02 Whole

The architecture and evolution of intracontinental orogens:
a structural, metamorphic and geochemical characterisation
THOMAS RAIMONDO
Geology and Geophysics

School of Earth and Environmental Sciences
University of Adelaide

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
June 2011
Table of contents
Abstract v
Declaration vi
Publications arising from this thesis vii
Statement of authorship viii
Acknowledgements xi
Motivation and aims of this thesis xiii
Chapter outlines xiv
Chapter 1: An introduction to the formation and characteristics of intracontinental orogens 1

Introduction 3
Origins and transmission of stress 4
Plate-boundary stresses 5
In-plane stress transmission 6
Intraplate stresses 8
Strain localisation 11
Structural heterogeneities 11
Thermal effects 13

14
Architectural and evolutionary characteristics 17
Scale 17
Lithospheric architecture 17
Strain distribution and thermal regime 19
Convergence rate and orogenic evolution 20
Conclusion 21
References 21

Introduction 31
Geological setting 31
Structure 31
Metamorphism 32
Geochronology 32
Discussion and conclusions 33
References cited 34
Supporting information 35
Chapter 3: The anatomy of a deep intracontinental orogen 41

Introduction 43
Geologic setting and previous work 44
Structural relationships 47
Outcrop structure (Spaghetti Hill) 47
Regional structure 48
Metamorphic petrology and thermobarometry 50
Field relationships and sample descriptions 50
THERMOCALC average PT methodology 51
Average PT estimates 51
UThPb geochronology 52
Zircon descriptions 52
-i-
Age estimates 52
Zircon trace element partitioning 60
Trace element (Zr and Ti) thermometry 61
Thermometer calibrations and use 61
Temperature estimates 61
Discussion 63

63

65
Metamorphic architecture and exhumation history 66

67
Anatomy and tectonic evolution of the Petermann Orogen 69
Conclusion 70
References 71
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mid-crustal shear zones: a case study from the intracontinental Alice Springs Orogen,
central Australia
Introduction 85
Regional geological framework 86
Shear zone characteristics and age constraints 89
Traverse descriptions 90
Trace element thermobarometry 91
Analytical methods 92
Thermobarometer calibrations and application procedure 93
Sample descriptions and PT estimates 94
Whole-rock major, trace and rare earth element geochemistry 96
Mass balance calculation procedure 96
Element mobility considerations and sampling strategy 97
Geochemical enrichment and depletion patterns 97
Stable isotope geochemistry 100
Oxygen and hydrogen isotope compositions 100
Mineral isotopic fractionations and temperature estimates 101
Fluid composition calculations 102
Discussion 103
PT conditions of deformation and metasomatism 103
Mechanisms for isotopic alteration and major element metasomatism 104
Fluid source and ingress mechanism 106

108
Conclusion 109
References 110
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shear zone: a comparative study of major element and oxygen isotope transport in garnet
Introduction 121
Geological setting 123
Peaked Hill shear zone 124
Outcrop relationships 124
Petrology 124
Geochronology 126
In situ UPb monazite analytical methods (LA-ICP-MS) 126
SmNd analytical methods (ID-TIMS) 126
Age estimates 127
- ii -
Garnet major element geochemistry 129
Electron microprobe analytical methods 129
Zoning patterns 130
Stable isotope geochemistry 130

133
In situ ion microprobe analytical methods 133
Oxygen and hydrogen isotope compositions 135
Isotopic equilibrium 138
Fluid composition calculations 138
Discussion 139
139
Mechanisms for major element and oxygen isotope zonation in garnet 141
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Conclusion 144
References 145
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Introduction 153
Geologic background 153
Results 154
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Discussion 155
Conclusion 157
References cited 157
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- iii -
Abstract
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building to plate-margin settings alone. However, the comparative rarity of such orogenic systems in the geological
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thesis presents an integrated framework that characterises the structural, metamorphic and geochemical features of
intracontinental reworking in central and southeastern Australia.
The axial zone of the EdiacaranCambrian (600530 Ma) Petermann Orogen, western Musgrave Province,
is characterised by pervasive mylonitic deformation and low geothermal gradient metamorphism that formed at
deep crustal levels (P = 1014 kbar and T = 700800 C). Peak metamorphic conditions were attained at c. 570
Ma, followed by slow cooling to 600660 C by c. 540 Ma, at an average rate of 26 C Myr. The macroscopic
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crustal material. This similarity also extends to their spatial and temporal scales, overall cooling histories, average
geothermal gradients, levels of exhumation and extents of crustal thickening, implying that the basic anatomy of
intracontinental orogens is analogous to that of typical collisional belts.
The OrdovicianCarboniferous (450300 Ma) Alice Springs Orogen is characterised by intensely metasomatised
ductile shear zones that dissect the eastern Arunta Region. Similar alteration features are also observed in the
CambrianOrdovician (514490 Ma) Delamerian Orogen, southern Curnamona Province. In both cases, isotopic

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at the locus of stress transmission from plate-boundary sources. It is therefore concluded that the interaction
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lithospheric strength, ultimately providing strong impetus for the initiation and advancement of intracontinental
orogenesis.
-v-
Declaration
I, Thomas Raimondo, certify that this work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any
other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution, and, to the best of my knowledge and belief,
contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made
in the text.
I give consent to this copy of my thesis, when deposited in the University Library, being made available for loan
and photocopying, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968.
The author acknowledges that copyright of published works contained within this thesis (as listed in Publications
arising from this thesis) resides with the copyright holder(s) of those works.
I also give permission for the digital version of my thesis to be made available on the web, via the Universitys
digital research repository, the Library catalogue and also through web search engines, unless permission has been
granted by the University to restrict access for a period of time.
THOMAS RAIMONDO DATE
- vi -
Publications arising from this thesis
Journal articles
Raimondo, T., Collins, A. S., Hand, M., Walker-Hallam, A., Smithies, R. H., Evins, P. M. & Howard, H. M., 2009.
N +$'Geology, 37QFV&;X;XF&Y@'[@\];!F!;^''
The anatomy of a deep intracontinental orogen. Tectonics,
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Raimondo, T.&_&_'&* &`'q &{'&;@'^ ## + >
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Australia. Journal of Metamorphic Geology,
(8), 821850, Y@'\}'!;![F';@'@@XFF'B'
Raimondo, T.&_&_'&* &`'&_&~'q*&_'&;@'*# #+ >

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garnet. Journal of Metamorphic Geology, accepted.
Raimondo, T.&_&_'&* &`'q_&~'&;@'*$ %+
zones? Geology, in review.
Conference abstracts
Raimondo, T.&q_&_'&;@' > Y#
responses. Geophysical Research Abstracts, EGU General Assembly 2011, 13, EGU2011-5338.
Netting, A., Payne, J., Wade, B., & Raimondo, T., 2011. Trace Element Micro-Analytical Imaging via Laser
Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Microscopy and Microanalysis 2011:
Proceedings of the 69th Annual Meeting of the Micropscopy Society of America, 17, 590.
Raimondo, T.& _& _'& * & `'& q _& ~'& ;@@' _ # # + +$
%#
'" Y &_'/'q/&''Q'V^
|]
| ]#_ &` 'Geological Society of Australia Abstracts, ., 55.
Raimondo, T.&_ &^'|'q* &`'&;@@'/ +$Y

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Hand, M., Raimondo, T.& _ &^' |' q {& /' N'& ;@@X' " # ^ ' " Y
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Specialist Group for Geochemistry, Mineralogy and Petrology. Geological Society of Australia Abstracts, ',
24.
Raimondo, T.&_&_'&* &`'& &{'&q_ &^'|'&;@@X'/ + +$ ^

| ## & ^ '" Y&'N'& &~'&N% &{'N'&q_&_'Q'V{ #"
;@@XY _ |] ]&` # #'Geological
Society of Australia Abstracts, ', 37.
Raimondo, T., Hand, M., Clark, C., Faure, K., & Collins, A. S., 2009. Sources, thermal conditions and mechanisms
+ # ## ^| ## 'Journal of
Geochemical Exploration, 101&F&Y@'@?\}'#B';@@''@@'
Raimondo, T., Collins, A. S., Hand, M., Walker-Hallam, A., Smithies, H., & Evins, P., 2008. A kinematic,
metamorphic and geochronological framework for intracratonic reworking in the western Musgrave Block,
^ Y% $ +$Geological Society of Australia, Australian Earth
Sciences Convention (AESC) 2008, Abstracts, , 206.
- vii -
Statement of authorship

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bibliographic details of each journal article are listed at the beginning of each chapter, and include the names of all
co-authors involved in their production. The contribution of each author to the conceptualisation, realisation and
documentation of these works is described below.
RAIMONDO, T. (Candidate)
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I certify that the above statement is accurate.
SIGNED DATE
HAND, M., CLARK, C. and COLLINS, A. S. (Supervisors)

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I certify that the above statement is accurate and give permission for the relevant manuscripts to be included in
this thesis.
SIGNED DATE
SIGNED DATE
SIGNED DATE
CLIFF, J.
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this thesis.
SIGNED DATE
HARRIS, C.
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this thesis.
SIGNED DATE
- viii -
FAURE, K.
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this thesis.
SIGNED DATE
SMITHIES, R. H., EVINS, P. M., and HOWARD, H. M.

