CHAPTER 4 1

4. SUBSTANCES SYSTEMS

In nature, so in the construction materials, substances (with the

same structure and chemical composition) can not be found singular,
only very rarely, usually in a system form and in contact with other
substances.
In the separation limit of two substances, their homogeneity
changes, peripheral layers of particles (molecules, atoms, ions) are
subject to different actions than those the inner particles are
subjected and consequently the structure of substances with greater
cohesion forces molecular pressure occurs and in the same time will
attract particles of substances having smaller cohesion forces and
thus in the contact area, the concentration of the substance becomes
bigger than the rest of its volume.
These disturbances lead to the interface phenomenon (contact
area of two substances).

4.1. Interface phenomenons

Interface phenomenons depend on the internal cohesion forces
and their intensity will depend on:
the chemical structure of substances with they are coming
into contact, because it determines the size of the internal cohesion
forces;
the substances states of matter, because for the same
substance the cohesion forces size depends on the state of matter
(decrease from solid state to the gaseous state)
temperature and pressure, because the energetic state and
the internal cohesion are modified.
particles concentration, as internal cohesion depends on the
number of constituents.
4.1.1. Adsorption, absorption, sorption and desorption
Adsorption is the phenomenon witch leads to form of a layer
particles (molecules, atoms, ions) from a substance with less internal
cohesion forces (liquid or gas) on the surface of a substance with
greater cohesion forces (in liquid or solid).
CHAPTER 4 2

The phenomenon of physical constituents attraction of a

substance at the contact with another substance, as a result of
cohesion forces disequilibrium is called adsorption or
physiosorption.

Substance with greater cohesion forces, which cause adsorption

is called the adsorbent and the substance whose particles are
attracted is called the adsorbate.

In the adsorbed particles layers the concentration is maxim at

the contact with the adsorbent and decreases rapidly as the particles
are at a greater distance from the contact area.
If the forces witch create adsorption are weak, usually Van der
Waals type, the process is reversible with state parameters (pressure,
temperature) modification and when they are interatomic bonds type,
the process is irreversible.

The process of chemical bonds forming at the adsorbate -

adsorbent contact is called chemisorption and is an irreversible
process.

Chemisorption differs from physiosorption by:

- Is achieved through interatomic bonds (usually electrovalent)
- Is selective, so an adsorbent do not adsorb any adsorbate
- Particles chemisorbed are not mobile on the absorbents
surface, are fixed in certain well-defined positions

Phisyosorption is a reversible process and may occur on state

parameters (temperature, pressure) modification, by modifying the
adsorbates structure or under some external loads (electrical energy,
mechanical, etc.).

The adsobates removing process from the adsorbents surface

is called desorption.
Solids, due to the presence of open pores, can attract the
substances witch have weaker cohesion forces within the volume as
well, realizing the absorption phenomenon.

Absorption is the penetration and distribution process of a

substance in the whole volume of another substance.
CHAPTER 4 3

Sorption is the sum between adsorption and absorption.

Adsorbed substances change close to the contact surface with

the adsorbent some characteristics such as: viscosity (increases),
evaporation temperature (increases), etc.
4.1.2 The Superficial Tension
Like a consequence to the action of the resultant of the forces
adsorbent-adsorbate, the superficial blanket of the adsorbent will
strive to reduce his surface. Since, to the directions included in
interface, the forces of cohesion between molecules mutual balances
(between molecules it is produced the same substances) the
superficial blanket will act like a plasticity membrane.

The force which acts tangential to the interface of 2 substances,

on a line of 1 m length, it is called superficial tension. In the case
when the both substances are in contact are liquids, this force is
called interfacial tension.

