
study long-term behaviour of 2D numerical
models IABs under thermal loading, thermal
gradient, backfill pressure and time-
dependent effects of creep, shrinkage and
prestressing steel relaxation. Parametric
study on the IABs was carried out in LPILE
considering thermal expansion coefficient of
concrete, bridge length, backfill height,
backfill stiffness and soil-pile stiffness.
Based on the study results, a regression
analysis was conducted to predict the bridge
total axial force, bridge total bending
moment, total pile lateral force and moment,
and the pile head/abutment displacement.
The parametric study revealed that the
magnitude of the thermal expansion
coefficient of concrete deck and girder has
significant influence on the girder axial
force, girder moment, pile lateral force, pile
moment and pile head/abutment
displacement. Bridge length was also found
to have significant influence on girder axial
force, pile lateral force, pile moment and
pile head displacement. The backfill height

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ASPECICCER2012:MuhammadA.andAbdullahR.
and backfill stiffness parameters have
relatively insignificant influence on bridge
axial force and moment, pile lateral force
and moment and pile-abutment
displacement. An increase in pile-soil
stiffness increases the girder moment, pile
lateral force and pile moment but reduces
the pile head displacement.
Baptiste et al (2011) discovered that taller
abutments, moderate construction joint
stiffness, low soil stiffness, and strong axis
pile orientation are best suited for IABs at
extreme lengths. Zordan et al (2010) in their
finding suggested the use of slender and
flexible piers to achieve better predictable
response to temperature variations. However
Kim and Laman (2010b) discovered that
backfill height and backfill stiffness
parameters do not significantly influence the
bridge responses.
IV. SUPERSTRUCTURE
SUBSTRUCTURE MODELLING
Apart from soil-structure interaction,
superstructure and substructure were
modelled in varying ways by different
researchers. Linear elastic beam element
was used to model abutment, piles and
superstructure-abutment joint. Deck
abutment joint is modelled using horizontal
and vertical rigid elastic beam element. Pile
is modelled using beam element with
nonlinear frame hinges to simulate the
inelastic deformation of the steel H-piles
under thermal effects (Dicleli and Erhan
2010; Dicleli and Erhan 2009; Dicleli and
Albhaisi 2003; Dicleli and Albhaisi 2004a;
Dicleli and Albhaisi 2004b; Erhan and
Dicleli, 2009). Steel and concrete girders,
diaphragms, columns, pier caps and bearings
were modelled using beam elements (Faraji
SustainingtheWorldwithBetterStructures&ConstructionPractice
et al. 2001; Fennema et al. 2005). Noorzeei
et al. (2010) used three node isoparametric
beam element to model superstructure and
Zordan et al. (2010) used Timoshenko beam
to simulate structural response of girders,
piers, abutments and piles. Shell element
was used model slab, abutment and wing
walls (Kalayci et al. 2009; Erhan and
Dicleli, 2009) deck, girders, diaphragms
(Huang et al. 2008). Frame element was
used to model steel girder (Kalayci et al.
2009), prestress concrete girder, (Erhan and
Dicleli, 2009), cross diaphragms, piles and
pile caps (Kalayci et al. 2009). Plate element
was used to model deck slab, (Faraji et al.
2001; Fennema et al. 2005) abutment
(Khoidair and Hassiotis 2005; and Fennema
et al. 2005) and approach slabs (Fennema et
al. 2005). Khoidair and Hassiotis (2005)
modelled pile using solid continuum
element.
AND V. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION
A review on IAB Finite element models
published in 22 journals is presented here.
The common practice in the research works
is that nonlinear spring element is used to
model nonlinear soil-substructure interaction
which is the major factor governing the
design of IABs. Soil types surrounding the
piles and abutments and level of soil
compaction surrounding abutment and piles
were discovered to have significant impact
on the behaviour of IABs. They affect the
axial force bending moments and shear force
in bridge girder, abutment and piles.
It was also discovered that negative and
positive temperature variations and
magnitude of thermal expansion coefficient
of concrete deck and girder influenced
girder axial forces, girder moment and
tensile stress, pile lateral force, pile moment
9

ASPECICCER2012:MuhammadA.andAbdullahR.

and pile head/abutment displacement.Girder interaction having the greatest effect. In this
tensile stress developed under thermal review paper, it was discovered that limited
design temperature was found to be research was done on curved and skewed
significant and must be considered when IABs; hence further research on the effect of
designing prestressed girders of IABs. temperature and time-dependent loading on
Bridge length was found to have significant curved and skewed IABs is therefore
influence on girder axial force, pile lateral suggested.
force, pile moment and pile head
displacement. REFRENCES
Effect of time-dependent factors of creep,
Arockiasamy, M., Butrieng, N., &
shrinkage and prestress cable relaxation on
Sivakumar, M. (2004). State-of-the-
behaviour of IABs was also found to be
art of integral abutment bridges:
significant. Time-dependent loading led to
Design and practice. Journal of
100% increase in deflection and it
Bridge Engineering, 9(5), 497-506.
dominated the total long-term abutment
Arockiasamy, M., Sivakumar. M. (2005).
displacements near the upper part of
Time-Dependent Behaviour of
abutment. This factor therefore needs to be
Composite Integral Abutment
considered in the design of prestressed
Bridges. Practice Periodical of
concrete girder of IABs.
Structural Design and Construction
Most of the studies on IABs are on straight
Volume 10 No.3.
bridges while only one report was found to
Baptiste, K. T., Kim, W., & Laman, J. A.
discuss about the curved bridge (Kalayci et
(2011). Parametric study and length
al., 2009). Results from the analyses of
limitations for prestressed concrete
curved steel girder of IABs showed that
girder integral abutment bridges.
thermal effect on curved IABs depend on
Structural Engineering International:
bridge curvature and backfill material type
Journal of the International
behind abutments. Further research on
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curved prestressed concrete girder IABs
Engineering (IABSE), 21(2), 151-
need to be done to enhance understanding of
156.
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Civjan, S. A., Bonczar, C., Brena, S. F.,
Dejong, J., & Crovo, D. (2007).
VI. CONCLUSION
Integral abutment bridge behavior:
This paper was able to review the use of Parametric Analysis of a
finite element models that were effectively Massachusetts bridge. Journal of
implemented in studying and predicting the Bridge Engineering, 12(1), 64-71.
behaviour of IABs as published by Dicleli, M. (2000). A rational design
researchers in 22 journals. Result from the approach for prestressed-concrete-
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interaction, temperature loading, time- Structures, 22(3), 230-245.
dependent loading, geometry and curvature Dicleli, M., & Albhaisi, S. M. (2003).
of bridge are among the factors affecting the Maximum length of integral bridges
behaviour of IABs with soil-structure supported on steel H-piles driven in
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sand. Engineering Structures, 25(12), Geoenvironmental Engineering,

1491-1504. 127(5), 454-461.
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