Problems for Principles of Solidification

EXAMPLE 8-1 Calculation of Critical Radius for the Solidification of Copper

Calculate the size of the critical radius and the number of a atoms in the critical nucleus when
solid copper forms by homogeneous nucleation. Comment on the size of the nucleus and
assumptions we made while deriving the equation for radius of nucleus.
SOLUTION
From Table 8-1:
T=236 Tm=1085+273=1358K
Hf=1628J/cm3
sl=17710-7 J/cm3
2s slTm (2)(177 10-7 )(1358)
r= = = 12.51 10-8
DHf DT (1628)(236)

The lattice parameter for FCC copper is a 0 =0.3615nm = 3.61510-8cm

Unit cell = ( a 0 )3=(3.615) 10-8 cm

The number of unit cells in the critical nucleus is

8200 10-24
= 174 unit cells
47.24 10-24
Since there are four atoms in each unit of FCC metal, the number of atoms in the critical
nucleus must be:
(4atoms / cell )(174 cells / nucleus ) = 174 unit cells
In the types of calculations, we assume that a nucleus that is made from only a few hundred
atoms still exhibits properties similar to those of bulk materials. This is not strictly correct and
as such considered to be a weakness of the classical theory of nucleation.

EXAMPLE 8-2 Redesign of a Casting for Improved Strength

Your company currently is producing a disk-shaped brass casting 2 in. thick and 18 in. in
diameter. You believe that by making the casting solidify 25% faster, the improvement in the
tensile properties of the casting will permit the casting to be made lighter in weight. Design
the casting to permit this. Assume that the mold constant is 22 min/in. for this process.

SOLUTION
One approach would be to use the same process, but reduce the thickness of the casting. The
thinner casting would solidify more quickly and, because of the faster cooling, should have
improved mechanical properties. Chvorinovs rule helps us calculate the required thickness. If
d is the diameter and is the thickness of the casting, then the volume, surface area, and
solidification time of the 2-in. Thick casting is:
V=(/4)d2=(/4)(18)2(2)= 508.9in.3
A=2 (/4)d2+ = 2(/4)(18)2+(18)(2)= 622in.2
V 508.9 2
t= B ( ) 2 =(22) ( ) =14.72min
A 622
The solidification time of the redesigned casting should be 25% shorter than the current time,
or tr =0.75t, where:
tr =0.75t=(0.75)(14.72)=11.04min
Since the casting conditions have not changed, the mold constant B is unchanged. The V/A
ratio of the new casting is:
V V
tr = B ( ) 2 =(22) ( ) 2 = 11.04min
A A
V V
( ) 2 =0.5018in.2 or =0.708in.
A A
If is the required thickness for our redesigned casting , then:
Vr (p / 4)d 2 x (p / 4)(18) 2 x
= = = 0.708in.
Ar 2(p / 4)d 2 x + p dx 2(p / 4)(18) 2 x + p (18) x
Therefore, x = 1.68in.
This thickness provides the required solidification time, while reducing the overall weight of
the casting by nearly 15%.

EXAMPLE 8-3 Secondary Dendrite Arm Spacing for Aluminum Alloys

Determine the constants in the equation that describe the relationship between secondary
dendrite arm spacing and solidification time for aluminum alloys.
SOLUTION
We could obtain the value of SDAS at two times from the graph and calculate k and m using
simultaneous equations. However, if the scales on the ordinate and abscissa are equal for
powers of ten, we can obtain the slope m from the log-log plot by directly measuring the slope
of the graph. In Figure 8-10, we can mark five equal units on the vertical and 12 equal units
on the horizontal scale. The slope is :
5 5
m= = 1.42
12 12
The constant k is the value of SDAS when t s =1s, since:

Log SDAS =log k + m log t s

ts
If t s =1s, m log = 0, and SDAS = k, from Figure 8-10:
cm cm
k=8 10-4 m
10-4 m
s s