The value of the superficial tension (interfacial) has meaning

only if thee are determined the substances in contact and their
temperature.
4.1.3. Lyophilia and lyophobia
A consequence of the superficial tension is behavior of the
substances that come in contact, as:
A liquid molecule from the solid liquid and liquid gas
separation limit is supposed on the following attraction forces
(fig.4.1.): sg (solid gas), sl (solid liquid), lg (lichid gas) and the
resultant is .

g g
lg
g
s
sl s
l
s
l
sl

l

Fig.4.1. Liquid to solid adhesion

If a drop of liquid it is found on the surface of a solid, the

system being in gas, in the point contact of all 3 states of aggregation
CHAPTER 4 4

it will manifest the superficial tensions corresponding to the

interfaces: solid-gas, solid-liquid and respectively liquid-gas.

lg lg

sg O sg O

sl sl

Fig.4.2. Liophilia and liophobia

The equation equilibrium of forces (stresses) in this point will

be:

sl - sg lgcos = (4.1)

The resultant () of superficial tensions, in the treble point of

contact is called of adhesion to solid force.
The angle is called angle of wetting and represents the
variable parameter in the equilibrium equation 4.1. Thus, the
conditions for to be minim are:
- 00, if sg>sl
- 1800, if sg<sl
In case which 0 has the same meaning with sg, the liquid will
spread in monomolecular stratum on the solid surface; the liquid
will wet the solid.

The lyophilia defines the solids affinity with respect to the

liquid (the liquid wets the solid) and is achieved when the angle of
wetting takes values less then 900.

In case which 0 has the same sense with sl, the drop of the
liquid will restrict on the surface of the solid, between liquid and solid
interposing an gas layer; the liquid will not wet the solid.

The lyophobia defines the absence of the liquid affinity with

respect to the liquid (liquid will not wet the solid) and is achieved
when the angle of wetting takes values more then 900.
CHAPTER 4 5

If the liquid substance is water, the described phenomenas

takes the name of hydrophlia and respectively hydrophobilia.
4.1.4. The capillarity
Another consequence of the disturbance of the surface
tension at the contact between different substances (such as
structure and state of matter) is the capillary.

The trend of lifting or lowering of a liquid into a solid capilar is

called capilar ascension.

A capilar is formed into a solid by the merger of pores when has

not a linear axis and constant section, or may be a capillary vessel
when it has a linear axis, and a small and constant section.
If the solids surface tension is bigger than the liquids, in the
capilar the liquid tends to ascend (water in solid) (fig.4.3a.) If the
liquids surface tension is higher, it tends to descend (mercury in a
capilar vessel) (fig.4.3.b.).

a b

Fig.4.3. Capillary movement

The ascending or descending height (also called capillary

height) of the liquid in a capilar will depend on the physical
characteristics of the liquid and the capilars geometric elements. For
a capillary vessel, capillary height can be calculated from the
equilibrium between adhesion to solid force () and hydrostatic
pressure of the liquid.
d 2 4
d .g.h h . (4.2)
4 g .d
CHAPTER 4 6

where:
d = diameter of the capillary tube
= liquids density
g = gravity acceleration

Note that the capillary height for the same liquid and solid will
be grater as the diameter is smaller. In a capilar, the capillary height
will be lower than in a capillary vessel due to the diameters
variationan nonlinear path, so in a sandy soil capillary height will be
higher than in gravel. To prevent ground water to rise in
constructions walls, building elements which cut capillaries are
provided (fig.4.4).

Zidarie

Sistem de intrerupere
a capilaritatii

Teren Fundatie din beton

umed

Fig.4.4. Capillarity interruption in construction elements

4.1.5. Liquids miscibility
If two liquids ca not be mixed to form a homogeneous structure
(constituent particles can not diffuse to each other) their interface,
due to interfacial tension, acts as a waterproof membrane.

The liquids miscibility is their property to form homogeneous

mixtures by mutual diffusion of the components.

Liquids miscibility is reduced by interfacial tensions increasing.

