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Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council

Water Made Clear

A consumer guide to accompany the
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2004

INVESTING IN AUSTRALIAS HEALTH

Water made clear
A consumer guide to accompany the
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2004

Endorsed by NHMRC 1011 April 2003

Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council

 Australian Government 2004
Material included in this document may be freely reproduced provided
that it is accompanied by an acknowledgment stating the full title of
the document, the National Health and Medical Research Council and
National Resource Management Ministerial Council and the date of release.
ISBN (print): 1 86496 177 5
ISBN (online): 1 86496 171 6

The strategic intent of the National Health and Medical Research Council
(NHMRC) is to work with others for the health of all Australians, by
promoting informed debate on ethics and policy, providing knowledge-
based advice, fostering a high quality and internationally recognised research
base, and applying research rigour to health issues.

NHMRC documents are prepared by panels of experts drawn from

appropriate Australian academic, professional, community and government
organisations. NHMRC is grateful to these people for the excellent work they
do on its behalf. The work is usually performed on an honorary basis and in
addition to their usual work commitments.

This document is also available through the NHMRC homepage at

www.nhmrc.gov.au.

Membership of the NHMRC Drinking Water Consumer Guide

Working Group:
Mr Alec Percival (Chair) Consumers Health Forum
Dr Anne Neller University of the Sunshine Coast
Mr Brian McRae Australian Water Association

Secretariat
Mr Phil Callan National Health and Medical Research Council

Technical Writers
Dr Hilary Cadman Biotext Pty Ltd
Ms Janelle Kennard Biotext Pty Ltd

Graphic Designer
Mr Sam Highley Clarus Design Pty Limited

All photos by Clarus Design unless acknowledged otherwise.

Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Water made clear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

The essential drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Where does our drinking water come from? . . . . . 7
A limited supply of freshwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
How do we use our water? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Whats in the water? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Disease and contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Disease-causing organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Toxic substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Where do contaminants come from? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

The journey to the tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Keeping our water safe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Protecting catchments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Resting in reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Treating the water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Coagulation, occulation and sedimentation . . . . . . . 16
Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Membrane ltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Disinfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Checking that water is safe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

A proactive approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Do I need a water lter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Small water supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Rainwater supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Who is responsible for safe drinking water? . . . . . 22
Australian drinking water guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Keeping the guidelines up to date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

What can I do to help? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Help to keep drinking water safe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Treat catchments with respect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Dont tip it down the drain! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Keep runo and stormwater clean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Keep your plumbing in good repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Watch out for backow! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Conserving water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Further information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

5
Foreword
1011 April 2003
Australia is the driest inhabited continent, and our supply of water is not
inexhaustible. With Australia in the grip of the worst drought in a century, it
is apparent that our freshwater supplies are indeed a precious resource.
To ensure that the health of all Australians is not threatened by poor
quality drinking water, the National Health and Medical Research Council
(NHMRC) has, for over 30 years, developed guidance on water quality for
the Australian water industry. The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
continue to provide vital information to all those agencies around Australia
responsible for bringing you safe, good quality water.
It is now clear that the community also has an important role to play in the
management of our water quality.
In developing this publication, the NHMRC seeks to make information
more widely available and hopes to encourage people to gain a better
understanding of those processes required for the provision of safe drinking
water for the whole community.
This publication has been developed to highlight the many steps that water
must go through before it is delivered safely to your tap, and the things
that we can all do to ensure that we continue to receive the highest quality
drinking water.
Safe water is essential to sustain life we all have a responsibility to make
every eort to ensure the quality of our drinking water. The NHMRC hopes
that this document encourages you, as a consumer, to become more active
in the management of drinking water.
Water is important; lets work together to maintain this precious resource.

Professor Nicholas Saunders

Chair, NHMRC (20002003)

6
Water made clear
It is easy for us to take the quality of our drinking water for granted when
we turn on the tap, we expect safe, pleasant-tasting water to ow out.
Long before water reaches our tap, carefully managed systems are in place
protecting our water and making it safe to drink, from the water falling as
rain to the point when it reaches our tap.
The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (2004) give Australias water
managers and suppliers guidance on providing good quality drinking water.
Water is fundamental to life and health
This booklet looks at why drinking water quality is so important, the journey
United Nations Committee on Economic, Cultural and
our water makes to our taps, systems to ensure good water quality and how Social Rights (2002)
everyone can help safeguard this most precious of resources.

The essential drop

Water is essential for life. Our health depends on having an adequate supply
of safe water for drinking, cooking, laundry and bathing every day.
The link between our water supply and disease has been recognised for
thousands of years at least since Egyptian times. If our water becomes
contaminated with microorganisms or chemicals, illness can result. Disease-
causing microorganisms carried by water are the biggest threat to health,
causing gastrointestinal upset, diarrhoea or even death.
In some cases, people can become ill after drinking contaminated water
just once.
As we all depend on clean water every day, any problem with the water
supply can very quickly have major consequences for an entire community.
Water is all too easily wasted or contaminated. We need to use it wisely and
protect it.
Drinking water is
water intended primarily for human
consumption, either directly, as supplied from
the tap, or indirectly, in beverages or foods
prepared with water.
It should contain no harmful concentrations
of chemicals or pathogenic microorganisms,
and ideally it should be aesthetically pleasing in
regard to appearance, taste and odour.
Source: Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, National
Health and Medical Research Council (2003)

Where does our drinking water come from?

Our drinking water comes mainly from two sources: surface water (rainfall
and its runo into streams and rivers) and groundwater (water that has
collected in underground stores or aquifers). Surface water can come from
a river, lake or articial dam. Groundwater is accessed through a bore.
Across Australia, water suppliers access this water, treat it and distribute it
to consumers. A substantial number of Australian households also collect
rainwater as their main source of drinking water.

7
A limited supply of freshwater
The amount of water on our planet that is suitable and available for drinking
is very small. Only 2.5% of the total water on earth is freshwater. Most of
this is not available for drinking, because it is frozen in glaciers or the polar
icecaps, or is unavailable in the soil. Accessible freshwater is found in the
atmosphere, lakes, rivers, streams, wetlands and under the surface in aquifers
(groundwater).