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this thesis.
SIGNED DATE
SIGNED DATE
SIGNED DATE
WALKER-HALLAM, A.
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this thesis.
SIGNED DATE
- ix -

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is always the case, I could never mention everyone who played an important role in making it an enjoyable and
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Firstly, I am indebted to my supervisors for all their guidance and support. Martin Hand has been a fantastic source
of motivation for all the different endeavours I have undertaken, and provided great stimulation for my growth as
an independent thinker. His knowledge of central Australian geology and willingness to pass it on was the primary
inspiration for my fascination with intracontinental orogens, going as far back as my third year mapping trip. Chris
Clark has facilitated some great opportunities for me, particularly the use of a variety of high-tech toys, and his
hospitality during all my trips to Perth was very generous. He has introduced me to some of the most exciting and
cutting-edge aspects of geology, and allowed me to meet a great bunch of people along the way. Alan Collins shaped
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gave me a solid foundation that still serves me well today.
In retrospect, my thanks must also go to Karin Barovich, without whom I probably would never have done geology
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who actually turned up to university open day, I might never have seen her give a rousing talk on the exciting sorts
of things geology had to offer over chemistry and physics, and instead ended up as a complete bore. This may have
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From an analytical point of view, there are several people who deserve special thanks. Chief amongst them is Ben
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disappointed if I didnt throw in a gratuitous innuendo. Truly, though, Ben has been great fun and great company
during all the hours Ive spent at Adelaide Microscopy, and more importantly has probably been the best teacher
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Netting, John Terlet and all the crew at AM also deserve commendation for the unstinting help and welcome comic
relief they provided me, and for being the main reasons I genuinely look forward to morphing into an icicle from sitting
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and was an invaluable asset in getting garnet oxygen analysis up and running. Matt Kilburn and the AMMRF were
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Faure and Chris Harris gave me brilliant support for the isotopic work I needed done, and were incredibly generous
with their time in looking over the manuscripts I sent their way. In the absence of a stable isotope geochemistry expert
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instrumental in contributing to the use of MON-GT as an ion probe oxygen standard.
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of PhD students passionately committed to doing absolutely no cleaning whatsoever. Still, it was host to great many
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Justin (that sounds a bit dodgy, but Im leaving it in just to annoy him), who deserves singling out for the excellent
contributions he made to a lot of my laser work. After he moved out and until the arrival of Ben, Udeni, Frank and
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time). Ailsa, Katie, Kathryn, Yee, Diana and Rachael were all good company, and certainly taught me a lot about how
to speak really loudly on the phone. Down the corridor, Kate and Dave were also great companions, and provided
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proved himself on many occasions to be a patient and knowledgeable teacher. Upon relocating to the shoebox upstairs,
I was fortunate to spend some time with Katie and Deborah, followed by Hossain, Tony and Claudia.
Finally, my greatest thanks are reserved for my family, who have been my tireless support network throughout
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to mention the countless ways they have contributed. But I am eternally grateful for them all. Thanks to Mum for
reading every piece of work I have ever written, even though the vast majority of it is incomprehensible to her, and to
Dad for doing everything without ever having to be asked. Thanks to Clare, Nick, Anne, James, Pip, Jasper, Erica and
Grant for the hours of insanity that provided a welcome break from the grind. Thanks to Wendy and Casey for all their
encouragement and support, and for never once complaining that I ate their entire pantry every time I was around. And
most of all, thanks to Ashlea for being my rock. That is an atrocious pun, but she dared me to do it and I was only too
happy to oblige.
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- xi -
Motivation and aims of this thesis
Intracontinental orogens are a conspicuous exception to the plate tectonics paradigm, which assumes that plate
interiors are rigid and undeformable, and that mountain-building is restricted to plate margins. In the modern
Earth, they are prominently represented by the widespread terranes of central Asia, including the Tien Shan and
Altai. In the ancient Earth, arguably the best examples are found in central and southeastern Australia (Fig. 1),
where there is a remarkable record of intracontinental deformation spanning the Neoproterozoic and Phanerozoic.
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Alice Springs Orogeny are major intraplate events affecting the crustal architecture of the Musgrave Region
and Arunta Province, respectively. In addition, Palaeoproterozoic crust of the southern Curnamona Province
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a revised conceptual scheme. However, despite the generally good preservation and exposure of the Australian
orogens, the precise details of their tectonic evolution remain poorly understood. This is partly due to conjecture
over the driving forces for deformation, with both plate-boundary and intraplate stresses advocated as plausible
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with both structural heterogeneities and thermal weakening argued to be primary controls on strain localisation.
These uncertainties contribute to a general lack of consensus regarding the mechanical framework for the
reworking of continental interiors, and the typical deformational response of the lithosphere to this eventuality.
Elucidating the characteristic architecture of intracontinental orogens thus holds the key to unravelling the
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kinematic and metamorphic development.
Along with the structural and thermal effects commonly considered to be instrumental in facilitating
lithospheric weakening, another potential control on the localisation of intracontinental deformation is deep
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intraplate orogens has not been systematically studied. This is despite the evident impact of metasomatic alteration
in the Alice Springs and Delamerian Orogens, which feature large shear systems containing intensely rehydrated
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and the large-scale deformation of continental interiors.
The central aim of this thesis is to develop an integrated framework that characterises the structural, metamorphic
and geochemical evolution of intracontinental reworking in central and southeastern Australia. Firstly, this
involves a consideration of the key architectural features of intracontinental orogens, and their differentiation

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stability of the lithosphere.
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1. To construct an orogenic model that explains the macroscopic structural, kinematic and metamorphic
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2. To determine explicit geochronological and metamorphic constraints on the timing of shear zone activity,
rate of cooling, pressuretemperature conditions and geothermal gradients in the deeply-exhumed axial zone of
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interiors to major reworking.
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Petermann Orogen, central Australia. This system features the greatest range of crustal exposure of any Australian
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- xiii -
Thesis outline
Mt Isa
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Figure 1. Major geological provinces of continental Australia. The Petermann and Alice Springs Orogenies are primarily recorded in the
Musgrave Province and Arunta Region of central Australia, respectively, whereas deformation associated with the Delamerian Orogeny
can be observed in the southern Curnamona Province of southeastern Australia. Abbreviations: NAC, North Australian Craton; SAC, South

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Springs Orogen, central Australia, and the Delamerian Orogen, southeastern Australia. These systems both feature
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and its contribution to the initiation and development of intracontinental orogenesis.
Chapter outlines
Chapter 1 introduces the concept of intracontinental orogens and provides an overview of their formation
and characteristics. It examines the possible sources of stress in continental interiors, and considers a variety
of factors that control the locus of basement reactivation in these settings. It also compares the key features of
intracontinental orogens from both the ancient and modern Earth, and examines their differentiation from typical
plate-margin systems in terms of their architectural organisation and evolutionary histories. This serves as both
a stand-alone reference for the current state of knowledge regarding intracontinental orogens, and a contextual
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Chapter 2 assesses whether the macroscopic structural and metamorphic patterns of the Petermann Orogen
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geochronology from the Bates region, western Musgrave Province, that constrains the timing of pervasive shear
activity in the deeply exhumed orogenic core, thus establishing whether opposing kinematic vectors from this area
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into the similarity between the deformational modes of intracontinental orogens and collisional belts such as the
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Chapter 3 outlines the basic anatomy of the Petermann Orogen, particularly its deep crustal expression in the
axial zone between the Mann Fault and the Woodroffe Thrust. It builds on the previous chapter by presenting in
more detail the structural, metamorphic and geochronological records of intraplate activity in the western Musgrave
Province, primarily including the Bates region and the Mann Ranges. Structural mapping, thermobarometry,
zircon geochronology and trace element thermometry are used to document the style of deformation, allowing
- xiv -
Thesis outline
a multi-faceted appraisal of the dynamics of intracontinental reworking. This enables the development of more
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models conventionally applied to collisional systems.
Chapter 4 shifts the focus of this thesis from the intriguing geodynamic aspects of intracontinental orogenesis
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Anmatjira Ranges, northern Arunta Region. Two traverses across deformed and metasomatised basement are used
to extract detailed information about the style and characteristics of alteration. Structural mapping, trace element
thermobarometry, whole-rock geochemistry and oxygen and hydrogen stable isotope analysis are employed
to determine the pressuretemperature (PT) evolution of metasomatism, the mechanisms for geochemical
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contribution to the large-scale reworking of previously stable continental interiors.
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framework for shear zone reactivation presented in the previous chapter by examining the geochemical evolution
of alteration assemblages at high precision and high spatial resolution. An array of garnet textures are presented
from both metasomatised shear zone samples and their undeformed and unaltered precursors at Peaked Hill,
southeastern Reynolds Range. Their progressive changes in major element and oxygen isotope distribution
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UPb monazite and SmNd garnet geochronology. This approach enables the reconstruction of a coupled thermal
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previous chapter to metasomatic alteration assemblages from an alternative intracratonic terrane. Ion microprobe
oxygen isotope analysis and electron microprobe compositional mapping of garnet are combined with existing
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metasomatic processes on intracratonic deformation beyond the Alice Springs Orogen alone.
Chapter 7 concludes this thesis by providing a summary of the current state of knowledge regarding the
architecture and evolution of intracontinental orogens. It assimilates the key results from each chapter, and
highlights the directions that future research should pursue to develop a more complete understanding of the
geodynamic framework for intraplate mountain building.
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complements the main body of text. All supplements are included in a separate section at the end of each chapter.
Their general content is described in the text to alert the reader to their existence and provide the necessary context.
REFERENCE
Aitken, A. R. A. & Betts, P. G., 2009. Multi-scale integrate # # Y^ B
the eastern Musgrave Province, Central Australia. Tectonophysics, 476Q[FV&FF[!'
- xv -
CHAPTER 1
This chapter has been written as a review article for submission to Earth-Science Reviews.
An introduction to the formation and characteristics
of intracontinental orogens
ABSTRACT
Intracontinental orogens are major deformational zones produced at large distances from active plate boundaries.
Consequently, any account of their initiation and subsequent evolution must be framed outside conventional plate
tectonics theory, which can only explain the proximal effects of convergent plate-margin interactions. This review
considers a range of hypotheses regarding the origins and transmission of compressive stresses in intraplate settings.
Both plate-boundary and intraplate stress sources are investigated as potential driving forces, and their relationship
to rheological models of the lithosphere is addressed. The precise controls on strain localisation are then evaluated,
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With reference to the characteristic features of intracontinental orogens in central Asia (the Tien Shan) and central
Australia (the Petermann and Alice Springs Orogens), it is argued that their formation is largely driven by in-plane
stresses generated at plate boundaries, with the lithosphere acting as an effective stress guide. This implies a strong
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enable the support of thick uplifted crustal wedges. Alternative models of intraplate stress generation, primarily
involving mantle downwelling, are rejected on the grounds that their predicted temporal and spatial scales for
orogenesis are inconsistent with the observed record of deformation. Finally, inherited mechanical weaknesses,
thick sedimentary blanketing over a strongly heat-producing crust, and pervasive reaction softening of deep fault
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rather than transmit stress. These effects ultimately produce orogenic zones whose architectural features and
evolutionary histories are strongly reminiscent of typical collisional belts, suggesting that the deformational
response of continental crust is remarkably similar in different tectonic settings.
1. INTRODUCTION the widespread terranes of central Asia (Fig. 1a &