The liquids that can not form homogeneous mixtures are called
immiscible.
4.1.6. Influence of absorption on the substances
characteristics
At the gas - liquid separation surface and immiscible liquids by
adsorption the surface tension is modified. In the adsorbed layer the
CHAPTER 4 7

surface tension has a intermediary value between the surface tension

of the two substances that come in contact, closer to the lower
surface tension.
Liquids surface tension, with application in practice can be
modified using the surface-active substances.
Surface-active substances, generally organic substances having
a polar structure, accumulate on the liquids surface of orienting
themselves according to the surfaces (hydrophilic or hydrophobic)
nature forming "molecular brushes".
The formed monomolecular layer modifies the attraction force
between liquids molecules that leads to surface tensions
modification to the characters (hydrophobic or hydrophilic)
modification.
Adsorption on solid surface modifies a number of their
properties. Practically all the solid materials in the air can be
considered that they have on their surface an adsorbed film from the
gases and water vapor in the atmosphere, it producing the following
changes:
Gradual increase in volume, beginning from the contact
surface, which can cause cracks in the solid;
Decrease of the tensile strength, due to open microcracks
from the solids surface, where the adsorbed molecules protrude,
widening and deepening them with a wedge effect (fig.4.5); it was
established that the tensile strength of glass bar heated (in vacuum
at 3500C when the gas desorption is produced from the glasses
surface) is two times higher than a similar sample, but kept in the air;
this explains why the thinner wires strength is greater than those with
higher cross section.

Desorbtie
Adsorbtie

Fig.4.5. Wedge effect of the liquid adsorbed layer on solid

the decrease of the friction between solids the film having a

lubricant role; in the case of an adsorbed layer (fig.4.6) the friction
between the solids is more reduced, (the friction coefficient is below
CHAPTER 4 8

unity, and if the adsorbed layer is removed by heating coefficient of

friction increases significantly above unity.
P P
F F

Fig.4.6. Adsorbed liquid lubricant role

4.1.7. Application of interface phenomenons

One of the most common in engineering applications of
interface phenomenons is the modification of the character lyophob
or lyophil materials.
oil wate
r

water oil

a. b.

Fig.4.7. Liophobisation and liophilisation processes

Liophobisation (hirophobization) represents the decrease of

the substances affinity to the liquids (water) by surface-active
substances using. On the liophilic surface of the solid the surface-
active substance adsorbs with the polar terminals on the solid and
with the non-polar terminals to exterior (fig.4.7.a) giving to the
assembly a hydrophobic character.
The building materials liofobization applies to: clays
stabilization, obtaining of the waterproof cement and water-protection
materials.
Lyophilization (hydrophilisation) aims to change the liophobic
character of a substance using surface-active substances having
elongated molecules witch are orienting on the liophile substance
CHAPTER 4 9

surface (fig4.7.b.). Is applied, in particular, for emulsions obtaining

(mixtures of immiscible liquids such as oil in water, bitumen in water
etc.).
Flotation is used to improve the content of utile substances
from ore. Ores are natural materials containing utile metal
combinations with the sterile. The active part of a ore has
hydrophobic character and the sterile has a hydrophilic character. Ore
is finely milled so that surface tension to be greater than the particles
weight; the obtained powder is spreaded on the waters surface,
achieving a separation, the utile part of the ore will float on the
waters surface and the sterile particles decant due to the increased
weight by waters adsorption and the separation will be prosecuted.
Washing. Organic substances removing of from a solids
surface is very difficult because they are hydrophobic. By adding soap
or detergents, they modify the dirty surfaces character from
hydrophobic to hydrophilic; the dirt is fractured, is emulsified and can
be removed.
Chromatography is the separation of complex mixtures into
the component substances.
4.1.8. Specific surface
The surface phenomenons depend on the size of the contact
surfaces between them and how the solids have their own volume
and shape, depend on the solids surface in contact areas.

The specific surface of a material represents the ratio

between the area that separates it from the environment and its
volume.

Surface area depends on the materials of fragmentation

degree. If we consider a cube with 1cm sides, and a 1cm 3 volume,
fragmentation by sides geometrical progression reducing, the
following progression of the number of cubes and specific surface is
obtained.