Soil Atmosphere (8%)

Saline water (97.5%)
Ice caps and (23.5%)
glaciers (76%) Freshwater
lakes (54%)
Freshwater (2.5%) Accessible water (0.5%) Groundwater
(38%)

Breakdown of 0.5%
World's total water Breakdown of 2.5% freshwater soil and surface water

Across the globe, population growth, urban development and

environmental degradation are putting freshwater supplies under ever-
increasing stress. Today, 4 out of every 10 people live in areas that are
experiencing water scarcity, and nearly 50% of the worlds population is likely
to face severe water shortages by 2025.
Australia is particularly dry despite occupying 5% of the worlds land
area, it has only 1% of the water carried by the worlds rivers. This is because
Australia is at and hot, so most of the rain that falls evaporates again before
it can replenish streams, rivers and underground stores. Rainfall in Australia is
also very variable our land of droughts and ooding rains making the
supply of freshwater even more variable.
In the face of this unpredictable supply, Australians rely on stored water
and underground supplies. Large volumes of drinking water are stored in
both natural and human-made reservoirs, including planned recharge of
underground storages (aquifers). Australia stores more water per person
than any other country the equivalent of three Olympic swimming pools
for every Australian.
Groundwater provides about one-fth of Australias drinking water supplies.
Some regions use little or no groundwater, while others rely heavily on this
source. The Great Artesian Basin, Australias largest source of groundwater,
provides the only reliable and continuous water supply for much of the arid
outback, particularly in Queensland, New South Wales and South Australia.
Being dicult to access, groundwater is extremely dicult to clean up if it
becomes polluted. Therefore, it is vital to protect groundwater at source.

8
 Solar
radiation
Moisture transport

Precipitation

Evaporation
Transpiration

Adapted from a CSIRO Land and Water diagram

Percolation
Soil moistu Surfa
re c e run
Water table off

Groundwater to lakes and streams

Ocean
Groundwater to ocean
Deep seepage

The water cycle

The water we drink has been around for hundreds of millions of years. It travels in a continuous cycle between the oceans, the air, the earths surface
and underground storages (aquifers), undergoing natural cleansing as it makes this journey, but also potentially becoming contaminated. Water vapour
condenses to form clouds, which release water as rain, hail or snow when conditions are suitable. As the water falls to earth it either moves into the soil
or runs into rivers and the ocean. Surface water in lakes, streams and oceans evaporates, returning moisture to the atmosphere. Plants also return water
to the atmosphere by taking water from the ground through their roots and releasing it from their leaves in a process known as transpiration.

How do we use our water? Typical use of drinking water in

By far the biggest consumer of water in Australia is agriculture, which the home Data source: Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment
accounts for more than 70% of water use, mainly for irrigation. Some
industries are also heavy water users, such as manufacturing (approximately
3% of total water used in Australia) and the production of electricity and
gas (around 8%). Approximately 8% of the water used in Australia is used in
homes.
The water that is used in most Australian homes and gardens is of drinking
water quality. This means that it has been carefully managed and treated
to make it safe to drink. Yet only around 1% of drinking water is actually
used for drinking, considerably more being used for activities like cooking,
washing clothes, showering and ushing the toilet. The garden takes the
Drinking Flushing toilet
most drinking water, typically accounting for around 35% of consumption, Kitchen Showering
although in hot, dry summers, this gure can be as high as 90% in some Washing clothes Garden
parts of Australia.

9
Whats in the water?
In its purest form, water is simply H2O; that is, two atoms of hydrogen
attached to each atom of oxygen. Because water is such a good solvent, in
the environment it will always contain dissolved or suspended impurities.
The types of impurities found in water can be divided into four groups:
microbial (microorganisms), physical, chemical, and radiological.

Photo supplied by Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment
Having impurities in drinking water is not necessarily a bad thing many
constituents of normal drinking water are harmless or even desirable. For
example, the minerals calcium and magnesium, which can enter water from
soil and rocks, are good for human health and give the water a pleasant taste.
Other impurities can aect the aesthetic qualities of water such as
appearance, taste, smell and feel. Such impurities are not necessarily
hazardous to human health. In fact, the taste, smell and appearance of water
is not a good guide to its safety. Water that is cloudy, has a distinctive odour
or has a strong taste is not necessarily harmful to health, while clear, pleasant
tasting water may still contain harmful microorganisms.
While not all impurities are a problem, some have serious health consequences.

Types of impurities found in water

Types of impurities Examples

Microbial
Bacteria Campylobacter, Legionella
Viruses Hepatitis, Norwalk
Protozoa Cryptosporidium, Giardia
Other Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
Physical
Colour Iron, dissolved organic matter
Taste and odour Geosmin, methyl isoborneol
Appearance Silt, suspended particles, plankton
Chemical
Naturally occurring Manganese, nitrate
Agricultural Atrazine, chlordane
Water treatment Chlorine, uoride
Plumbing Lead, copper
Industrial Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons, mercury
Radiological
Naturally occurring Radium, uranium

