Introduction

The Guiana coastline is regarded as the longest muddy coastline in the world
fronting the open ocean which extends from the mouth of the Amazon to the
Orinoco River on the north-eastern coast of South America for approximately
1600 km. According to Augustinus (2004), the coastal development of the
Guianas is dominated by alongshore westward migrating mudbanks. It is
characterised by intertidal to subtidal mud accumulation that induces significant
geomorphic changes via rapid accretion and erosion (Allison et al., 2000).
Consequently, the Amazon-influenced coast of South America have continually
attracted research efforts, which includes the Amazon mud and sediment supplies;
formation of mudbanks; mudbank interaction with mangroves; longshore
migration of mudbanks; erosion preclusion; and its impact on coastal ecology and
economic activities. Accordingly, this interest have led Wells and Coleman
(1981) to postulate that the two principal unanswered questions of this immense
system are: what is the detailed mechanism of mudbank movement; and what
factors lead to periodic stabilisation whereby westward moving mudbanks settle
in front of the coast and thus initiate a new phase of land growth?
Environmental Context
The Amazon is the world's largest river system with a drainage basin of 6.1106
km2 (Organization of American States, 2005). The mean annual water discharge
at Obidos, 900 km upstream of its mouth, has been assessed at 173,000 m3 s1 by
Martinez et al. (2009) from continuous gauging between 1995 and 2007. In the
aforementioned study, they have identified sediment discharge tested over the last
four decades to range from 5 to 13108 m3 yr1 with a mean annual discharge of
roughly 754106 tons yr1. This represents nearly 10% of the river sediment
discharge to the worlds oceans (Kineke, 1993).Incidentally, Milliman and Meade
(1983) have projected 90% of this discharge to consist of clay and silt.
Furthermore, it has been estimated by Wells and Coleman (1981) that 60% of this

1
sediment migrates North-westwards along the coast of Guiana with more than
half migrating in suspension and the rest coalescing to form translating mudbanks.
In their research of the rate of mudbank migration using satellite imagery, Gardel
and Gratiot (2005), have surmised that in any year, the amount of actively
translating mudbanks to be more than fifteen migrating at a rate of 1~5 km yr1.
Significantly, The Amazon-influenced coast is affected by trade winds from the
northeast that are mainly active from January to May and thus actively controls
the wave climate during this period. In the Surinam Transportation Study on
Hydraulic Investigation, NEDCO (1968) have reported that the largest waves are
observed from February to May when wind velocities are highest, and the
smallest waves occur from June to November, when wind velocities decrease.
Formation of Mudbanks
Eisma, Augustinus and Alexander (1991) have estimated based on the migration
rates of mudbanks that an average of one mudbank is created every 30 years. In
their report they have hypothesized that the long term wind cycle is the most
likely mechanism, nevertheless, this correlation is tentative since wind records
only exist for the last half century. Subsequently, Allison et al. (2000) have
conducted various tests and simulations, and have concluded that mudbanks are
formed in the region of the Cassipore mud cape and the associated Cassipore
River mouth, and not from the subaqueous Amazon delta.
The Amazon mouth and shelf regions, represent a very dynamic environmental
systems, in which strong tidal currents interact with large fresh water and
sediments from the Amazon River. Geyer et al. (2004) have highlighted that the
formation of fluid-mud concentration associated with the mixing of fresh water
and salt water over the shore face is a precursor condition for the development of
mudbanks. Due to the enormous quantity of discharge, rapid sediment deposition
on the shelf in water depths of about 2060 m is generated. These deposits are
subsequently remobilized and transported shoreward and then alongshore by a

2
complex combination of wave forcing, tidal currents, and wind-induced coastal
currents. Anthony et al. (2010) reported that in the cross-shore dimension, waves
maintain the fluid mud in suspension. They further stated that the complex
combination of wave and tidal forcing with a corresponding pressure gradient set
up by impinging trade-winds lead to a fluid-mud concentration in the Cabo
Cassipore area where mudbanks start forming. Accordingly, fluid-mud pushed
shoreward during the neap-to-spring cycle results in overall accretion and increase
in bank elevation. Nikiema et al. (2007) have shown, that a strong coastal current
associated with the North Brazil Current generates permanent north-westward
mobilization of these sediments, confirming the earlier observations of Geyer et
al. (1996). Eisma, Augustinus and Alexander (1991), and subsequently, Allison et
al. (2000) have theorized that a relaxation of this current due to changes in wind
intensity could be responsible for the periodic formation of mudbanks. Moreover,
Allison, Nittrouer and Kineke (1995) have suggested that up to 20% of the annual
mud discharge monitored by Martinez et al. (2009) may be stored in a year in the
Cabo Cassipore area.
When wave action ceases, the muddy profile becomes more consolidated through
coalescing and under the action of its own weight. Once mud has been exposed to
drying, its bulk density increases which is proportional to the exponential increase
in viscosity of fine grained sediments. Vitally, laboratory studies have found that
viscosity correlates well with shear strength (Coleman and Wells, 1981).
Accordingly, it can be inferred that a small increase in density may lead to a large
proliferation in strength which causes sediments to be very difficult to re-suspend.
Progradation, Mangrove and Shoreline Dynamics
Anthony et al. (2010) have asserted that after the initial formation of mudbanks,
their coastal sediment dynamics depend on the interaction between suspended and
settled mud with the trade-winds-generated waves and tidal currents; interaction
with the shoreline; and in situ changes associated with the mangrove process.