Table 4.1.
Cubs Nr. of Specific surface
side cubs cm2/cm3
1cm 1 6 6
1mm 103 60 6x10
100 106 600 6x102
10 109 6000 6x103
1 1012 60000 6x104
CHAPTER 4 10

100m 1015 600000 6x105

10m 1018 6000000 6x106
1m 1021 60000000 6x107

If the particles shape is spherical (the sphere has the lowest

surface volume ratio from al the geometrical bodies) the specific
surface is reduced to 80%.
The specific surface size can be accomplished by several
methods such as:
Materials milling (in tubular ball mills) when the particles can
reach the size in order of microns (for cement) and if one takes into
account the surfaces rough of the particle the specific surface
increases significantly.
Increasing of the surface roughness, especially by the
moderate action of corrosive agents. Due to the solids surfaces
unhomogeneity, the corrosion occurs ununiform, the surface turning
into a field filled with microscopic grooves.
Precipitation methods. The products resulted from chemical
reactions, precipitate on inert solid support from chemically point of
view.

4.2. Disperse systems

It was shown that the materials consist of mixtures of

substances which can be distinguished between them by the
chemical structure or state of mater. The substances mixtures are
forming the substances systems which are characterized by:

The components of the system, defined by the individual

substances chemically differentiated.

Systems phases are consisting of homogeneous and distinct

parts, physically separated from each other through well-defined
surfaces.

So the components of a system define its parts which can be

customized by chemical structural aspect and phase system, the
parts, which can be customized by physical aspect. For example:
Mixture of water and its vapors (during boiling) forms a
system with one component (water) and two phases (liquid and gas);
CHAPTER 4 11

Mixture of two gases or two miscible liquids realizes a system

with two components and one phase (gas or liquid);
Mixture of a liquid and a gas (carbonated water) form a
system with two components and two phases.

Single-phase systems where the components can not be

observed (individual) in a physical manner (in natural light) are called
homogeneous systems.

Systems with two or more phases that can be physically

individualized through their separation surfaces formed
heterogeneous surfaces.

The predominant (continuous) part from a system forms the

dispersion medium or the dispersant phase and the
discontinuous phase is called dispersed phase or dispersoid.
The substances systems can be differentiated by the systems
phases or the dispersoids size (table 4.2).
Dispersed systems can be stable or unstable (the maintaining
or not of the dispersed phase) as a consequence of interface
phenomenons that allow or not the dispersed phase agglomeration
and its removal by sedimentation or diffusion, phenomenons
depending on the dispersoids specific surface.

Table 4.2.
Dispersoids
Systems
size Systems type Observations
name
cm
The dispersoid has small
molecules of the atoms or
< 10-7 homogeneous Solutions ions, can not be observed
by optical microscope
The dispersoid can be
heterogeneou observed by high definition
10-7 ... 10-5 Colloids optical microscope but not
s
by free eye
The dispersoid can be
heterogeneou Suspensio
> 10-5 observed by optical
s ns microscope and by free eye

A dispersed system is more stable as the dispersoids specific

surface, will be higher due to the surface phenomenons intensity and
at the same time, in function of the difference between the densities
of phases that facilitate the separation by sedimentation.
CHAPTER 4 12

4.2.1. Solutions
The solutions are the most common systems found in nature
and are the basis of construction materials influencing their
sustainability.

Homogeneous systems in which the dispersoid is composed of

small molecules, atoms or ions (not exceeding 10 -7 cm in size) are
called solutions.

The solution is called the dispersion medium and the solvent or

solvent component solution is called dispersed, or dissolved solute,
the delivery of solutions (solute dispersing in solvent) is called
dissolution.
Phases of the designation system solutions (used for scoring
states of amatter symbols: G - gas, L - liquid, S - solid (Table 4.3).
Dissolution occurs differently depending on the nature of
interatomic bonds and the state of aggregation of the components
that make up the system and therefore the diffusion of the solute in
solvent.

Table 4.3
solutio
Solvent symbol
n name
Components state of matter
Gas
gas gas G-G
mixtures
gas G-L
liquid
liquid liquid L-L
solutions
solid S-L
alloys
solid
solid gas G-S
solution

G-G and G-L solutions are achieved due to the gas ability to
diffuse gas through the solvents constituents;
The L-L and S-L solutions dizolvation occurs in two stages: in
the first stage the solutes bonds are destroyed realizing solvent
solute bonds witch are diffusing in the solvent in the next stage.
G-S and S-S solutions are realized in liquid state of the solvent
and, if necessary, of the solute, according to L-L mechanism.
CHAPTER 4 13

S-S solutions basic constituent for metals and isomorphic

crystalline substances, are achieved by replacing the solvent from the
crystalline lattice with solute particles substitutional solutions or
by positioning of the solute particles in the interstices of the solvents
crystalline lattice - interstitial solutions (fig.4.8).

a. b. c.