10
Disease and contaminants Contaminated water claims lives
A number of organisms or substances that cause human disease can An outbreak of waterborne illness in Canada in
contaminate water supplies. The most serious of these are microorganisms. 2000 highlighted the importance of protecting
They can have immediate and devastating eects on our health. Some water supplies and the danger of waterborne
microorganisms to human health. Over 2000
chemical contaminants also cause human disease. Usually, the eects of
people became ill, 65 were hospitalised and 7
such contaminants are only seen after long periods of exposure. These two died as a result of a contamination of the water
broad categories of disease-causing contaminants are examined below. supply in Walkerton, Ontario.
Two major bacterial contaminants were
Disease-causing organisms discovered: a disease-causing strain of E. coli
which caused a sometimes fatal condition
Pathogenic (disease-causing) microorganisms in drinking water pose the called haemolytic uraemic syndrome (the
greatest potential threat to human health. Over three million people a year, same condition that occurred in the Garabaldi
many of them children under ve years of age, die from waterborne and food poisoning incident in Adelaide); and
sanitation-related diseases. Most of these deaths occur in the developing Campylobacter, a bacteria from human and
animal waste that causes gastroenteritis. The
world, where many communities have no access to clean or treated water, or
two strains matched those found in cattle on
adequate sanitation.
farms near local water bores.
Since the 1930s and 1940s water supplies in Australia have been subjected to An inquiry found that many faults in the local
widespread disinfection. Before this time, death from water-borne diseases water management had contributed to the
was much more common than it is today. While the potential threat outbreak, including inadequate protection
remains, in most parts of Australia, waterborne disease is controlled by of the catchment surrounding the bores,
insucient chlorination, an assumption
good water management. In some parts of Australia, water quality remains a
that bores were secure water sources and
problem, especially in some rural and indigenous communities. inadequate training of sta operating the
Microorganisms include bacteria, viruses and protozoa, only a few of which treatment plant.
cause disease. However, microorganisms in human and animal faeces are
responsible for most waterborne diseases. In some parts of the world,
waterborne diseases such as dysentery, hepatitis, cholera and typhoid cause
severe, and at times fatal, diarrhoea.
Cryptosporidium and Giardia were recently brought to attention in Australia
by the 1998 Sydney water crisis. They are protozoans parasites that
consist of a single cell. Cryptosporidium and Giardia are a problem for the
water supply industry because they are widespread in surface water, can
survive for long periods and are dicult to treat. Did you know that
Australia experienced the worlds worst ever
algal bloom in 1991, covering more than
Toxic substances 1000 km of the Barwon and Darling rivers in
New South Wales. Drinking water had to be
Blue-green algae
brought into the area for residents of regional
Cyanobacteria, better known as blue-green algae, are a health hazard and rural towns supplied by the rivers. A
because of the toxins they release. Some toxins result only in a skin rash, number of animals (but no humans) died from
drinking the contaminated water.
but others are more serious, causing liver and nerve damage. The toxins are
released into the water and can remain even when the bacteria themselves Algal blooms are actually caused by bacteria
have been removed. If contamination occurs, it may not be sucient to (cyanobacteria), which are very widespread in
the environment. These organisms become
boil the water. Boiling destroys the cells, but not all of the toxins. Therefore,
a problem when nutrient levels rise. This can
special treatment is required to remove the toxins from water contaminated happen when agricultural activity results in
by blue-green algae. large amounts of fertilisers entering warm,
slow-moving waterways.

11
Substances that can pollute drinking water sources

Photo: Getty Images

Fertilisers and pesticides from
agriculture and forestry

Livestock waste from farming Hazardous wastes from industry

Human waste from urban Leaks from landfill sites

development

Runoff from mining and

quarrying

12
 Chemicals
Pathogenic microorganisms have fairly immediate eects but health eects
from potentially harmful chemical and radioactive contaminants in drinking
water become evident only after long exposure (typically many years). For
example, low levels of arsenic in drinking water might increase the incidence of
skin, lung or bladder cancer, in a population that had been drinking the water
for many years.
Chemicals of concern for drinking water include some naturally occurring
chemicals, such as nitrate, selenium and uranium; agricultural chemicals
such as pesticides and fertilisers; and the chemical byproducts formed
when water is treated with a disinfectant (these disinfection byproducts
are discussed in detail below in the section on water treatment). However,
the amount of these chemicals in our drinking water is generally very
small much lower than the levels that would be considered harmful to
health. Indeed, we are exposed to higher levels of these chemicals in our
environment and our food (though they are well below what is considered a
safe level).

Radioactive contaminants
The health eect most strongly associated with radioactive contaminants is
cancer. Extremely low levels of radiation are a naturally occurring characteristic
of water in our environment. Drinking water is likely to contribute only a very
small proportion of a persons overall natural exposure to radiation.

Where do contaminants come from?

Microbiological, physical, chemical and radiological materials can all be found
naturally in water in the environment, and can also result from a range of human
activities. For example, inadequately treated sewage or animal wastes from
agriculture can contaminate surface and groundwater with microorganisms.
Agriculture, industry, household activities and runo from roads can contam-
inate water with chemicals such as nitrates, pesticides, fertilisers, heavy metals,
solvents and volatile organic compounds, such as petroleum products.
Certain chemicals are added to water as part of the treatment process. For
example, aluminium sulfate is used to help remove particles from water,
chlorine is added as a disinfectant and uoride is often added to improve
dental health. The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines specify the safe,
tolerable level of these additives. Water suppliers ensure that chemicals that
are added during treatment and may remain in the water when it reaches
the consumer do not exceed these levels.
A further source of chemicals can be household plumbing that contains
copper or lead. These chemicals can leach into drinking water on its way to
the tap. Consumers who are concerned about their household plumbing
should discuss this matter with their local health or water authority.
Australias drinking water supplies are carefully managed to ensure that
dangerous contaminants either do not get into the untreated water, or are
reduced to safe levels long before the water reaches our taps.

13
The journey to the tap
The following sections track the journey that our water takes from rainfall to
the tap. They outline how the safety of our water is ensured along the way.
In Australia, the way our water is treated and managed depends on where
we live. Our population is generally clustered in large cities along the coast,
vast areas of Australia are only very sparsely populated. As a consequence,
there is a huge variation in scale in water-delivery systems. Some water
authorities supply populations of more than a million (Sydney Water
services four million people in the Sydney region, for example) while many
others service as few as several thousand (such as AQWEST, in Bunbury,
Western Australia, servicing around 34,000 people). In addition, some local
governments run small systems that supply drinking water to as few as 20
people, while about one in six Australian homes use rainwater collected on
roof catchments.
Because large metropolitan systems supply the majority of Australians with
their water, such systems are used in the following section to illustrate the
practices that keep our water safe. Many of these practices also apply to the
smaller distribution systems. Particular issues for smaller systems are outlined
in a separate section.

Keeping our water safe

We keep our drinking water safe through a combination of protection and
treatment, aimed at ensuring that water is safe for human consumption,
pleasant to drink and reasonably priced.

Photo supplied by Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment
No single intervention is sucient to deliver safe, high quality drinking
water to consumers. Ideally, the primary focus of the water authority is on
preventing the water from becoming contaminated; that is, protecting the
water. The idea is that the combined eects of multiple barriers prevent
and/or reduce hazards to tolerable levels. In the event that one barrier fails,
other barriers should be sucient (at least in the short term) to compensate.
Traditional barriers include:
protecting the catchments and source water
holding water in protected reservoirs or storage
treatment
disinfection
protecting the distribution system
maintenance of the distribution system.