b), including the Tien Shan and Altai (e.g. Molnar &
Conventional plate tectonics theory views orogenesis Tapponnier, 1975, 1977; Abdrakhmatov et al., 1996;
as the product of interaction between rigid lithospheric Yang & Liu, 2002; Cunningham, 2005; Buslov et al.,
plates whose motions are modulated by forces originating 2007). In the ancient Earth, arguably the best examples
in the underlying viscous mantle (e.g. Tackley, 2000; are found in the Arunta Region and Musgrave Province
Schubert et al., 2001; Bercovici, 2003; Kearey et al., of central Australia (Fig. 1c), where there is a remarkable
;@@XV' # # # record of intracontinental deformation spanning the
plate boundaries and their immediate vicinity. There is Neoproterozoic and Phanerozoic (e.g. Lambeck, 1983;
growing recognition, however, that deformation of the Hand & Sandiford, 1999; Camacho & McDougall, 2000;
continental lithosphere may extend for considerable Aitken et al., 2009a,b; McLaren et al., 2009; Raimondo
distances away from active plate boundaries. The et al., 2010). Despite their apparent incongruence with
formation and inversion of intracratonic sedimentary the notion of locally-derived tectonic forces, these
basins has been well-documented worldwide, with orogenic systems involve levels of shortening, crustal
primary instances including the Alpine foreland (e.g. thickening and exhumation comparable to their plate-
Ziegler et al., 1995; Cloetingh & Van Wees, 2005) margin counterparts. In order to comprehend their
and the North American craton (e.g. van der Pluijm, existence, therefore, the origins and characteristics
1997; Marshak et al., 2000). Detailed mapping of of compressive stresses capable of producing
lithospheric stress orientations (e.g. Zoback, 1992; #

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Hillis & Reynolds, 2000; Heidbach et al., 2010) and The intent of this review is to elucidate and
the detection of widespread intraplate seismicity (e.g. critically analyse various hypotheses for the formation
Kenner & Segall, 2000; Sandiford et al., 2004; Banerjee of compressional intracontinental orogens. It will begin
et al., 2008; Omuralieva et al., 2009) have also revealed with a discussion of the sources of stress in intraplate
that continental interiors continually undergo active settings, and consider possible stress transmission
deformation. mechanisms and their relationship to rheological models
While these examples demonstrate that crustal of the continental lithosphere. It will then investigate
deformation commonly occurs remote from plate the means by which such stresses, once present, may
boundaries, the existence of large-scale compressional
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orogens in such settings is comparatively rare. In the deformation. Finally, the characteristic features of
modern Earth, they are prominently represented by intracontinental orogens will be addressed, along with
3
Chapter 1 An introduction to intracontinental orogens
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Figure 1. (a) Digital terrain model of central Asia, showing the location of intracontinental orogenic belts (including the Tien Shan and Altai) with
respect to the IndiaEurasia collisional zone. (b) Schematic map and cross-section (ABC) indicating the major structural features and lithospheric
architecture across the central Asian terranes. Black arrows represent the direction of compression. (c) Regional map and cross-section (AB) of
central Australia, showing key structural relationships of the Petermann and Alice Springs Orogens and the distribution of basement and cover regions.
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3 03% % /!*! 4&5et al. (2007); part (c) from Sandiford & Hand (1998).
their relationship to the proposed mechanical and Percival & West, 1994; Perry et al., 2006).
thermal framework for mountain building. Throughout
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2. ORIGINS AND TRANSMISSION OF STRESS
intracontinental provinces of central Asia and central
Australia, in order to highlight their relevance and In the absence of local plate-margin interactions, the
provide appropriate context. Such inferences may also tectonic evolution of continental interiors must be
be relevant to analogous intraplate terranes such as the controlled by either the transmission of horizontal
Borborema Province, northeastern Brazil (e.g. Vauchez plate-boundary stresses across large distances through
et al., 1995; Neves, 2003); the Atlas Mountains, Morocco the lithosphere, or the development of independent
(e.g. Ramdani, 1998; Beauchamp et al., 1999; Teixell vertical forces in the underlying mantle. These
et al., 2003); the Mt Isa Inlier, northeastern Australia hypotheses represent two end-members of the origins
(e.g. ODea et al., 1997; McLaren et al., 1999, 2005; of a stress regime, between which there may be a
Betts et al., 2006); the southern Curnamona Province, range of weighted contributions from one or the other.
southeastern Australia (e.g. Dutch et al., 2005; Clark In the following sections, the potential importance of
et al., 2006; Rutherford et al., 2006; Raimondo et each mechanism to major intraplate tectonic activity is
al., 2011c); and the Kapuskasing uplift, Canada (e.g. investigated.
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/ #F
G
/J*% 0
indicate the ridge push force, smaller black arrows represent boundary tractions, and white arrows show buoyancy forces. Balancing of the ridge
push torque with resistance along the northern plate boundary largely controls the observed stress regime in continental Australia. Abbreviations: B,

%%*%
*
?KK ?
%LL5"
%#JKQJ K 0Q U$Q 3 %
'&'0&
'K
'0K* 'V'0V
++"
%#+U+
"
%#+'V # '0V
2*%
2
"W"
3W%
"
%#*!X#Y *

1 # 2

#

%
%

/

#UJ ?Q
UJQ!

Q
/! Q?
et al. (2002); part (b) from Sandiford et al. (2004).
2.1. Plate-boundary stresses between uplift events in Tibet and the Tien Shan, and
the spatial distribution of deformation along a Tibet-
In-plane stresses generated at plate boundaries may have
parallel axis (e.g. Mtivier & Gaudemer, 1997; Sobel &
three primary sources: (1) topographic forces generated
Dumitru, 1997; Bullen et al., 2003; Ritts et al., 2008).
by lateral variations in gravitational potential energy of
Ultimately, however, the reliance of this mechanism
the lithosphere (i.e. ridge push and buoyancy forces);
on the existence of plate-margin topography means
(2) collisional forces generated at subduction zones
(including slab pull); and (3) basal drag forces generated that it does not constitute a fully independent driving
by the relative motion of lithospheric plates over the force: the prior occurrence of tectonic convergence is
underlying asthenosphere (e.g. Richardson et al., 1979; implicit. Collisional interactions thus remain the initial
Zoback, 1992; Coblentz et al., 1995, 1998; Reynolds et
al., 2002). Of these alternatives, the most likely to result Asia, but the resultant topographic forces may play a