Fig.4.8. Solid Solutions

The substitutional solutions can be formed if the constituent

ions have equal or close ionic radius when ca be replaced in the
lattice in any proportion (fig.4.8.a).
In interstitial solutions when constituent ions are different in
size so that particles can be placed in solvent particles interstition,
the distribution may be uniform (fig.4.8.b.) or disordered (fig.4.8.c.)
but at a certain temperature can uniform the distribution forming the
surfaces.
The solutions forming also depends on the nature of
interatomic bonds because is necessary that the solvent - solute
interaction to compensate the solutes particle interaction and can be
achieved when:
the components chemical bonds and the solvent - solution
bonds are similar in nature; substances with ionic bonds are dissolved
in substances having the same bonds or polar covalent bonds (water)
and are not dissolved in substances having unpolar bonds (organic
solvents).
the components bonding energies are comparable or lower
than the solvent - solution bonding energies; molecular lattice solids
are dissolved in organic solvents because connection from the
crystalline lattice are van der Waals type or hydrogen bonds and the
solvent solute connection forces are van der Waals type.
For the study of building materials is particularly interested in
the mechanism of dissolving of solids in liquid solvents, especially
water.
CHAPTER 4 14

Dissolving will depend on the soliss (the solute) and waters

(solvent) bonds nature and occurs in two stages (fig.4.9).

solvent
+ +- + +-+ -

solvent
- + - + - +
- + -
+ - + - +- - + - +
- + - + - +
- + -+
solut

+- -

solut
+- + - - +- +
+ - - polarizare - + + - +
+ +
- +-
- + + disociere - + -
- electrolitic +- + - +- +
-
a) solut cureeaionic b) solut cureeamolecular
a. b.
Fig. 3.7. Schemadizolvrii solidelor nlichidecumoleculepolare

Fig.4.9. Hydration - hydrolysis process

In the first stage of the polar water molecules are attracted to

the constituents to form solid films with different densities, maximum
at surface contact, a step called hydration.
In the second stage, called hydrolysis solvent particles leads
to breakage of structural units of the solute (ions in the crystalline
lattice - fig.4.9.a, molecules in molecular lattice - fig.4.9.b.), which are
diffusing in the solvent (water) as hydrated particles. In molecular
bonded structures of the solid links and a third stage occurs when the
hydrated molecules, formed in the second stage, hydrolysis is
realized.
Through hydrolysis in water new bonds are realized that have as
effect the appearance of ions in solution, a phenomenon which is
called electrolyte or ionic dissociation and the influencing
substances are called electrolytes.
Hydration process - hydrolysis has great significance in
strengthening the mechanisms of mineral binders (gypsum, lime,
cement).
4. 2.1.1. Concentration and solubility solutions

The main solution characteristic is the concentration.

The solutions concentration represents the size of

expressing the ratio between solute and solvent.

After concentration, they differ:

CHAPTER 4 15

concentrate solutions - the solute amount is large relative

to the solvent amount;
diluted solutions - the solute amount is small compared
with the solvent.
After the expression of the solutions parts to a concentration
may be:
Percentage concentration of mass - is the ratio of solute
mass and 100g of solution.
s
%C m
S (4.3)
100
Where:
s - mass of solute (g)
S - solvent mass (grams)
Concentration percentage of volume - is the ratio of solute
mass and 100ml of solution.
s
%C v
V (4.4)
100
Where:
s - mass of solute (g)
V - volume of solution (ml)
Mass of solution in grams contained in one milliliter of solution
is called titre and is denoted T.
Volume percentage concentration represents the ratio between
the solute and 100 units of volume of solution.
v
%C v
V (4.5)
100
Where:
v - solute mass (ml)
V - volume of solution (ml)