14
Protecting catchments
The condition of the catchment the area over which rainwater is caught
and drains into a water supply is probably the most important factor
inuencing the quality of water. It also determines how much treatment is
needed before the water is safe to drink. Water drawn from a pristine natural
catchment will be of higher quality and need less treatment than water
that has owed through a heavily used urban or agricultural area. Where
practical, catchments can be protected by excluding industry, agriculture
and urban development and by limiting human access to the area. Even
where land uses are permitted within the catchment, the condition of the
riparian (river or stream) corridors can have a great inuence on the quality
of the water supplies.
Rainfall patterns over the catchment also aect the quantity and quality
of water owing into supplies. Experience has shown that unusually heavy
rainfall can wash large amounts of contaminants from the catchment into
storage reservoirs. It can also mix water and sediment within reservoirs,
stirring up microbes and other matter that had previously settled.
The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines provide information for water
authorities on how to set out careful catchment management plans. The
plans identify possible risks and hazards, such as grazing livestock or sudden
heavy rainfall, which could cause contamination. Appropriate responses
are incorporated into management plans, to ensure that the water supply
remains safe, despite these possible hazards. For example, following heavy
rainfall, authorities could select water from an alternative source, or adjust
the water treatment to cope with the inux of contaminants.

Resting in reservoirs
Water running o the catchment area is stored in protected reservoirs
before being drawn o for treatment and distribution. Water may remain in
a reservoir for a month or twoor up to several yearsbefore it is drawn
o for treatment and use. This allows many contaminants to settle out of
the water and many microorganisms to be destroyed by natural ultraviolet
(UV) radiation from the sun. Storage also allows water to be drawn o
from dierent levels, so that the highest quality water can be selected for
treatment.

15
Treating the water
Water treatment mainly involves the removal of sediments and
contaminants, followed by disinfection to kill potentially harmful
microorganisms. Treatment can also include measures to improve aesthetic
qualities such as the colour, taste and smell of drinking water. The choice
of treatment depends on where the water comes from, what type of
contaminants might be present and the cost of the treatment compared to
the savings made through the prevention of diseases in the community.
The water treatment applied most widely in Australia is a combination of
coagulation, occulation, sedimentation and ltration. It is based on the
fairly simple technologies that were developed in the 19th century and
have been rened to require less time, space and cost and to operate more
eciently and eectively. However, water treatment technology is beginning
to change in response to technical advances, better understanding of the
contaminants present in drinking water and their health risks, rising public
expectations and the need to balance cost against eectiveness.
Coagulation, occulation and sedimentation
Fine particles like clay, silt and algae do not settle out on standing; instead
they are removed using a chemical called a coagulant or occulant. The
coagulant binds the particles into large clumps (ocs) that either settle
out or can be removed by ltration. Commonly used coagulants include
aluminium sulfate (alum), polymers and iron salts. Together, coagulation,
occulation and sedimentation remove more than 99% of bacteria and
viruses, organic matter from soil and vegetation, and some chemicals.
These processes do not completely remove dissolved material, which can
include toxins and compounds that aect taste and smell, and organic
matter that encourages growth of microorganisms and formation of
disinfection byproducts. An additional mechanical or chemical purication
step, such as treating water with activated carbon, can be used to remove
this type of contaminant.
Filtration
The passage of water through a bed of ne particles (eg sand and gravel)
removes ne suspended solids and larger microorganisms. Filtration can
be used alone (particularly if the source water does not contain a lot of
suspended material) or in combination with coagulation and occulation.
Carbon added to lter beds can remove objectionable tastes or odours. The
carbon works through adsorption, drawing contaminants out like a sponge
or magnet, rather than physically ltering them out.
16
A novel approach to water
treatment
Cost eective management of dissolved
organic carbon (DOC) in water is one of the
key challenges facing todays water treatment
industry. At best, traditional treatment processes
generally remove only about half of the organic
matter in water. The material that remains
can have a major impact on coagulation,
maintenance of disinfection residual and the
formation of chemical byproducts. It can
also produce undesirable taste, odour and
appearance of the water.
After many years of research, the Australian
Water Quality Centre and the South Australian
Water Corporation, in collaboration with CSIRO
and Orica, has developed a new resin, which
could be the answer to this problem. MIEX
DOC resin is a simple to use, cost-eective
and environmentally friendly way to improve
management of water quality. The resin removes
organic material by absorption and is then
regenerated using salt. No chemicals are added to
water during the process, and because the resin
can be recycled, it is cost eective.
The rst commercially operating water treatment
plant in the world that incorporates MIEX DOC
resin technology is located at Mount Pleasant in
South Australia, and provides water to Mount
Pleasant, Eden Valley.
Photo supplied by Ted Gardner, Queensland Department of Natural Resources
Photo supplied by Ted Gardner, Queensland Department of Natural Resources
Membrane ltration
An alternative to ltering water through sand is to use a membrane lter,
in which water is passed through tiny holes (pores) in a plastic membrane,
which acts like a sieve. Recent improvements in quality and performance of
membrane ltration, combined with reduced costs, have made membranes
competitive in many cases with conventional techniques. The ltration
process can produce very high quality water.
Disinfection
Disinfection is perhaps the most important treatment process. It inactivates
microorganisms, rather than removing them (as ltration does). The process
is most eective if the water is relatively clean; therefore, disinfection is
usually the last step in water treatment. Chlorine and chloramine are the
disinfectants used most widely in Australia. Some water supply authorities
also use chlorine dioxide, ozone and/or UV irradiation. All of these
disinfectants have advantages and disadvantages, and all can generate
byproducts that may have implications for health in the long term.
Although certain disinfection byproducts may pose a small risk to health
the immediate health risks from not eectively disinfecting drinking water
greatly outweigh the potential risk to health from the byproducts.
Disinfection should not be compromised in attempting to control
disinfection by-products. (WHO, 2003).
A certain level of disinfectant (known as a disinfectant residual) in
the distribution system is maintained to prevent the regrowth of
microorganisms before the water reaches the consumers tap.
Pros and cons of disinfectants
used for treating water
Chlorine
The most widely used disinfectant, chlorine
generates a number of dierent byproducts,
including trihalomethanes (THMs). It has
been suggested that THMs increase the risk
of cancer, but so far there is no clear scientic
evidence of a risk to health from the THMs in
drinking water.
Chlorine dioxide
Generates lower levels of THMs than chlorine
but is a weaker disinfectant and produces
other potentially harmful byproducts such as
chlorate and chlorite.
Chloramine
Long lasting and therefore good for
maintaining a disinfectant residual, helping to
ensure that microorganisms do not multiply
in the water in the distribution system.
It produces lower THM concentrations
than chlorination, but does produce other
byproducts such as cyanogen chloride.
Ozone
Very eective but generates byproducts (eg
bromates and aldehydes). Ozone is more
expensive than chlorine and is short lived,
which means that it can only be used in
combination with another disinfectant.
UV radiation
Eective disinfectant, as long as water is
relatively free of suspended and dissolved
particles. Does not provide residual disinfection;
therefore, a small dose of a persistent
disinfectant such as chloramine might be added
to act as a preservative during distribution.
17
The water treatment process

Store in open reservoir

Suspended material settles out; Transfer to enclosed tank
Source water microorganisms are removed and add coagulant
Surface or groundwater sourced by settling out, UV radiation
from protected catchments such as Adjust acidity levels to
and natural die-off.
wooded and fenced areas prevent corrosion and make
disinfection more effective.
Add coagulant (eg alum) so
that fine organic material and
microorganisms will form
'flocs' (large particles).