EXAMPLE 8-4 Time of Solidfication

A 4-in.-diameter aluminum bar solidifies in a depth of 0.5in. Beneath the surface in 5
minutes. After 20 minutes, the car has solidified to a depth of 1.5in. How much time is
required for the bar to solidify completely?
SOLUTION
From our measurements, we can determine the constants ksoldidfication and c1 in Equation 8-5.
0.5in. =ksoldidfication (5 min) - c1 c1 = k 5 - 0.5 or c1 = k 5 - 0.5

1.5in. = ksoldidfication (20 min) - c1 = k 20 -( k 5 - 0.5 )

1.5 = k solidification ( )
20 - 5 + 0.5
1.5 - 0.5 in.
k solidification = = 0.447
4.472 - 2.236 min
c1 = (0.447) 5 - 0.5 = 0.4995in.
Solidification is complete when d=2 in. half the diameter ,since freezing is occurring all
surfaces
2 = 0.447 t - 0.4995
2 + 0.4995
t= = 5.59
0.447
t = 31.27 min
In actual practice ,we would find that the total solidification time somewhat longer than 31.27
min .As solidification continuesthe mold becomes hotter and is less effective in removing
heat from the casting.

EXAMPLE 8-5 Design of Aluminum Alloy Casting

Design the thickness of an aluminum alloy casting whose length is 12 in. and width is 8
in. in order to produce a tensile strength of 40,000 psi.The mold constant in Chvorinovs
rule for aluminum alloys cast in a sand is 45 min/in 2.Assume that data shown in Figures 8-10
and 8-11 can be used.
SOLUTION
In order to obtain a tensile strength of 42,000 psi,a sencondary dendrite arm spacing of
about 0.007 cm is required (see Figure 8-11).From Figure 8-10 we can determine that the
solidification time required to obtain this spacing is about 300 s,or 5 minutes.
From Chvorinovs rule:
V
ts = B( )2
A
Where B=45min/in.2 and x is the thickness of the casting .Since the length is 12 in.and the
width is 8 in.:
 V = (8)(12)( x) = 96 x
A = (2)(8)(12) + (2)( x)(8) + (2)( x)(12) = 40 x + 192
2
96 x
5 min = (45 min/ in. )
2

40 x + 192
96 x
= ( 5 45 ) = 0.333
40 x + 192
96 x = 13.33 x + 63.9
x = 0.77in.

EXAMPLE 8-6 Design of a Riser for a Casting

Design a cylindrical riser ,with a height equal to twice its diameter ,that will compensate for
shrinkage in a 2cm8cm16cm casting (Figure 8-16)
SOLUTION
We know that riser must freeze after the casting .To be conservative ,however,we typically
that the riser take 25% longer to solidify than the casting .Therefore:
2 2
V V
triser = 1.25tcasting or B
= 1.25 B
A
r A
c

Subscripts r and c stand for riser and casting,respectively.

The mold constant B is the same for both casting and riser, so:

( V A) r = 1.25 ( V A ) c
Vc = (2)(8)(16) = 256cm3
Ac = (2)(2)(8) + (2)(2)(16) + (2)(8)(16) = 352cm 2

We can write equations for the volume and area of a cylindrical riser ,noting that H=2D:
Vr = ( p 4 ) D 2 H = ( p 4 ) D 2 (2 D ) = ( p 2 ) D 3
Ar = 2 ( p 4 ) D 2 + p DH = 2 ( p 4 ) D 2 + p D ( 2 D ) = ( 5p 2 ) D 2
Vr
=
( p 2 ) D3 D
= >
(1.25)(256)
Ar ( 5p 2 ) D 2
5 352
D = 4.77cm
H = 2 D = 9.54cm
Vr = 170.5cm3
Although the volume of riser is less than that of the casting,the riser solidifies more slowly
because of its compact shape.