3
Wells and Coleman (1981) reported that thixotropic fluid muds that accumulates
on the western flanks of mudbanks provide shelter from wave attack and allow for
a temporary period of coastal accretion and suggested that permanent
progradation occurs only when shifting muds are stabilised. They, further, opined,
that low-frequency tidal components allow fluid mud which begins to consolidate
to gain strength rapidly as mangroves become established. Furthermore,
numerous investigations (e.g. Chapman, 1976) have cited the role of dense
mangrove forests in reducing currents and thus promoting sedimentation. These
mangroves are reported to be established between mean-high-water neap tide and
mean-high-water spring tide. Chapman (1976) described that the initial
development of the root system is dependent on the number of days without
flooding. However, after its establishment, inundations have little effect on the
mangroves growth and at this point, the mangrove begins to influence
progradation.
Wells and Coleman(1981) concludes that long periods of lower tides create
favourable conditions for mangrove establishment, which in turn leads to further
consolidation and soil elevation begins to rise. However, it must be noted that
since erosion and accretion occurs simultaneously in the Guianas, permanent
progradation of mudbanks will only occur if they are fronted by mudflats during
periods of lower than normal tides.
Mudbank Migration
Wells and Coleman (1981) described a well-defined 30-yr cycle of
erosion/accretion at a given location. Thus as a mudbank system moves from
southwest to northeast, so do locations of erosions and accretion. Wave
liquefaction of mud includes a longshore component that is fundamental to
mudbank migration. Following Wells and Coleman (1981), a number of
theoretical efforts and a few field investigations have proposed a leading role for
wind-generated waves in this process (e.g. Gratiot et al., 2007). Gratiot et al.

4
(2007) showed that notable phases of increased wave energy were accompanied
by higher annual rates of longshore mudbank migration, with observations carried
out in French Guiana showing that mud mobilization is particularly noticeable
following long periods of low wave forcing. Mudbank migration rates can vary
significantly both alongshore and in time. According to Gardel and Gratiot,
(2005), the mean mudbank migration rate from 1995 to 2000 was twice that from
1979 to 1984 even though Gratiot et al. (2007) discovered that the wave forcing
parameter was only 33% higher. Aside from temporal differences, unknown
sediment sourcing aspects such as variations in mud supply from the Amazon
have been attributed for this. Eisma, Augustinus and Alexander (1991) and
Allison et al. (2000) have shown that variations in intensity and direction of trade
winds, and their effects on waves are responsible for temporal variability in
mudbank migration rates. Augustinus (2004) further suggested that a more
oblique orientation of incident waves explained the larger mudbank migration
rates. Hence, mudbanks migrate faster in Suriname and Guyana as compared to
French Guiana. Moreover, he used this to illuminate why mudbanks are longer
but less wide in the former than on the coast of the latter. Anthony et al. (2010),
subsequently, recognised that the variation in temporal rates may in fact account
for variations in mudbank spacing. They added that temporal variations may also
be attributed to a combination of the following: distant storm tracks and intensity
patterns in the North Atlantic, viz. El Nio and La Nia events; and river mouths
with their discharge patterns. Notably, recent numerical modelling work by
Rodriguez and Mehta (1998) have shown that the Guiana current, considered by
earlier researchers as a major cause for mudbank migration, is too far offshore to
be effective in the transport of coastal mud.
Conclusion
The muddy Guianas coastline experiences significant short-term change involving
alternations of erosion and accretion as a result of the influence of muddy