Transfer to clarifiers
Move to clarifying tanks,
where the floc settles to the Filter
bottom, leaving clear water to
Pass clear water through sand and
flow into the filtration tanks.
gravel filters to remove remaining
flocs and microorganisms (or pass Disinfect
through a microfiltration plant). Add disinfectant (eg
chlorine) to inactivate any
microorganisms that have
passed through the filters.

Add chemicals
Add chemicals such as fluoride Store
(for dental protection) or lime Store in a closed tank (service reservoir)
(to reduce acidity). before distributing to consumers.
Maintain a residue of chlorine in the
water to prevent infection from
remaining microorganisms or those in
the distribution system.

18
Checking that
water is safe
To check that protection and treatment processes are working, water
authorities regularly monitor the quality and safety of the water they
distribute. State government bodies establish the level of impurities that are
acceptable for a given water system. The water authority must ensure that
their processes are preventing these levels being exceeded.
Monitoring water for the presence of every species of harmful
microorganisms is not practical or even desirable. This is because many of
the tests take days or weeks, so by the time a contaminant is identied, the
community has already been exposed to it. Instead, monitoring is based
on the use of indicator organisms organisms that are generally found
when harmful microorganisms are present and that can be tested for

Photo supplied by SA Water Corporation

quickly and easily. Because human faeces are the most important source of
disease-causing microorganisms in water, the tests are designed to detect
particular bacteria found in the human gut. Escherichia coli (E. coli) is the
indicator organism most often used as a measure of the microbial quality
of drinking water.
Even where indicator organisms are used, there is a delay between
contamination and a positive test that would signal the need to take
action. This means that tests are used as a way to check the eectiveness of
treatment and other barriers, rather than as tool for managing water quality
on a day-to-day basis.
Because of the limitations of looking for either specic microorganisms or
indicator organisms, water authorities rely on other indicators that can signal
a problem with the quality of the water more quickly. These include:
turbidity (cloudiness) or particle counts
colour
pH (how acidic or alkaline the water is)
disinfectant residuals (a useful indicator of water quality).
The benet of these indicators is that they can be monitored online
that is, as the water is being processed. This allows serious uctuations
to be rapidly detected so that remedial action can be taken before water is
distributed to customers. Water authorities also use their knowledge of the
catchment; for example, knowing that heavy rain might impact on water
quality allows the problem to be monitored and addressed.

19
A proactive approach
The current edition of the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines emphasises
the importance of preventive management of drinking water quality. This
approach focuses on identifying and managing risks in a proactive way,
rather than simply reacting when problems arise. The rst step is to look
systematically at all the potential hazards to the water supply from the
catchment to the consumers tap (ie what might happen and how). A
hazard could be anything from animal wastes being washed into the source
water during heavy rainfall, to insucient disinfectant being added during
treatment. Once the hazards are identied, the next step is to assess the risk
from each hazard, by estimating the likelihood that the event will happen
and what the consequences would be if it did. The nal stage is to ensure
that existing preventive measures are sucient to control the hazards and to
improve or replace such measures if necessary.
The current guidelines include a framework that can be used to apply this risk
management approach to water supply systems of any size. The framework
is exible and can easily be adapted to suit local conditions an aspect
that is particularly useful in Australia because of the wide variation in water
suppliers. Through risk management, all stakeholders (including consumers)
can become involved in water quality issues in a cooperative and coordinated
way, with a better understanding of everyones roles and responsibilities.

Do I need a water lter?

For homes attached to a mains water supply, a water treatment device
is probably not necessary, because the water supplier is responsible for
providing water that is safe to drink and of good aesthetic quality. However,
consumers may choose to use a home treatment device, and there are many
products on the market.
There are two primary reasons why consumers may choose to have a home
water lter for aesthetic reasons to improve taste or odour, and for health
reasons to protect against microorganisms. Dierent types of lters are
designed to remove dierent contaminants, so it is important to select the
correct type of lter for the right purpose. Most are point-of use devices
that simply treat water where it is used, such as at the kitchen sink. The
advantage of this approach is that only water used for drinking or cooking
is treated, so it is much cheaper than treating the entire water supply to the
home with a point-of-entry device.
Whatever sort of device is used, it is important to maintain it properly, because
home water treatment devices can be a health hazard. For example, a water lter
provides an excellent environment for bacteria to grow if it is not used properly.
Bottled water is subject to dierent water quality requirements than drinking
water, so water delivered in bottles is not necessarily subject to the same
treatment, storage and delivery requirements as drinking water out of the tap.