Example 8-7 Design of Degassing Process for Copper

After melting at atmospheric pressure, molten copper contains 0.01 weight percent oxygen.
To assure that your castings will not subject to gas porosity, you want to reduce the weight
percent to less than 0.00001% prior to pouring. Design a degassing process for the copper.
SOLUTION
We can solve this problem in several ways. In one approach, the liquid copper is placed in a
vacuum chamber; the oxygen is then drawn from the liquid and carried away into the vacuum.
The vacuum required can be estimated from Sieverts law:
%Oinitial K Pinitial 1atm
= =
%Ovacuum K Pvacuum Pvacuum
0.01% 1
=
0.00001% Pvacuum
1atm
= ( 1000 ) orPvacuum=10-6atm
2

Pvacuum
Another approach would be to introduce a copper-15% phosphorous alloy. The phosphorous
reacts with oxygen to produce P2O5, which floats out of the liquid, by the reaction:
5O+2PP2O5
Typically, about 0.01 to 0.02%P must be added to remove the oxygen.

EXAMPLE 8-8 Design of Contious Casting Machine

Figure 8-24 shows a method for continuous casting of 0.25-in, -thick, 48-in.-wide aluminum
plate that is subsequently rolled into aluminum foil. The liquid aluminum is introduced
between two large steel rolls that slowly turn. We want the aluminum to be completely
solidified by the rolls just as the plate emerges from the machine. The rolls act as a permanent
mold with a mold constant B of about 5min/in. 2 when the aluminum is poured at the proper
superheat. Design the rolls required for this process.
SOLUTION
It would be helpful to simplify the geometry so that we can determine a solidification time for
the casting and can be approximated by the average thickness times a length and width. The
average thickness is (0.5 in. + 0.25 in.)/2= 0.375 in. Then:
V= (thickness)(length)(width)=0.375lw
A=2( length)( width)=2lw
V 0.375lw
= = 0.1875in.
A 2lw
Only the area directly in contact with the rolls is used in Chvorinovs rule, since little or no
heat is transferred from the surface. The solidification time should be:

For the plate to remain in contact with the rolls for this period of time, the diameter of the
rolls and the rate of rotation of the rolls must be designed. Figure 8=24(c) show s that the
angle between the points where the liquid enters and exits the rolls is:

cos q =
( D / 2 ) - 0.125 = D - 0.25
( D / 2) D

The surface velocity of the rolls is the product of the circumference and the rate of rotation of
the rolls, v=DR, where R is in revolutions/minute. The velocity v is also the rate at which we
can produce the aluminum plate. The time required for the rolls to travel the distance l must
equal the required solidification time.
l
t= = 0.175 min
v
The length l is the fraction of the roll diameter that is in contact with the aluminum during
freezing and can be given by
p Dq
l=
360
Then by substituting for l and v in the equation for the time:
l p Dq q
t= = = = 0.175min
v 360p DR 360 R
q
R= = 0.0159q rev / min
( 360 ) ( 0.175)
A number of combinations of D and R provide the required solidification rate. Lets calculate
for several diameters and find the required R.
D l R=0.0159 V=DR
24in. 8.2771 1.7334 in. 0.1316rev/min 9.923in./min
36in. 6.7560 2.1230 in. 0.1074 rev/min 12.149 in./min
48in. 5.8502 2.4505 in. 0.0930 rev/min 14.027 in./min
60in. 5.2322 2.7396 in. 0.0832 rev/min 15.683 in./min

As the diameter of the rolls increase, the contact area ( l ) between the rolls and the metal
increases. This, in turn , permits a more rapid surface velocity ( v ) of the rolls and increases
the rate of production of the plate. However, the larger diameter rolls do not need to rotate as
rapidly to achieve these higher velocities.
In selecting our final design, we prefer to use the largest practical roll diameter to assure high
production rates. As the rolls become more massive, however, they and their supporting
equipment become more expensive.
In actual operation of such a continuous caster, faster speeds could be used, since the plate
does not have to be completely solidified at the point where it emerges from the rolls.