Molar concentration (molarity) - is expressed by the number

of moles of solution dissolved in one liter of solution.
m
%C m
V (4. 6)
1000
Where:
m - the number of moles of solution
V - volume of solution (ml)
CHAPTER 4 16

Molal concentration (molality) - is expressed by the number

of moles of solution dissolved in 1000 g of solvent.
m
%m
Vs (4. 7)
1000
Where:
m - number of moles of solution
Vs - volume of solvent (ml)
Normal concentration (normality) - is expressed by the
number of gram equivalents (val) solution dissolved in one liter of
solution.
m
%m
Vs (4.8)
1000

Where:
V1-number of validated solution
S solutions volume (ml)

In practice there are cases in which substances can form

homogeneous mixtures, mix in any proportion between them, but
more often mixing can be achieved within certain limits, that can
have a maximum concentration - the saturation limit.

Maximum concentration that can reach a solution is called the

saturation concentration and the achieved solution in this way is
called saturated solution.

Saturation concentration will be determined by the nature of

the solution constituents, temperature and pressure.

Solute concentration in a saturated solution is called the

solubility of the solute (substance).
Depending on the maximum solubility in water (S - grams of
saturated water solution at 100g, 1 atm and 200C) substances can
be:
slightly soluble substances (S> 10g,> 1%)
poorly soluble substances (S = 10g ... 0.01 g, 1% ... 0.1%)
insoluble (S <0.01 g)
CHAPTER 4 17

Solubility varies with temperature and pressure (the gas

increases with pressure and decreases with increasing temperature).
If a solution is saturated state the parameters of the solution
can be removed until the solution reaches the solubility of the new
conditions.
Remove solution from a saturated solution to change the
parameters of state, is produced by degassing solutions G-L, L-L and
separation from solutions by precipitation from solutions SL.
It is sometimes possible to delay the elimination of the solute in
solution to produce, so it reaches a concentration above saturation.

State of the solution in which the concentration is higher than

the solubility condition is called oversaturated state.

When a solution is supersaturated state due to a chemical

reaction with the solvent and solute when the new structure is lower
than solubility the precipitation occurs which explains the hardening
process of mineral binders such as plaster.
Saturated state is unstable in case of energy intake or the
presence of a crystal, the solution precipitates and crystallizes.
4.2.1.2. Binding properties of the solutions
Solutions presents a number of different properties of the
solvent and depend on the number of particles present in the system
and independent of particle properties.

Feature-binding is a property of a system determined by the

number of particles in the system, but independent of their particle
properties.

Binding properties of the solutions are:

Lowering the vapor pressure;
Raising the boiling point;
Lowering the point of solidification (freezing);
Osmotic pressure.
F.M.'s Law Raoult (1867) states that the relative decline of the
vapor pressure of a dilute solution is directly proportional to the mole
fraction of solute in solution is independent of temperature and
nature of the solute.
According to Raoult's law vapor pressure of a solution will
always be lower than that of pure solvent - the solvent molar fraction
are several solution to pure solvent solution where the fraction is 0.
CHAPTER 4 18

The consequences of reducing the vapor pressure are boiling

temperature raising and lowering the solidification temperature
(freezing) with liquid solutions of pure solvent.
Lowering the freezing temperature of water solutions have
application in the implementation of building construction in cold
weather (pouring concrete and mortar processing) or de-icing roads.

Osmosis is the process of passing through a semi-permeable

membrane has a solvent in the same solvent solution or a diluted
solution more concentrated one.

Semi-permeable membrane is a film with very small pores that

allow passage of solvent molecules retaining the solute molecules.
Osmosis phenomenon occurs because of a solution to reduce
the concentration diffusion.
If in an enclosed space (such as a glass bell) is located two
bowls: one with a solvent and a solution of the same solvent (Fig.
4.10) the following process occurs: the two vessels in the area will be
closed vapor was the two liquids (solvents and solution) with different
vapor pressure in this space and how there can be only one vapor
pressure means that the two vapor pressures must be equal. How p0
solvent vapor pressure must be constant change of the solution vapor
pressure p1. This process is possible only if the solution is diluted,
which is a condensation of the vapor evaporating the solvent and
therefore its continuous. The process ends when all the solvent
evaporated. Trend follows the dilution of the solution.