# % # '
major collisional event (Roberts & Houseman, 2001). The comparatively simple mechanical framework
This point is well-illustrated by the Tien Shan: several for current intracontinental orogenesis in central Asia
authors have argued that large-scale crustal deformation contrasts with a perplexing tectonic setting for the
in this region is driven by the ongoing indentation of ancient central Australian examples. Both the Petermann
India into Eurasia (e.g. Molnar and Tapponnier, 1975, and Alice Springs Orogenies occurred without major
1977; Hendrix et al., 1994; Neil & Houseman, 1997). %# #
Collisional forces produced by this convergence have the Australian plate during the Neoproterozoic and
resulted in the propagation of horizontal stresses deep Palaeozoic (e.g. Duff & Langworthy, 1974; Shaw et
into central Asia, with the resultant reactivation and al., 1991; Braun & Shaw, 2001; Roberts & Houseman,
uplift of a widespread intracontinental terrane (e.g. 2001; Collins & Pisarevsky, 2005). Collisional or
Abdrakhmatov et al., 1996; Yang & Liu, 2002; Bullen continental topographic forces analogous to those
et al., 2003; Buslov et al., 2003). B |
+ with their record of substantial shortening and crustal
boundary forces seems self-evident in this case, the thickening. Nevertheless, alternative plate-boundary
simultaneous contribution of continental topographic sources of compressive stress capable of producing
forces has perhaps been underestimated. Aitken (2011) such deformation may have existed. This inference
suggests that the growth of the Tibetan mountains exerts is supported by the remarkable record of neotectonic
a major impact on the development of the neighbouring % $ " ^ Q#' ;V'
|
#
+B ' Finite-element modelling shows that focusing of the
generation of large bending stresses from substantial ridge push force along the northern collisional margins
lithospheric loading may thus provide a complementary B
means to trigger and/or accelerate intraplate orogenesis. ^ Q_
et
This explanation accounts for the synchronicity al., 1995, 1998; Hillis & Reynolds, 2000; Reynolds et
5
NEFB the Palaeozoic can be accounted for solely in terms of

margin Lachlan Orogeny
%
Q q
300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480
Ma Shaw, 2001). Similar analysis by Roberts & Houseman
Tabberabberan
New England
Benanbran
Kanimblan
(2001) suggests that clockwise rotation of the northern
Fold Belt
Bowning
Thickening
events

%#
thickening during the Alice Springs Orogeny.
Extension
(Rift basin formation)
2.2. In-plane stress transmission
Carboniferous Devonian Silurian Ordovician
331 Ma Whether created by a large-scale collisional event

16
321 Ma 357 Ma or more complex interactions involving ridge push,
Alice Springs Orogeny buoyancy forces and rotational movement, the precise
12
452 Ma means by which plate-boundary stresses are propagated
382 Ma
440 Ma deep within continental interiors requires explanation.
8 415 Ma
Plausible mechanisms for the transmission of in-plane
stresses over large distances (often > 1000 km) rely on
4
the existence of strong lithosphere to act as an effective
0
Age Ma stress guide (e.g. Shaw et al., 1991; Coblentz &
300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 Ma Richardson, 1995; Ziegler et al., 1995; Heidbach et al.,
Figure 3. Comparison between the episodic temporal evolution of 2010). This is despite the fact that it typically contains
# %+/
$
?
Y
%
%5
1/ structural heterogeneities that should favour stress
on the eastern margin of the Australian plate. Probabilitydensity accommodation. For example, the lithosphere bordering
/
%1
[ 2 %%#
% # the Petermann and Alice Springs Orogens of central
Arunta Region. Peak ages generally correspond to the onset of Australia is dissected by an array of crustal-scale faults
contraction and thickening, as indicated, whereas the intervening (Fig. 1c) that form major strength discontinuities (e.g.
# / 1

F

Shaw & Black, 1991; Lindsay & Leven, 1996; Korsch
were fastest during the Carboniferous, coeval with the timing of et al., 1998; Hand & Sandiford, 1999). Furthermore,
widespread metamorphism.
the currently uplifting Himalayas are bordered by
%% Q#'
V #
al.& ;@@;V' # # stress propagation into the adjacent Tien Shan and Altai
outweighs the remaining sources of stress, such as (e.g. Hodges, 2000; Cunningham, 2005; De Grave et
slab pull, collisional traction and buoyancy forces, and al., 2007; Streule et al., 2010).
is evidently strong enough to drive the current uplift To a large extent, the effectiveness of stress coupling
and seismicity in the Mt Lofty and Flinders Ranges in #

southeastern Australia (Sandiford, 2003; Sandiford et rheology of the continental lithosphere (Fig. 4; see also
al., 2004; Clrier et al., 2005; Dyksterhuis & Mller, Brgmann & Dresen, 2008 and Jackson et al., 2008).
2008; Hillis et al., 2008; Holford et al., 2011). For example, if it holds most of its strength in the upper
The instrumental contribution of plate-boundary seismogenic crust alone (the crme brle model
forces to intracontinental deformation in the present of Maggi et al., 2000a,b and Jackson, 2002), stress
day suggests that stress regimes during Neoproterozoic transmission is likely to be governed by the distribution
and Palaeozoic orogenesis can be attributed to a similar of fault zones that penetrate this shallow layer. Such
mechanism. This argument is supported by several lines structures are generally weaker than the surrounding
of evidence. Firstly, episodic activity during the Alice lithosphere, causing them to accommodate rather than
Springs Orogeny is strongly correlated with rifting transmit stress. On the other hand, if the lithosphere is
and subduction-related events recorded in the Tasman able to support stress in two seismogenic layers (the
Orogenic system (Fig. 3; see also reviews by Gray & upper crust and upper mantle) separated by a weaker
Foster, 2004 and Glen, 2005). This suggests a causal aseismic lower crust (the conventional jelly sandwich
link between plate-boundary activity along the eastern model of Chen & Molnar, 1983), it may be possible to
margin of Australia and the development of a broad effectively transmit stress through deeper lithospheric
orogenic zone further inland. Secondly, the evolution of domains. This is particularly true if the lower crust is
the Petermann Orogeny is intimately tied to the progress strong at the Moho depth, and yet still weak with respect
of Gondwanan assembly. Kinematic models indicate ' # #
| # ^
mechanical coupling between the crust and mantle,
with the oblique motion of India relative to its western yielding a plate capable of considerable long-term
# _
{ # strength. It will remain unaffected by shallow faults that
Orogeny (Meert, 2003; Collins & Pisarevsky, 2005; create strength discontinuities in the fragile upper crust,
Aitken & Betts, 2009a; Aitken et al., 2009a). Finally, and can act as an effective stress guide (Handy & Brun,
thin-plate geodynamical modelling of the Australian 2004; Burov & Watts, 2006; Butler, 2006).
lithosphere demonstrates that a protracted period of A pivotal example of these contrasting modes of
major tectonism across the Australian continent during strength distribution in the continental lithosphere can
6
NOTE:
This figure is included on page 7 of the print copy of
the thesis held in the University of Adelaide Library.
Figure 4. Schematic diagrams illustrating two opposing rheological models of the continental lithosphere: crme brle and jelly sandwich.
# 0

/!# #
#
#* //%
% /
%
5 @ 0
#0
//
F
%
#
#U # /#
% /

%%
?
#
?
#
/#[
(b) and (c) show the variation in differential stress with depth. Hm represents the short-term mechanical thickness of the lithosphere, and Te
/
#
3 %# %
/ 1?
#!F
*!#%

/ ?% / 0 0%
yielding a plate with little long-term strength. In (c), the lower crust is considerably stronger, allowing good mechanical coupling between the
crust and mantle. This has negligible impact on the long-term strength of the crme brle model, because the mantle plays virtually no
%#
% K 05#
# #\]?
0 %#^ %
*?
#
%
%
%#
%%
*

from the mantle. Figure from Burov & Watts (2006).
$ " N ' deformation of the Tibetan Plateau suggests that these
The deformation of the Tibetan Plateau is commonly two domains experience contrasting modes of stress
regarded as an essentially fault-controlled system, with transmission. It is possible that this arises due to
large areas of the upper crust behaving as rigid blocks. differences in the rheological structure of the Indian
It is proposed that these blocks are progressively lithosphere, from a crme brle arrangement in
ejected eastwards as stress is propagated northwards } $ #
by the continuing indentation of India into Eurasia (e.g. north (Fig. 5d). This difference probably arises due
Tapponnier et al., 2001; Thatcher, 2006; Meade, 2007). to the interaction of distinctly different lithospheric
However, recent insights into deformation patterns blocks during continental collision (Neil & Houseman,
across the Tibetan Plateau made possible by geodetic 1997; Butler, 2006). As convergence progresses, their
Q#' !V % composition and thermal structure continually evolve
largely continuous at a crustal scale (> 100 km). Strain due to thickening, internal reorganisation, and the

% % # | B
+ '` &
shortening and in the eastward direction of extrusion, this may result in the development of a weak zone within
with negligible difference in slip rates on normal, thrust the middle to lower crust due to the partial conversion
and strike-slip faults (e.g. Jade et al., 2004; Zhang et al., of dry granulite to eclogite (Ryan, 2001; Jackson et
2004; Shen et al., 2005). This supports the view that the al., 2004; Schulte-Pelkum et al., 2005; Monsalve et