20
Small water supplies
Some small communities in Australia use water that is untreated or only
partially treated. The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines include advice for
small water supplies (those serving less than about 1000 people), where it may
be dicult to follow the general guidelines because of the high cost involved.
In the case of small supplies, many of the general principles outlined above
still apply. For example, water quality should be checked regularly through
a monitoring program, and the catchment must be protected and kept as
clean as possible whether this is the catchment of a local river, the area
around a bore or simply a persons rooftop. A dead animal or bird in the area
surrounding a bore, for example, can pose a potential health risk.
Many small communities rely on bore water. If such groundwater is
in conned or deep aquifers, it will generally be free of pathogenic
microorganisms. As long as it is protected during transport from the aquifer
to consumers it should remain free of harmful microorganisms.
Indigenous communities and Australians living in rural and remote
communities are those most likely to those obtain their water from small
supplies. For example, Tasmania has many small local government water
supply systems in remote areas. These small supplies tend to experience
problems with microbiological water quality, particularly when raw water is of
poor quality or when catchments are aected by events like ooding.
Rainwater supplies
For homes using rainwater, there is often no treatment of water after it
collects in tanks from roof runo. First-ush devices, which prevent the
initial roof-cleaning wash of water (2025 L) from entering tanks, improve
the quality of the water collected from the roof. These devices are highly
recommended for anyone using rainwater for drinking.
For those with a rainwater supply, it is important to check regularly to ensure
that rst-ush devices are working properly. It is also important to keep the
roof catchment clean bird droppings, peeling paint and dirt on the roof are
the biggest sources of contamination. Guttering should be cleared regularly
and overhanging branches should be kept to a minimum, because they can be
a source of debris and allow birds and small animals access to the roof.
If contamination of a private supply is suspected, the state health
department can provide advice on testing the water.
Alternative solution for small
supplies
Microltration is a type of membrane ltration
that provides an alternative to conventional
ltration, passing the water through much
smaller pores (which act like a very ne sieve).
The process requires relatively little space,
involves no chemical pretreatment, is easily
automated and needs little maintenance. This
technology is becoming increasingly popular
for small-scale treatment plants. For example,
Western Water, in Victoria, uses microltration
at its Romsey water treatment plant.
Microltration was also the method chosen
for the water supply in Port Douglas. Many of
the residents of this north Queensland town
depend on tourism for a living, so protecting
the environment was an important factor in
deciding what type of treatment to use. The
towns water originates from rainforest runo,
picking up not only leaves and soil from the
forest, but also contributions from birds,
feral pigs and a host of other wildlife. Given a
choice between microltration and chemical
treatments like chlorine, chloramination or
ozone (all of which would provide clean,
safe, drinking water), residents opted for the
ltration process, even though it was the most
expensive, because it would have the least
impact on the environment.
21
Who is responsible for safe
drinking water?
The responsibility for delivering safe drinking water lies with drinking water
suppliers, but they need to work in partnership with other agencies, such as
health departments and catchment managers. Often a health department will
take on a regulatory role, helping to establish the requirements for monitoring
drinking water, communicating the results and planning for emergencies.

Australian Drinking Water Guidelines

Since 1972, Australia has produced its own drinking water guidelines,
appropriate for local conditions. The current Australian Drinking Water
Guidelines were developed by the National Health and Medical Research
Council (NHMRC) with support from the Natural Resource Management
Ministerial Council (NRMMC). They combine the results of local and
international research with appropriate information from other sources,
such as the World Health Organization. The guidelines apply to any water
intended for drinking, wherever it comes from and wherever it is used, For most water quality characteristics, there
apart from bottled or packaged water (which is the responsibility of Food is a grey area between what is clearly safe and
Standards Australia New Zealand). Although the Australian Drinking Water what is clearly unsafe; therefore, the guidelines
err on the side of safety, setting a value that is
Guidelines are not legally enforceable, they provide recommended guideline
generally 10 to 100 times lower than the level
values for constituents that aect water quality and safety, which state and considered safe. What this means is that if a
territory governments use to set regulatory standards or license conditions. chemical was thought to be safe when present
at a level of 50 mg/L, the guideline value would
The main focus of Australias guidelines is on safeguarding human health;
set be set somewhere between 0.5 and 5 mg/L.
however, they also cover the aesthetic qualities of water (how the water
Therefore, with the exception of microbial
looks, smells, tastes and feels). Drinking water will inevitably contain
contaminants, occasional results in excess of
impurities; what is important is to ensure that any impurities do not pose an
the health guideline value generally do not
unacceptable risk to health or make the water unpleasant to drink. pose an immediate concern for public health.
Normally, a water utility will take measures to
For water quality characteristics that could be harmful to health, the Australian
minimise the occurrence of such results, in
Drinking Water Guidelines give a health-related guideline value. This value is
consultation with the local health agency.
the concentration that, based on current knowledge, would not result in any
signicant health risk to a person who drank the water throughout their lifetime.
For water quality characteristics that could aect factors such as colour,
odour, cloudiness and taste, the guidelines give an aesthetic guideline value.
Copper is an example of a chemical for which
The aesthetic quality of water is important because it aects what people
the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines set
experience when they drink or use water and how they rate its quality.
two values: a health-related value of not more
For example, the taste of drinking water can be aected by temperature, than 2 mg/L and an aesthetic-related value of
dissolved material and how acidic or alkaline the water is. not more than 1 mg/L. The aesthetic-related
guideline value is the lower of the two, because
The current Australian Drinking Water Guidelines cover a range of topics,
copper in drinking water aects the taste at
including management of water supply systems, water quality (microbiological, levels that are not harmful to health.
physical, chemical and radiological), monitoring, community consultation and
special issues associated with supply to small communities.

22
Keeping the guidelines up to date
The drinking water guidelines are not static they are continuously
updated to keep abreast of evolving scientic knowledge on water quality.
Each year, in consultation with the community and health, water and
resource management agencies, sections of the guidelines are selected for
revision. A section might be revised because new research has become
available, or because the section simply hasnt been reviewed for some time.
The guidelines have also been revised and reorganised to reect the fairly
dramatic changes that have occurred in the Australian water supply industry

Photo supplied by Ted Gardner, Queensland Department of Natural Resources

in recent years, as more agencies have become involved and responsibilities
have diverged. The guidelines also tend to become more stringent as new
research establishes links between contaminants and adverse health eects.
The continued revision of the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines is a
collaborative eort between the NHMRC and a wide range of experts in
Australia and overseas. In 1998, the Drinking Water Review Coordinating
Group was formed to manage the rolling revision of the guidelines. This
committee is supported by a number of specialised working parties that are
responsible for the revision of specic aspects of the guidelines.
In developing the guidelines, the NHMRC draws on expertise in universities,
the water industry, community organisations, health authorities and water
resource departments.

National Resource Management Ministerial Council

23
What can I do to help?
Help to keep drinking water safe
There are a number of ways in which everyone can help protect our safe
drinking water.

Treat catchments with respect

Many catchment areas are specically signposted as such. Always follow the
advice on such signs and do not pollute these areas. Remember that many
activities from trail-bike riding to camping can aect the catchment.
Check with your local water authority to nd out what activities are
permitted in the catchment.

Dont tip it down the drain!