Fig.4.10. Modification of the solvents percent from a solution

CHAPTER 4 19

Osmotic pressure is the pressure equivalent to a solution of

water pressure that impedes the flow of solvents and solvent in the
solution when the solution is separated by a semi-permeable
membrane.

Osmotic pressure can be put out in a cell osmotic (fig.4.11)

consists of a container in which the solution is diluted or solvent (3),
man will find funnel the concentrated solution (1) closed at bottom
with a semi-permeable membrane (2).

Fig.4.11 Osmotic cell

The phenomenon of osmosis will lead to the increase in the

more concentrated solution because the corresponding diffusion
solvent and will raise the liquid from the funnel until the liquid column
pressure becomes large enough to restrained diffusion of solvent
molecules through semi-permeable membrane. Liquid column height
h of the horn is the osmotic pressure.
Osmosis explains some biological processes at the plant and
animal cell, enhancing hydraulic binders, binders reinforced corrosion
etc.
4.2.2. Colloidal systems
CHAPTER 4 20

Microeterogeneos disperse systems where the dispersoid

have sizes ranging from 10-7 10-5 are called colloidal systems or
colloids.

In colloids dispersed systems occupy an intermediate place

between dispersele homogeneous (solutions) and coarse dispersele
neomiogene microeterogene systems being considered in aerosols
are particles larger than small molecules but smaller than the
wavelength of light in the visible spectrum (can not observed under
the optical microscope).
Por colloidal systems are formed between all phases except for
GG to form a homogeneous system (Table 4.4)

Table 4.4.
Dispersion Dispersoi
Symbol
medium d Name
The components state of matter
liquid L-G
gas aerosols
solid S-G
Fine
gaz G-L
foams
liquid Coloidall
liquid L-L
emulsions
solid S-L sols
gaz G-S xerogels
solid liquid L-S gels
solid S-S alloys

Large specific surface particle aerosols and interface facilitates

development of such phenomena can be liofili colloids (hydrophilic)
particles which are wetted by the dispersed phase and dispersion
medium liofobi (hydrophobic) in the dispersed phase particles are not
wetted by the dispersion medium.
For the study of building materials primarily interested colloids
SL structures with solid aerosols - ground and LS - gel. Achieving
these structures begins with soil formation.

Soli liofili
The messages affinity liofili environment due to the dispersion
of aerosols particles are dispersed autodifuzeaz, each particle
CHAPTER 4 21

aerosols are made of a shell environment will be restrained from

dispersion due to agglomeration elasticity structure. Through this
mechanism is hindered particle agglomeration aerosols are partly
offset by the density difference between phases of the system.

Soli liofobi
If liofobi colloids, due to lack of affinity between phases, to
achieve dispersion and stability of the system it must first change the
feature of surface aerosols in liofil luiofob and surface-active
substances that are used.
Adsorb surface-active substances on the surface of aerosols to
form a hydrophilic film loaded with electric charge (A) (fig.4.). Around
these structures will be attracted contraioni complex ion (B) (ions of
opposite ions in the first layer - A) of the dispersion medium forming
an electric double layer system, called the micelles formed. When the
electric charge of the first layer has a negative ion or anion system is
called negative and positive ions when their task is called positive or
cationic system.
Messengers hydrophobic stability is ensured by forming micelles
that are rejected due to a static electrical charges of the same sign.
Getting colloidal systems
Methods for obtaining colloidal systems vary by the type and
nature of colloid phase components.
1. Methods of dispersing the dispersed phase is finely
fragmented and scattered up to a size colloids dispersed phase, this
will be done by:
mechanical dispersion - colloidal grinding mills;
Dispersal of electricity - electrical discharges between two
electrodes;
ultrasonic dispersion - the use of high frequency sounds.
2. Condensation methods by which the agglomeration of small
particles (molecules) from a colloidal solution to size using:
Chemical methods - the double-exchange reactions,
hydrolysis, reduction - oxidation;
Changing the solvent - the solvent is changed by adding
slowly and stirring;
Condensation of vapors of substances.
Phase separation in colloidal systems
Phase separation of the applicant may be required in some
processes of construction materials and processing can be achieved
by:
CHAPTER 4 22

evaporation of the liquid phase;