% % + & $ $ al.&;@@V'& +
lower crust and a strong upper mantle able to support thus constitute primary controls on the strength of the
stress (e.g. England & Molnar, 1997; Clark & Royden, lithosphere and hence the mode of stress transmission
2000; Chen & Yang, 2004; Klemperer, 2006; Yang & (e.g. Burov & Diament, 1995; Watts & Burov, 2003;
Liu, 2009; Bai et al., 2010). In other words, at large Afonso and Ranalli, 2004; Klemperer, 2006).
(lithospheric) length scales, continental deformation The accretion and cratonisation of the Archaean and
appears to be governed by the mechanics of a medium Proterozoic terranes of continental Australia (including
in which shallow discontinuities such as faults are the Musgrave Province and Arunta Region) occurred
% # Q'#'` &XN # q long prior to the onset of intraplate orogenesis (e.g.
Jackson, 1989). Scrimgeour, 2003; Scrimgeour et al., 2005; Wade et al.,
The transition from distinctly fault-controlled 2008). As a result, the coherency and long-term strength
deformation in the Himalayan foreland to the dynamic of the Australian lithosphere appears to have been
7
NOTE:
These figures are included on page 8 of the print copy of
Figure 5. !U/ & *[

+?&[+!5 % ?5% ?1) across the Tibetan Plateau with respect to stable Eurasia,
# 0
#/
% /'G+ %
#

0
1
*! /
&[+5 % ?% /

/'G+
%{G^ 4G4^# 0

!|
%
# #?5?
%
5
%% #
/#
than discrete peaks at major faults. (c) Displacement patterns across the same four transects, illustrating the lateral shift of continuous

0##" *
% 1
F
3#
!+ %@%
/

/% 3%

between points B and F in (a), showing the development of weak eclogite zone within the middle to lower Tibetan crust. Throughout the
K ?#Y % * !1% 5? %
#//%%

##
1# * \%}*~^
rheology. In contrast, the Tibetan crust contains two seismogenic layers (the upper crust and upper mantle), suggesting that it follows a jelly

0 %#^%

/!*!%! V#
et al. (2004); part (d) from Schulte-Pelkum et al. (2005).
established by this time (Shaw & Black, 1991; Braun 2.3. Intraplate stresses
& Shaw, 2001; Roberts & Houseman, 2001). In light of
The enigmatic nature of intracontinental orogens,
the observed stress coupling across upper-crustal weak
particularly those of central Australia which are
zones bordering the central Australian orogenic belts, intimately tied to intracratonic basin development (e.g.
therefore, it most likely that the lithosphere exhibited Lambeck, 1983, 1984; Walter et al., 1995; Lindsay &
} $ # & $ $ Leven, 1996; Hand & Sandiford, 1999; Haines et al.,
effectively supported by a weak lower crust and strong 2001; Buick et al., 2005; Maidment et al., 2007), has
upper mantle (Hand & Sandiford, 1999; Sandiford et prompted several workers to consider the hypothesis
al., 2001; Simons & van der Hilst, 2003; Aitken et that intraplate deformation was driven by vertical
al., 2009b). Importantly, this rheological structure is forces originating in the underlying mantle. Such forces
# +$ may be related to mantle subduction or gravitational
of crustal deformation that potentially characterises the Q#V

%%
macroscopic architecture of the Petermann Orogen, and +$ '
to enable the support of thick, broad crustal wedges and Established conceptual models of continental
large variations in crustal thickness during shortening %# $ # #
(Raimondo et al., 2009, 2010). In addition, it is may be driven by mantle subduction (e.g. Willett et al.,
probable that a strong mantle rheology persists today, 1993; Beaumont et al., 1994; Ellis, 1996; Pysklywec et
$ # % ` al., 2000; Luth et al., 2010). In this scenario, the mantle
Lofty Ranges to occur despite substantial upper-crustal from one of the two colliding continents becomes
heterogeneity (e.g. Sandiford, 2003; Clrier et al., detached from the overlying lighter crust and is forced
2005; Dyksterhuis & Mller, 2008; Hillis et al., 2008). beneath the other. This results in surface uplift and
8
thickening due to a reduction in lithospheric loading

and concomitant heating caused by asthenospheric
upwelling (Willett et al., 1993; Beaumont et al., 1994;
Batt & Braun, 1997; Houseman & Molnar, 2001).
Although broadly adhering to this framework, Braun
& Shaw (1998) also consider the possibility that the

$
boundary. This condition is primarily imposed in
order to explain the thick-skinned style of deformation
observed in central Australia, where the Moho has
been displaced by up to 30 km (Goleby et al., 1989,
1990; Lambeck & Burgess, 1992; Wright et al., 1993;
Lindsay & Leven, 1996; Korsch et al., 1998; Aitken et
al., 2009a,b). Figure 6. Conceptual diagram illustrating the links between mantle
While mantle subduction explains many of the large- lithosphere instabilities and surface topography. Downwelling may
scale features of collisional orogens, its applicability contribute to topographic changes via (1) dynamic subsidence
to intracontinental settings is questionable. Firstly, %*?5 %5 % @ 0
!@ 03
%%
continental convergence is the direct continuation thickening and uplift. Figure from Pysklywec & Cruden (2004).
of an earlier phase of oceanic subduction during the
closure of an ocean basin. Crustal thickening driven This implies that localised lithospheric weakening is
by subsequent subduction of the mantle lithosphere is necessary to initiate intraplate deformation. A possible
therefore localised at continental sutures, and cannot cause of such weakening is a regional enrichment of
explain the development of discrete deformational radioactive elements, leading to anomalously high
zones within existing cratonic regions. Secondly, this crustal heat production. This is particularly applicable
process is itself driven by plate-boundary forces, and to central Australian terranes, which are characterised
cannot be viewed as a primary source of stress initiating
# % +$ $
intracontinental orogenesis. For these reasons, Braun Proterozoic cratons (Hand & Sandiford, 1999;
& Shaw (1998) ultimately conclude that either a Sandiford et al., 2002; McLaren et al., 2003, 2005).
mechanical heterogeneity within the lithosphere or | +$%
$ ?@;@; (~83
a pre-existing lithospheric-scale weak zone, rather mWm;%#V # &F@F!
than mantle detachment, may explain the occurrence mWm; for the adjacent Archaean cratons (Fig. 7). In
of thick-skinned deformation in central Australia. addition, heat production is concentrated in the upper
However, these features do not represent primary half of the crust and insulated by thick and dense
sources of intraplate stress, but sites where in-plane sedimentary blanketing that is itself heat-producing,
stresses are concentrated and deformation is localised. greatly assisting lithospheric weakening (Sandiford
The absence of recognisable collisional features & Hand, 1998; Hand & Sandiford, 1999; Sandiford,
in deformed continental interiors has prompted some 1999).
workers to examine alternative sources of intraplate Elevated heat production thus provides a plausible
stress. Neil & Houseman (1999), Pysklywec & means by which otherwise stable continental lithosphere
Beaumont (2004) and Pysklywec & Cruden (2004) may become vulnerable to deformation induced by
propose that the tectonic evolution such settings is mantle downwelling. Once such instability has been
linked to large-scale dynamics in the underlying & #

mantle (Fig. 6). They argue that downwelling caused between deformation, crustal strength and the evolving
by gravitational instabilities of the mantle lithosphere thermal regime. Numerical models (Fig. 8) suggest that
# & the response of the crust will vary from initial dynamic
leading to crustal contraction and thickening. Others subsidence, forming intracratonic sedimentary basins,
% %% +$ to subsequent contraction and thickening, forming
+ & # # intracontinental orogens (Pysklywec et al., 2000;
dynamic surface topography (e.g. McKenzie, 1977; Pysklywec & Beaumont, 2004). This may explain the
Lithgow-Bertelloni et al., 1998; Gurnis et al., 2000). intimate relationship between basin formation and
Both mechanisms may ultimately produce intraplate subsequent orogenic events in central Australia (e.g.
deformation and uplift without the necessity for Sandiford & Hand, 1998; Hand & Sandiford, 1999;
horizontal stresses derived from plate boundaries. Haines et al., 2001; Buick et al., 2005; McLaren et al.,
*$%&# 2009; Raimondo et al., 2011a,b).
strong to resist deformation driven by mantle forcing. However, the correspondence between the spatial
Calculations suggests that a viscosity of ~1021 Pas is distribution of intraplate orogenesis and the broad-
#& $ # scale patterns of crustal heat production is less robust.
lower than its typical viscosity of ~1023 Pas (Koyi et al., Pysklywec & Beaumont (2004) predict widespread
1999; Neil & Houseman, 1999; Pysklywec et al., 2003). deformation and uplift above a regional enrichment of
9
(Haines et al., 2001; Buick et al., 2008; McLaren et

al., 2009). Nevertheless, it is generally recognised the
Alice Springs Orogeny was strongly episodic in nature
(Fig. 3). It contained protracted periods of relative
quiescence interspersed with short (< 20 Myr) pulses
of peak tectonic activity (e.g. Shaw et al., 1992; Dunlap
& Teyssier, 1995; Dunlap et al., 1995; Mawby et al.,
1999; Haines et al., 2001; Buick et al., 2008; McLaren
et al., 2009). This raises the possibility that its stepwise
evolution was driven by the successive development
of multiple mantle instabilities, each one followed by
phases of relative stability in which vertical stresses
NOTE: were relaxed or the lithosphere was strengthened. It
This figure is included on page 10 is also possible that deformation responded to the
continuing redistribution of radioactive elements within
of the print copy of the thesis held in the crust, which repeatedly altered the delicate balance
the University of Adelaide Library. between mantle forcing and lithospheric weakening
(Sandiford et al., 2001; Sandiford & McLaren, 2002;
McLaren et al., 2005).
Regardless of the root cause for episodic activity
during the Alice Springs Orogeny, however, it is apparent
that its overall structural and temporal evolution was not
exclusively dictated by mantle dynamics. Firstly, this
mechanism requires that compression and thickening of
viscous crust is followed by a period of extension, as
thermal equilibration drives lithospheric thinning and
eventual orogenic collapse (Neil & Houseman, 1999;
Pysklywec et al., 2000; Pysklywec & Beaumont, 2004).
This is clearly incompatible with the macroscopic
architecture of the Alice Springs Orogen, which is
dominated by a foreland-vergent thrust system with no
evidence of large-scale extensional reworking (Collins
Figure 7. ! 4 *
]
# @ 0