Never put chemicals and solvents down the drain or toilet. If organic
solvents in products such as paint removers and strippers reach sewage
treatment plants they can destroy the benecial bacteria used to purify
wastewater which may eventually become a source of drinking water for
other communities. Solvents can also contaminate water sources, making
it more dicult and expensive to treat water to a quality suitable for
drinking. A better way to dispose of such products is to take them to your
local hazardous waste collection depot. For example, Sydney Water runs
household chemical collection days for residents to dispose of any chemicals
they are concerned about, such as pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and
weed killers.

Remember the drain is for rain!

Keep runo and stormwater clean

Stormwater (the runo from rainfall that eventually ends up in rivers,
streams and the oceans) is a major source of contamination for ground
and surface water. Never litter things thrown onto the street often end
up in stormwater. Commercial fertilisers applied to gardens also wash o
up to half of the nitrogen from fertiliser on lawns ends up polluting
water bodies. Alternatives are to use a natural fertiliser, such as compost,
or, better still, replace lawns with native plants and shrubs, which not only
reduces the need for watering and fertilisers, but provides habitat and food
for native animals.

24
Keep your plumbing in good repair
The quality of the water beyond the water meter is the householders
responsibility. You should ensure that you use qualied plumbers and use
only suitable materials for pipes. Leaky taps and pipes are a major source of
wasted water, so it pays to keep them working well.

Watch out for backow!

Be aware that under certain circumstances, water can be drawn from your
property back into the mains distribution system. Usually, the mains system
is pressurised to ensure that this doesnt happen. However, in the event of
the pressure dropping (eg due to a broken mains or water being pumped
from the main water supply during a re), backow can happen. This type
of problem is particularly relevant to industrial and commercial water users,
who must comply with regulations for tting devices that prevent backow.
Household water users should also be aware of possible contamination
sources. For example, never leave a hose in a swimming pool or pond
unattended as the water can be siphoned out in the event of a pressure drop.
If you have a permanently connected sprinkler system or use a spray fertiliser
or weed killer connected to a hose, you will probably need a backow
prevention device. The device should be installed by an accredited backow
prevention plumber. Check with your local authority if you are unsure.

25
Conserving water A thirsty country
Whenever we use more water than we need to around the house, we are While two thirds of all the people on earth use
using up a precious resource, wasting money and energy, and generating less than 60 litres of water a day the average
unnecessary amounts of wastewater. Australian uses more than twice that amount
during a single shower. In fact, Australians are
The water that goes down the drain ends up in the sewerage system; among the biggest users of water in the world,
excessive consumption means more expenditure and energy used for especially around the home.
treatment of sewage. Using less water around the house means lower water Source: Melbourne Water conservewater.mel
and energy bills (where hot water use is reduced), and less stress on the bournewater.com.au/html/driest.htm
environment, which ultimately contributes to maintaining or improving
water quality.
Most households can nd cheap ways to reduce their water use, and can
often recoup the cost in water and energy savings within a relatively short Water-sensitive design
period. Ideas for reducing water use include: Figtree Place, a community housing project
reducing time spent in the shower of 27 units in Newcastle, New South Wales, is
designed to make ecient use of water. The
switching to water-ecient appliances such as ecient shower heads
development includes a number of water
and taps, dual ush toilets and front-loading washing machines; for management features:
example an AAA rated water-efficient shower-head is cheap and can
All rainwater falling on the units is diverted
reduce indoor household water consumption by 20%* to underground tanks that supply the
installing a rainwater tank to collect the water falling on the roof that hot water and toilet systems (the water
otherwise may be channelled straight to the stormwater drain (you is of suciently high quality to meet the
will need to check with your local council to ensure rainwater can be Australian guidelines for drinking water).

harvested for household use) Overow from rainwater tanks is diverted

into gravel-lled trenches, and is eventually
washing the car on the lawn (or using a professional car wash facility used to replenish groundwater, together
where water is used eciently) with water from driveways and paved areas.
cleaning paths and driveways by sweeping them, never by hosing Groundwater drawn from a bore is used for
them down. irrigating open spaces, including household
gardens.
Because water used in the garden or in toilets does not need to be of such Surplus groundwater is used to wash
high quality as drinking water, one approach to reducing the cost and energy vehicles at the adjacent bus depot.
used in treating water is to have a dual reticulation system. The system
Through these simple strategies, Figtree Place
provides two grades of water one suitable for drinking, the other for and the adjacent bus depot have reduced
non-potable uses like watering the garden. Rouse Hill, in Sydney, was the rst their combined mains water use by 77%,
development in Australia to have a dual water system supplying drinking and stormwater runo from the housing
and recycled water. development has been almost completely
eliminated.
An alternative to dual reticulation is to use rainwater for toilet ushing
Further information on water-sensitive design
and for outdoor use. In the past, collection of rainwater in urban areas and urban stormwater management can
was discouraged because of concerns about contamination with harmful be found on the websites of the University
microorganisms or the breeding of mosquitoes, but research has shown that of Newcastle (www.newcastle.edu.au) or
these concerns can be well managed. If you are interested in this approach, the Environment Protection Authority
check with your local council before investing in any equipment. (www.epa.nsw.gov.au).

* More information on the 5A rating water-eciency scheme is available at www.wsaa.asn.au

26
Conclusion
This publication has been prepared as a consumers guide to the Australian
Drinking Water Guidelines, to encourage people outside the water industry
to gain a better understanding of how water is collected, treated and
delivered to the tap.
If you have questions about the quality of your drinking water, your local
government, state health department or local water authority will be able to
provide you with further advice.
It is important that we all take responsibility for the management of our
water resources and work together with those responsible for the provision
of drinking water to ensure its use is sustainable.

27
Further information
This publication has been prepared as a consumers guide to accompany
the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines. Copies of the Australian Drinking
Water Guidelines are available on the NHMRC website and through AusInfo
government bookshops.