5
sediments from the Amazon River and the effect of waves generated by the
prevailing trade-winds.
Mudbanks which are generated in Cabo Cassipore area from the coalescing
sediments emerging from the Amazon, migrates along the coast of the Guianas to
the Orinoco delta in Venezuela inflicting mesoscale changes along its path. As a
result, the shorelines are in a state of perpetual fluctuation being divided into
bank or accretive and interbank or erosive phases (Lefebvre, Dolique and
Gratiot, 2004).
It can be seen that the monitoring of these mudbanks constitute an indispensable
coastal management issue which impacts mangroves and coastal ecosystems.
However, most of the studies were executed using aerial photograph surveys
which are relatively expensive, variable in quality, short-term and infrequent.
Significantly, Gardel and Gratiot (2005) carried out research using SPOT and
Landsat images and later concluded that the movement of mudbanks along the
Guianas is considerably faster than those estimated by earlier literature.
Nevertheless, this research was conducted off the coast of French Guiana and
hence it is of paramount significance that they be replicated along the Coast of
Guyana and Suriname due to the variability in migration rates reported by past
researchers. In fact, due to the extremely turbid environment, most studies were
executed in the intertidal areas using remote sensing data (e.g. Eisma, Augustinus
and Alexander, 1991) with the only substantial survey carried in subtidal areas
done in Suriname by NEDCO (1968).
It can be concluded that there is a pronounced need for supplementary
investigations with superior scopes and extended time frames to provide greater
insight in the future on this highly dynamic coast, thus, enabling better forecasting
in coastal management.

6
References
Allison, M.A., C.A. Nittrouer, and G.C. Kineke. "Seasonal sediment storage on
mudflats adjacent to the Amazon River." Marine Geology 125, no. 3-4 (1995):
303-28.
Allison, M.A., M.T. Lee, A.S. Ogston, and R.C. Aller. "Origin of Amazon
mudbanks along the northeastern coast of South America." Marine
Geology 163, no. 1-4 (2000): 241-56.
Anthony, E.J., A. Gardel, N. Gratiot, C. Proisy, M.A. Allison, F. Dolique, and F.
Fromard. "The Amazon-influenced muddy coast of South America: A review
of mud-bankshoreline interactions." Earth-Science Reviews 103, no. 3-4
(2010): 99-121.
Augustinus, P.G.E.F. "The influence of the trade winds on the coastal
development of the Guianas at various scale levels: a synthesis." Marine
Geology 208 (2004): 141-51.
Chapman, V. J. Coastal vegetation. Oxford, NY, Toronto, Sydney, Paris,
Frankfurt Main: Pergamon-Press, 1976.
Eisma, D., P.G.E.F. Augustinus, and C. Alexander. "Recent and subrecent
changes in the dispersal of amazon mud." Netherlands Journal of Sea
Research 28, no. 3 (1991): 181-92.
Gardel, A., and N. Gratiot. "A Satellite ImageBased Method for Estimating
Rates of Mud Bank Migration, French Guiana, South America." Journal of
Coastal Research 214 (2005): 720-28.
Geyer, W.R., R.C. Beardsley, S.J. Lentz, J. Candela, K. Limeburner, W.E. Johns,
B. Castro, M. Soares. "Physical oceanography of the Amazon shelf."
Continental Shelf Research 16 (1996): 576616.

7
Geyer, W.R., P.S. Hill, and G.C. Kineke. "The transport, transformation and
dispersal of sediment by buoyant coastal flows." Continental Shelf Research
24 (2004): 927949.
Gratiot, N., A. Gardel, E.J. Anthony. "Trade-wind waves and mud dynamics on
the French Guiana coast, South America: input from ERA-40 wave data and
field investigations " Marine Geology 236 (2007): 1526.
Kineke, J.C. Fluid muds on the Amazon continental shelf. University of
Washington, Seattle, Washington: PhD thesis, 1993.
Lefebvre, J.P., F. Dolique, and N. Gratiot. "Geomorphic evolution of a coastal
mudflat under oceanic influences: an example from the dynamic shoreline of
French Guiana." Marine Geology 208, no. 2-4 (2004): 191-205.
Martinez, J.M., J.L. Guyot, N. Filizola, and F. Sondag. "Increase in sediment
discharge of the Amazon River assessed by monitoring network and satellite
data." Catena 79 (2009): 257264.
Milliman, J.D., R.H. Meade, "World-wide delivery of river sediment to the
oceans." The Journal of Geology 91 (1983): 121.
Surinam transportation study: report on hydraulic investigation. The Hague,
Netherlands: NEDECO, 1968.
Nikiema, O., J.L Devenon, and M. Baklouti. "Numerical modelling of the
Amazon River plume." Continental Shelf Research 27 (2007): 873899.
Rodriguez, H.N., and A.J. Mehta. "Modelling of muddy coast response to waves."
Journal of Coastal Research 21 (2001): 132148.
"Integrated and Sustainable Management of Transboundary Water Resources in
the Amazon River Basin." Water Project, 8th ser. (2005): 1-6.
www.oas.org/osde.

8
Parizanganeh, A., V. C. Lakhan, and S. R. Ahmad. "Dynamics of mudbanks along
a coast experiencing recurring episodes of erosion and accretion." Journal of
Marine Engineering 4, no. 7 (2008): 1/E-10/E.
Wells, J. T., and J. M. Coleman. "Periodic mudflat progradation, north-eastern
coast of South America; a hypothesis." Journal of Sedimentary Research 51,
no. 4 (1981): 1069-075.