& Teyssier, 1989; Shaw & Black, 1991; Korsch et
showing considerably elevated heat production overlying the
Proterozoic terranes indicated in (b). Contour intervals are 10
al., 1998; Flttmann & Hand, 1999; Flttmann et al.,
mWm2. Pink shaded region represents the central Australian Heat- 2004). Secondly, the process of orogenic collapse
0[ 5
%0# %#
%#U5[ 5
%U!
# should be gradual, as buoyancy forces progressively

Q
F! U%J
et al. (2003). return the perturbed crust to a state of equilibrium. Yet
sedimentological and isotopic records across the Arunta
Region indicate that orogenesis was rapidly terminated
radioactive elements in the crust. This is certainly the during the Carboniferous (Dunlap & Teyssier, 1995;
case in central Australia, where a broad zone of elevated Dunlap et al., 1995; Haines et al., 2001). Furthermore,
+$ % this period largely involved the discrete exhumation
(Fig. 7). Yet the record of intraplate deformation in this of thick-skinned transpressional shear zones, not
province is characterised by spatially-restricted (< 300 $ # + Q_ q
km), elongate orogenic systems (e.g. Collins & Teyssier, Teyssier, 1989; Cartwright & Buick, 1999; Cartwright
1989; Flttmann & Hand, 1999; Flttmann et al., 2004; et al., 1999; Ballvre et al., 2000; Raimondo et al.,
Aitken et al., 2009a,b; Raimondo et al., 2010). This 2011a,b).
suggests that lithospheric weakening and structural Interestingly, the above criticisms are not as severe
reactivation were moderated by more complex factors when applied to the Petermann Orogeny. Pysklywec &
than internal thermal processes alone. Beaumont (2004) argue that a plausible mode of crustal
In addition, the predicted time scale for tectonic extension during late-stage equilibrium recovery is mid-
% %
#@[@`Q $ +$&

& Houseman, 1999; Pysklywec et al., 2000; Pysklywec *
#
#
& Beaumont, 2004). This is dramatically inconsistent Tien Shan (Bird, 1991; Nelson et al., 1996; Beaumont
with the Petermann and Alice Springs Orogenies, et al., 2001, 2004; Clark et al., 2005). The diagnostic
which were both extremely prolonged in duration. The %

?@@>![@ ` Q et al., western Musgrave Province, which is characterised
2005; Gregory et al., 2009; Raimondo et al., 2009, by a broad zone of pervasively deformed, high-grade
;@@V&$
$ F!@>[@@` migmatitic rocks bounded by regional-scale low-angle
10
$ $ # Q @[@ `V' "

is therefore possible that thermal and mechanical
processes act in concert to drive intracontinental
' ` +$ %
disruption to the lithosphere that is subsequently

Q
& Houseman, 1999; Pysklywec & Beaumont, 2004).
A problem for this proposal is postulating diagnostic
features of a coupled thermo-mechanical process that

# '* &

of clear evidence for periods of mantle instability
(such as the geological and geophysical features
summarised by Houseman & Molnar, 2001), a more
widely applicable hypothesis may be that the tectonic
evolution of continental interiors is primarily dictated
by changing plate-boundary conditions.
3. STRAIN LOCALISATION
In addition to the enigmatic sources of compressive
stress in continental interiors, the precise factors
controlling the distribution of intraplate deformation
are also somewhat uncertain. It is generally agreed,
however, that strain localisation is largely dictated by
spatial and temporal variations in lithospheric strength.
This much is evident from the previous section: to
some extent, the likely causes of strain accommodation
are inherent to the driving forces behind orogenesis.
For example, explanations involving in-plane stresses
are usually accompanied by references to suitably-
oriented structural weakness in the crust. On the other
hand, those examining intraplate sources often invoke
the interplay between thermal weakening effects and
mantle downwelling. It is also becoming increasingly
+

changes in lithospheric rheology. In the following
&%# &
+ %
orogenesis is discussed.
3.1. Structural heterogeneities

If intracontinental orogenesis is driven by in-plane
Figure 8. ' % # 0
#/ 55 /

stresses derived from plate boundaries, it is doubtful
crustal deformation in response to mantle downwelling below a zone
# # % 5 # / %
# * 1! 0
%
that lateral variations in stress propagation can explain
instantaneous velocity vectors, and temperature contours are plotted

at intervals of 200 C. Figure from Pysklywec & Beaumont (2004).
locations (Braun & Shaw, 1998; Sandiford et al., 2004).
| +%
shear fabrics with opposing shear senses (Raimondo et # # '
al., 2009, 2010). Available geochronological constraints The importance of pre-existing structural features in
from this region also indicate that it underwent causing long-term lithospheric weakening has been
%$ # B # recognised by several workers (e.g. White et al., 1986;
phase of orogenesis (Edgoose et al., 2004; Gregory et Handy, 1989; Holdsworth et al., 1997, 2001; Handy et
al., 2009; Raimondo et al., 2009, 2010), consistent with al., 2001). It may occur as a consequence of several
increased self-heating following crustal thickening and interrelated processes: (1) grain-size reduction in fault
#% + #
#% fabrics; (2) fracture network generation; and (3) reaction
collapse. #
+ '
Nevertheless, the prolonged duration of this weakening may also be produced by factors such as: (1)
orogenic cycle (~70 Myr) remains irreconcilable with #Q;V+ # Q[V #
the proposed time scale within which mantle instability + QFV %
11
Figure 9. Cross-sections along line AB in Figure 1c, showing the changing distribution of fault reactivation between the Petermann and
% +/
$
F
! 1#
# U5 [ 5
% %%
* #
#3
#3 //
/ ? #
U
? "#U"! "#"!U
U!
K
%?K!K 05 ?
%

% 5*
##$%

0 #
#
Q

%
#%3%Q*
+#V
Q+V!
'//*?"#'"!
"!F
*!# %
# #
#

#
0#
1#
#
% %%
#Q*
+#V

'//*?"#
5 *?
%
#
#
U5[ 5
%

% 5/ *
#/
% / 5

#[
$
?
Hand & Sandiford (1999).
mass transfer. The common recognition of multiple however, many orogenic belts are characterised by
phases of reactivation on major fault structures attests more complex deformation distributions. In some
to the effectiveness of these processes in repeatedly cases, selective reactivation occurs even in largely
localising strain over extended tectonic histories (e.g. parallel fault arrangements. This is particularly
Shaw & Black, 1991; Imber et al., 1997; Good & De apparent in central Australia, where there is a dramatic
Wit, 1997; Pinhiero & Holdsworth, 1997; Williams & shift in the locus of fault activity across the Petermann
Betts, 2009). and Alice Springs Orogens (Fig. 9), despite both
Weakening effects are critical for penetrative systems involving parallel arrays of crustal-scale
faults which intersect the load-bearing regions of %
B |
&
# (Sandiford & Hand, 1998; Hand & Sandiford, 1999;
rheological discontinuities at the locus of stress Aitken & Betts, 2009b). Clearly, geometrical properties
transmission (e.g. Stewart et al., 2000; Braun & Shaw, alone do not account for the observed patterns of strain
2001; Holdsworth et al., 2001; Gueydan et al., 2003; localisation, and additional factors must moderate the
Marsh et al., 2009). Such strength contrasts may become sensitivity of faults to reactivation.
favoured sites for strain localisation if they have the On a local scale, there are several possible reasons for
appropriate geometry to accommodate movement. This restricted and enhanced weakening along fault planes.
is well-documented in central Asian terranes, where These include the composition and microstructure of
# #" N %# fault zone assemblages (e.g. Holdsworth et al., 1997;
the inherited structural fabric of the Eurasian crust (e.g. Imber et al.& XXV& + % # Q'#'
Poupinet et al., 2002; Cunningham, 2007; De Grave et Sibson, 1995), variations in dip angle (e.g. Hayward &
al., 2007; Zubovich et al., 2007). Regional reactivation Graham, 1989), thermal effects due to melt migration
$` (e.g. DLemos et al., 1997), and the connectivity
accretion and deformation occurs along identical of fault networks (e.g. Kelly et al., 1999; Baudon &
pathways to these preceding tectonic events (e.g. Cartwright, 2008). However, such factors are unlikely
Dumitru et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2009; Jolivet et al., # #&
2010; Chen et al., 2011). This is primarily due to the especially in circumstances where there are systematic
sustained northwards propagation of convergence, regional variations in deformation distribution that
which has consistently been accommodated by appear to be independent of clear structural trends.
structures aligned along this axis. Previous episodes In the central Australian orogens, therefore, where
of deformation thus play an important role in the deformation shifted between penetrative structures that
localisation of subsequent intraplate activity, leading to intersect the mantle (primarily the Woodroffe Thrust
repeated phases of reactivation. and Redbank Shear Zone; Figs 1c & 9), it is probable
While inherited mechanical weaknesses evidently that fault reactivation was governed by more general
B + & controls on the rheological state of the lithosphere.
12
3.2. Thermal effects