Additional information
Australian resources
Publications
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, National Health and Medical Research Council
(www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/synopses/eh19syn.htm)
A Consumers Guide to Drinking Water, CRC for Water Quality and Treatment (www.waterquality.crc.org.au)
Australian Water Resources Assessment 2000 Surface and Groundwater availability and quality (www.nlwra.gov.au)
How Safe is Your Water Supply?, Choice, Australian Consumers Association (www.choice.com.au/articles/a100218p1.htm)
How to Save Water and Money, Choice, Australian Consumers Association (www.choice.com.au/articles/a100711p1.htm)
Salinity, CSIRO Land and Water (www.clw.csiro.au/issues/salinity)
Waterwise House & Garden, Allan Windust, Landlinks Press, Australia
Your Private Drinking Water Supply (www.dhs.vic.gov.au/phd/9911054/)

Organisations
Australian Water Association (www.awa.asn.au)
Cooperative Research Centre for Catchment Hydrology (www.catchment.crc.org.au)
Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment (www.waterquality.crc.org.au)
CSIRO Land and Water (www.clw.csiro.au/issues/salinity)
Environment Australia (www.ea.gov.au)
National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) (www.nhmrc.gov.au)
savewater.com.au (www.savewater.com.au)
Water Watch Australia (www.waterwatch.org.au)
Water Services Association of Australia (www.wsaa.asn.au)

International resources
Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality World Health Organization
(www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/GDWQ/index.html)
Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Health Canada (www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ehp/ehd/catalogue/bch_pubs/dwsixth.htm)
Water on Tap: A Consumers Guide to the Nations Drinking Water United States Environmental Protection Agency
(www.epa.gov/safewater/wot/wot.html)
The American Water Works Association (AWWA) has produced educational information on
drinking water, suitable for water authorities, community groups, schools, youth organisations and the
media (www.awwa.org/advocacy/bluethumb/index.cfm)

28
Glossary
ADWG
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines,
published by the National Health and
Medical Research Council (NHMRC)
Aquifer
an underground layer of permeable
rock, sand or gravel that carries water,
allowing it free passage through
pore space
Bacteria
Single-celled, microscopic living
organisms found almost everywhere.
Most are harmless.
Campylobacter
a group of bacteria that are a major
cause of diarrhoeal illness
catchment
area of land that collects rainfall and
contributes to surface water (streams,
rivers, wetlands) or to groundwater
coagulation
clumping together of very ne particles
into larger particles using chemicals
(coagulants) that neutralise the
electrical charges of the ne particles
and destabilise the particles
Cryptosporidium
microorganism commonly found in
lakes and rivers that is highly resistant
to disinfection; has caused several large
outbreaks of gastrointestinal illness
and can cause severe and persistent
symptoms, particularly in people with
weakened immune systems
cyanobacteria
bacteria commonly known as blue-
green algae, which secrete toxins that
are harmful to human health
disinfectant
an oxidising agent (eg chlorine, chlorine
dioxide, chloramines and ozone) that
is added to water in any part of the
treatment or distribution process and
is intended to kill or inactivate disease-
causing microorganisms
disinfection
the process designed to kill most
microorganisms in water, including
essentially all disease-causing bacteria
disinfection byproduct
product of reactions between
disinfectants, particularly chlorine, and
naturally occurring organic material
distribution system
a network of pipes leading from
a treatment plant to customers
plumbing systems
drinking water
water intended primarily for human
consumption (also known as
potable water)
drinking water supplier
an organisation, agency or company
that has responsibility and authority
for treating and/or supplying
drinking water
drinking water supply system
all aspects from the point of collection
of water to the consumer (includes
catchments, groundwater systems,
surface water, storage reservoirs and
intakes, treatment systems, service
reservoirs and distribution systems)
enteric pathogen
pathogen (disease-causing organism)
found in the gut
Escherichia coli (E. coli)
bacterium found in the gut, used
as an indicator that water has been
contaminated with faeces
ltration
process in which particulate matter in
water is removed by passage through
porous media
occulation
process in which small particles clump
together through gentle stirring
Giardia lamblia
a protozoan frequently found in rivers
and lakes, which can cause a severe
gastrointestinal disease called giardiasis
if ingested
groundwater
water contained in underground stores
guideline value
the concentration or measure of a
water quality characteristic that, based
on present knowledge, either does
not result in any signicant risk to
the health of the consumer (health-
related guideline value), or is associated
with good quality water (aesthetic
guideline value)
hazard
a biological, chemical, physical or
radiological agent that has the potential
to cause harm
hazardous event
an incident or situation that can lead
to the presence of a hazard (what can
happen and how)
indicator organisms
microorganisms whose presence is
indicative of pollution or of more
harmful microorganisms (eg Escherichia
coli indicate the presence of disease-
causing bacteria)
microorganism
An organism too small to be seen
without the aid of a microscope.
29
Glossary (continued)
multiple barriers
use of more than one preventive
measure as a barrier against hazards
pathogen
a disease-causing organism (eg bacteria,
viruses and protozoa)
pH
an expression of the intensity of the
alkaline or acid condition of a liquid
(natural waters usually have a pH
between 6.5 and 8.5)
preventive measure
any planned action, activity or process
that is used to prevent hazards
from happening or reduce them to
acceptable levels
Protozoa
a group of single-celled animals
30
reservoir
any natural or articial holding area
used to store, regulate or control water
risk
the likelihood of a hazard causing harm
in exposed populations in a specied
timeframe, including the magnitude of
that harm
service reservoir/tank
a storage for drinking water, generally
within the distribution system,
used to meet uctuating demands,
accommodate emergency requirements
or equalise operating pressures
source water
water in its natural state, before any
treatment to make it suitable for
drinking
storage reservoir
a natural or articial impoundment
used to hold water before its treatment
and distribution
surface water
all water naturally open to the
atmosphere (eg rivers, streams, lakes
and reservoirs)
Virus
An infectious agent of very small size
and simple structure, that can only
replicate within a living cell. A virus
consists of a core of nucleic acid (either
DNA or RNA) within a protein shell.
The National Health and
Medical Research Council
The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) is a statutory
authority within the portfolio of the Commonwealth Minister for Health
and Ageing, established by the National Health and Medical Research
Council Act 1992. The NHMRC advises the Australian Community and
Commonwealth, State and Territory Governments on standards of
individual and public health, and supports research to improve those
standards.
The NHMRC advises the Commonwealth Government on the funding of
medical and public health research and training in Australia and supports
many of the medical advances made by Australians.
The NHMRC also develops guidelines and standards for the ethical conduct
of health and medical research.
The Council comprises nominees of Commonwealth, State and Territory
health authorities, professional and scientic colleges and associations,
unions, universities, business, consumer groups, welfare organisations,
conservation groups and the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Commission.
The Council meets four times a year to consider and make decisions on
reports prepared by Committees and working parties following wide
consultation on the issue under consideration.
A regular publishing program ensures that Councils recommendations are
widely available to governments, the community, scientic, industrial and
educational groups.

A list of current publications is

available on our Internet site at:
http://www.nhmrc.gov.au