Salting is the introduction of electrolytes in liofili messages
that produce desorption phase dispersed aerosols particles that
remain without cover eleastic, come together in large formations (a
process called coagulation) and settle;
centrifuge - intalaii use of high speed centrifuge, while the
centrifugal force when the stage is crowded with high density at the
periphery of the centrifuge.
Electrophoresis and apply liofobi messengers is to apply a
static electric field that guides contraionii, on the one hand and retul
Miceli on the other hand, for corespuztori electrodes.
4.2.3. Gels
A colloidal structure in which the dispersion medium is solid and
dispersoid is liquid is called gel.

Gels are obtained by gradually reducing the liquid phase of soil

structure (by evaporation, absorption to the substrate) until aerosols
particles come into contact forming a three-dimensional network that
remains dispersed in the liquid phase (fig.4.12). Gels can be achieved
by reducing the energy of a system of high concentration soil type.

micele

Faz lichid dispersat

Fig.4.12. Structure gels

The transformation of sol - gel called gelling and should not be

confused with clotting, whereas no phase separation occurs in the
micelles.
Gelling occurs through changes in its colloidal system: the
disappearance or reduction of liquid phase characteristics (increased

sol gel
CHAPTER 4 23

viscosity, flow loss) and appearance properties of solids (mechanical

strength (elasticity, hardness).
The main feature is the mechanical elasticity of the gels
depends on the form of aerosols, gels are more elastic as aerosols has
a more elongated and the percentage of liquid phase is higher.

Fig.4.13. Gelling

If between gel particles dispersed phase connects

interparticulare, sol-gel transformation process is reversible, if the
contact points of particles dispersed in the structure of chemical
bonds is achieved gels gelling process is irreversible.
Sol-gel transformations applied to the use of building materials
can be achieved by:
Add the liquid (dispersion medium original) - transformation of
lime paste obtained by adding water and milk of lime;
Energy intake (mechanical stirring, heating moderate) -
vibrating concrete in casting, heating bitumen in asphalt concrete
achievement etc.
Use of chemicals (usually electrolytes) that adsorb onto solid
particles increasing their electrokinetic potential leads to particle
dispersion, substances used for this purpose are called gum
inhibitors, and the process is called peptizare.

Thixotropia gels are owned (thixotropic) the applicant passes

the energy intake.

While kept in dry gels lose by evaporation or chemical

processes much of the liquid phase is replaced by a gaseous phase
realizing the drying process.

Gels in which the liquid phase was replaced by a gaseous phase

are called xerogels.

Drying gels is accompanied by:

large volume contraction due to rearrangement strucuturii, if
contraction is hindered (for accession on aggregate cement stone in
concrete) structure may crack;
Reduced elasticity, the increase of stiffness due to the
completion of additional physical connections and sometimes the
chemical bond.
CHAPTER 4 24

Stiffening process irreversible in time, gelurior, as a result of

structural changes is called physical and chemical aging gels.

In contact with the liquid phase (if water wetting) gels absorb
the liquid and increase its volume, a process called dipping. Drying
gels after soaking leads to a further reduction in the volume of lower
intensity than before realizing mbibrii. Variations in volume during
drying - are all soaking strongest gels are more elastic and fresh.
Explains the phenomena of colloidal systems strengthening
hydraulic binders, bitumen processing processes, structure and use of
sealants, the behavior of clays etc.

4.2.4. Heterogeneous systems

Macroeterogen dispersed heterogeneous systems are systems,

less stable, the size of aerosols is larger than 10-5cm.

Heterogeneous systems can be achieved by all states of

aggregation combinations except combination GG.
Heterogeneous systems environments have few stable liquid
aerosols due to the size (surface phenomena can not compensate for
the weight of particles) and density differences between components.

Suspensions in liquid media

CHAPTER 4 25