The arrangement and intensity of heat sources within
B
the thermal structure of the lithosphere, and thus its
strength (e.g. Sonder & England, 1986; Sandiford
& McLaren, 2002; Sandiford et al., 2002; Jackson et
al., 2008). A range of thermal effects may therefore
be responsible for rheological heterogeneities in the
+
distribution of intraplate deformation. In particular,
several workers have investigated the impact of regional
+$ #

heat-producing elements in the crust. The extraordinary
heat production of Australian Proterozoic basement
complexes has been the focus of a series of studies
examining the links between radiogenic crustal heat
sources and multiple episodes of intraplate activity NOTE:
since c. 1900 Ma (Sandiford & Hand, 1998; Hand &
Sandiford, 1999; Sandiford et al., 2001; McLaren &
This figure is included on page 13
Sandiford, 2001; McLaren et al., 1999, 2002, 2003, of the print copy of the thesis held in
2005). This reasoning has been applied to other the University of Adelaide Library.
intraplate terranes in the ancient Earth (e.g. Tommasi
& Vauchez, 1997; Stephenson et al., 2009), as well as
currently uplifting orogenic zones (e.g. Neumann et al.,
2000; Clrier et al., 2005; Holford et al., 2011). It has
also been extended to include heat production in the
lithospheric mantle, rather than crustal sources alone
(Neves et al., 2008).
Australian Proterozoic granitic complexes have
average heat production values approximately twice
that of typical continental crust (Neumann et al.,
2000; McLaren et al., 2003). Their emplacement
and subsequent redistribution by deformation and
erosion thus have a profound effect on the thermal and
rheological state of the lithosphere. For example, the
segregation of heat-producing element (HPE)-enriched
granites may have produced long-term crustal heating Figure 10. Isopach maps of sediment thicknesses across the
of up to 50 C in emplacement regions, instigating Centralian Superbasin immediately prior to the onset of (a) the
initial lithospheric weakening (Sandiford et al., 2002). Petermann Orogeny and (b) the Alice Springs Orogeny, showing
Similarly, their exposure and denudation during the relationship between subsidence variations and the locus of fault
exhumation is associated with long-term cooling and reactivation. In (a), the regional depocentre is located adjacent to
accompanying lithospheric strengthening (Sandiford # U5 [ 5
% 0# %# 0 *Y
? 1#

et al., 2001; Sandiford, 2002; Sandiford & McLaren, # "#"!U
? "#U"!K
%?
2002). These processes are potentially instrumental K!
U
"#U"!F
*!#/ %
% #

#

#

Q
U]
in modulating the response of continental interiors to
in this vicinity are subsequently reactivated, primarily including the
large-scale reworking. Q*
+# V
Q+V! '//*?"# '"!
&

However, the localisation of intraplate deformation "#&"! +
et al. (2001).
in central Australia does not simply correspond to
# +$&
association explain the spatial shift in basement vicinity of the Musgrave Province and the northern
reactivation patterns over time. This suggests that margin of the Amadeus Basin, respectively (Fig. 10).
$ # $ +
These regional depocentres then became the precise
factors beyond merely the existence of intensely heat- sites at which deformation was subsequently localised,
producing granitic crust. Sandiford & Hand (1998) and as deeply buried faults were reactivated while thinly
Hand & Sandiford (1999) argue that a critical reduction covered and similarly-oriented structures remained
in lithospheric strength was facilitated by thermal inactive (Fig. 9). This implies that subsidence variations
insulation provided by thick sedimentary blanketing. in the Centralian Superbasin were directly linked to the
Immediately prior to the Petermann and Alice Springs pattern of selective fault reactivation by virtue of their
Orogenies, sediment thicknesses were greatest in the thermal consequences.
13
The application of the thermal blanketing +$

#
mechanism to the Petermann Orogeny has been (Neves et al., 2008; Raimondo et al., 2009, 2010).
challenged based on interpreted source regions for pre- However, spatial and temporal variations in mantle heat
orogenic sediments of the Amadeus Basin. Camacho et production (and consequent lithospheric weakening)
al. (2002) argue that detrital zircon age spectra indicate that could be causally linked to the shifting patterns
that the basin sediments are derived from the Musgrave of basement reactivation remain unexplained by this
Province, requiring that it was emergent rather than model.
deeply buried prior to the onset of deformation.
Furthermore, thermochronological data from basement !;!; <
rocks show a general lack of isotopic resetting at c. 550
Ma, suggesting that orogenesis was associated with #

a rapid thermal pulse dominantly supplied by shear and matter that drives metamorphism, and are intimately
heating (Camacho & McDougall, 2000; Camacho linked to the initiation and evolution of many orogenic
et al., 1995, 2001, 2002, 2009). This fundamentally processes (e.g. Bickle & McKenzie, 1987; Miller et
disagrees with a thermal history controlled by burial al., 2002; Yardley, 2009; Jamtveit & Austrheim, 2010;
and insulation of strongly heat-producing crust, which Putnis & Austrheim, 2010). Importantly, they play an
should be characterised by a long-lived conductive instrumental role in modifying crustal rheology, thus
response (Sandiford et al., 2001; Sandiford, 2002). As + #

a result, the importance of thermal weakening to the and its susceptibility to reworking. This can occur by
localisation of intraplate deformation is downplayed, metasomatic alteration such as strain hardening and
with strength discontinuities associated with major weakening (e.g. Wintsch et al., 1995; Barnes et al.,

Q''

V 2004; Jackson et al., 2004; Niemeijer & Spiers, 2005),
%#
Q'#' #
+
& Shaw, 2001; Camacho et al., 2002). reaction-induced volume change (e.g. Bons, 2001; Iyer
%& % et al., 2008; Jamtveit et al., 2008, 2009; Wannamaker et
in subsequent studies of the central Australian al.&;@@XV& B#
+ + B #
intracontinental terranes. Firstly, additional detrital (e.g. Miller et al., 2002; Brown, 2007).
zircon studies of the Amadeus Basin sediments While many of these processes have only local
indicate strong input from distal rather than local effects, considerable evidence suggests that their
Musgrave basement sources, casting doubt on its pre- operation in the deep crust has a profound impact on
orogenic emergence (Maidment et al., 2007; McLaren the large-scale dynamics of basement reactivation.
et al., 2009). Secondly, thermochronological data For example, several workers have documented the
from the northwestern Amadeus Basin and adjacent existence of mica-dominated alteration assemblages
parts of the Arunta Region suggest that thickening %

of the Centralian Superbasin substantially increased ductile transition (e.g. Stewart et al., 2000; Holdsworth
towards the now-exhumed basement, providing ample et al., 2001; Gueydan et al., 2003; Marsh et al., 2009).
sedimentary sequence accumulation for thermal If this discontinuity acts as an effective stress guide,
blanketing to be effective (McLaren et al., 2009). as is expected for a jelly sandwich model of crustal
Thirdly, cooling histories obtained using high closure rheology (e.g. Handy & Brun, 2004; Burov & Watts,
temperature geochronology support the notion that both 2006), such weak structural domains are ideally
the Petermann (Edgoose et al., 2004; Gregory et al., positioned to accommodate large strains associated
2009; Raimondo et al., 2009, 2010) and Alice Springs $ '$
Orogenies (Hand et al., 1999; Buick et al., 2001a, 2005, # #
+
2008; Raimondo et al., 2011b) were associated with interaction to exert a primary control on the distribution
prolonged thermal regimes, consistent with conduction- of deformation.
driven lithospheric weakening. However, the weakening of stable continental
It is also worth noting that an emergent Musgrave
+

Province does not preclude critical lithospheric + & $ %
weakening if heat production is concentrated in the such refractory material. Devolatilisation and the
mantle rather than the crust, since this arrangement is #
# # + B # ##
lithospheric column (Neves et al., 2008). In support basement rocks, well before the onset of late retrograde
of this possibility, a region of low seismic wavespeeds shearing (e.g. Walther & Orville, 1982; Thompson,
has been detected in the upper mantle beneath central XX&XX&;@@XV'"

Australia (Kaiho & Kennett, 2000; Fishwick & Reading, large-scale terrane rehydration to internally-derived
2008). If this anomaly is caused by temperature + ' NB +

variations, it may represent a zone of unusually high feasible, particularly where the subduction of extensive
heat production, perhaps leading to a hot, weak lower- serpentinite slabs or unmetamorphosed sedimentary
crustal rheology conducive to subhorizontal channel # + + B%
14
reactions (e.g. Cartwright & Barnicoat, 2003; Barnes et

al., 2004; Buick et al., 2008; Wannamaker et al., 2009).
#
role in the localisation of deformation within central
Asia. Tomographic and magnetotelluric imaging of the
crustal structure beneath the Tien Shan (Fig. 11) shows
a low-velocity, high-conductivity zone extending to
mid-crustal depths that is attributed to active fault zones
#$+ #
(Ghose et al., 1998; Vinnik et al., 2002; Bielinski et
al., 2003). This domain is marked by high ambient

transition, suggesting that it represents a major crustal
# ' "

+ Figure 11. Tomographic cross-section along the northern margin of
sourced either from fertile subducted crust inherited #"
+#
W??2Q
!# 0
#* 5

S
from accreted fragments comprising the central Asian wave velocity with depth. Dashed black line delineates the base of
lithosphere, or from underthrust sediments of the Tarim the low-velocity zone, and black dots represent ambient seismicity.
Basin (e.g. Belousov et al., 1992; Lei & Zhao, 2007; van F1, F2 and F3 mark the locations of major EW-trending active faults
in this region. Figure from Vinnik et al. (2002).
der Straaten, 2008; Makarov et al., 2010). Additional
low-velocity zones extending into the lower crust and
+ Connolly & Podladchikov, 2004; Fusseis et al., 2009;
melt-enriched domains conveyed by upwelling mantle Staude et al., 2009). It has been proposed that these
+$ Q et al., 2002; Friederich, 2003; Omuralieva issues may be avoided by the burial and dehydration
et al.& ;@@XV' |# $ # # of hydrothermally-altered fault panels, rather than the
lithospheric column is thus driven by metasomatic $ $
+ #
processes, ultimately resulting in increased strain of enhanced permeability such as fractures and shear
partitioning beneath the Tien Shan. networks (Clark et al., 2006). The panels are produced
*$%&
B + during pre-orogenic basin formation, and represent
subducted crust is clearly excluded where no continental inherited structures that are exposed at the surface
sutures or deep underthrusts exist, a characteristic that before subsequent burial under a thick sedimentary
# succession (Fig. 12). With continued subsidence,
Australia. A viable alternative to this precluded reservoir prograde dehydration reactions trigger progressive

%QV+ Q'#'`_# + & #
et al., 1990; Fricke et al., 1992; Cartwright & Buick, # + %
1999; Clark et al., 2006; Mulch et al., 2007). In this case, promotion of extensive hydration, metasomatism and

} # # %
>
lithospheric weakening is the strong hydromechanical transition. This mechanism appears to have stimulated
restrictions on their downward migration into the the reactivation of mid-crustal intracratonic shear zones
deep crust, which include strong negative buoyancy from both the Alice Springs Orogen (Raimondo et al.,
effects, unfavourable temperature and pressure 2011a,b) and the southern Curnamona Province (Clark
gradients, and limited permeability and porosity (e.g. et al., 2006; Raimondo et al., 2011c).
A B
Figure 12. +%# %

#/ / @
%#
et al. (2006). In (a), hydrated fault panels are
/ %
# // % *? 1/ % %
% @ "# /
/31
1

% #
/ 5?* *?
% /

1/

*
F
*!*

5
%/*
/
#?
%

#
/ %? #@ /#0# %# *Y
?%#

/
5#2

15
Figure 13. U/# 0

# *
%
%*?[ 2 %@ @ 0% #%

Q

Discrete rehydration along deeply-penetrative shear zones characterises much of the orogenic architecture in the ReynoldsAnmatjira
Q

+
0?U /# % /1#/5 5#?

%0
%%/5
1/ 0 #1
5/

/ ?0

#KQ

X
&
/1

$ + Region, where repeated anatexis occurred in otherwise
lithospheric weakening and pre-orogenic basin- infertile granulite facies crust (Buick et al., 2008).
forming processes are concomitant with the thermal To summarise, fault burial and thermal insulation
effects discussed previously (section 3.2). For are both greatly assisted by the deposition of a thick
example, similar to the varying degrees of thermal sedimentary blanket. In the case of the Alice Springs
insulation provided by sedimentary blanketing, it # & +
is likely that regional changes in basin architecture ingress acted in concert with regionally elevated heat
# B production to prime the lithosphere for reworking
crustal rehydration. This is highlighted by the fact (Sandiford & Hand, 1998; Hand & Sandiford, 1999;
that the pattern of increasing sediment accumulation Raimondo et al., 2011a,b). However, this association
from west to east across the Centralian Superbasin is not immediately apparent for the Petermann Orogen,
matches an increase in the size and pervasiveness of $#
+ #
+ ^ fault networks (e.g. Clarke et al., 1995; Camacho et
Region (Fig. 13). Discrete metasomatised shear al., 1997; Scrimgeour & Close, 1999; Raimondo et al.,
[@@ $ >^ } 2010). In particular, pervasive mylonitic reworking in
Ranges are succeeded by kilometre-scale schist the orogenic core between the Woodroffe Thrust and
belts transecting Palaeoproterozoic granulites in the Mann Fault (Fig. 1c) appears to have occurred under
Strangways Metamorphic Complex (Bendall et al., dominantly anhydrous conditions. Nevertheless,
1998; Ballvre et al., 2000), followed by a ~7500 km2 discrete shear zones in this region are associated with
zone of Palaeozoic amphibolite facies retrogression % + + B& %
B
and voluminous partial melting in the Harts Range #
# % +
and Entia Gneiss Complex further east (Hand et al., assisted partial melting (Scrimgeour & Close, 1999;
1999; Mawby et al., 1999; Buick et al., 2005). Strongly Edgoose et al., 2004; Gregory et al., 2009). Furthermore,
deformed outcrops of the basal sedimentary unit of the the widespread occurrence of these lower-crustal
Amadeus Basin (Heavitree Quartzite) are preserved in migmatitic domains suggests that the orogenic core was
these areas (Shaw et al., 1984; Ballvre et al., 2000), $ # #
+$
and isotopic evidence indicates that shear zones (Raimondo et al., 2009, 2010). With a lack of coeval
of the Strangways Metamorphic Complex contain %
+
+ # $ # Q & sources given its intracontinental nature, it is possible
2000). These associations suggest that the regional + #$
B
distribution of sediment thickness prior to the Alice of pre-orogenic hydrothermal alteration. This has been
Springs Orogeny had a direct impact on the subsequent %
% Q et al.,
degree of rehydration and reworking in its underlying 2001b), and bears some resemblance to the pre-orogenic
basement, with the widespread dewatering of buried conditions of the Alice Springs Orogeny, suggesting
sedimentary rocks becoming increasingly important at that lithospheric weakening was again assisted by the
the highest metamorphic grades of the eastern Arunta
+ '
16
4. ARCHITECTURAL AND EVOLUTIONARY

CHARACTERISTICS A
At face value, the difference in tectonic setting between
intracontinental and plate-boundary orogens might
be expected to manifest itself in strongly divergent
architectural features or evolutionary histories.
However, the distinctive characteristics of the central
Asian and central Australian intracontinental terranes
argue that there are more basic controls on these
parameters. The following section gives a brief overview
of the key features of these orogenic systems in light
of the various stress sources and strain localisation
mechanisms discussed above.
4.1. Scale
Perhaps the most striking characteristic of
intracontinental orogens is their lateral dimensions.
Despite their occurrence at remote distances from
continental margins, they are comparable in scale B
to typical collisional orogens. The Tien Shan is an
extremely broad orogenic system, measuring ~2500 WB
# [@@!@@ $ Q#' V' " CB Mt Isa
mean altitude of ~2500 m and summits extending to > Paterson GB
7000 m (Omuralieva et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2011). AB

It also forms part of a greater intracontinental terrane
OB
(the central Asian orogenic belt) that includes the AFB
^| `

northeast, encompassing a length scale of over 5000 km
(Cunningham, 2005; De Grave et al., 2007).
The full regional extent of the central Australian
orogens is poorly constrained due to a lack of exposure,
but sedimentological, geochronological and geophysical
evidence indicates that they are similarly extensive. The
# :!@@N [@@ Figure 14. 5 ?

# / # ]
|QN#et al., 2004; Raimondo et al., 2010). crustal elements of continental Australia (white = high; black =
Regional gravity and aeromagnetic data also suggest 0! "# U5 [ 5
%

Q
*?
that major Petermann structures extend northwest into linear EW-trending relative highs within the regional low of central
the Paterson Orogen (Fig. 14), which records coeval

*? ' / 2 %
?
intracontinental deformation at c. 550 Ma (Powell et basins that comprise the remnants of the once contiguous Centralian
al., 1994; Myers et al., 1996; Bagas, 2004; Li & Evans, +/*
' # 1

/

5 ?
#
#

#U5[ 5
%
#[

2011). Synorogenic sedimentation of the Alice Springs
Orogen further northwest. Abbreviations: AFB, Adelaide Fold Belt;
#

&&

'
Q#'F
V& ' #

$$%
++ #

constituting a regional expanse greater than 500 000 Craton; WAC, West Australian Craton; WB, Wiso Basin. Figure part (a)
km2 (Haines et al., 2001; Maidment et al., 2007). Coeval +
!/*!
*!
tectonism attributed to this event is also recorded as
` " " Q| # et al., 1997), style and broader tectonic context. It comprises a
the Canning Basin (Roberts & Houseman, 2001), the N # #
Darling River Lineament (OSullivan et al., 1998), by intervening sedimentary basins containing Cenozoic
Broken Hill and the Curnamona Province (Hartley et synorogenic deposits. Virtually every range is bordered
al., 1998; Mitchell et al., 1998), and the Adelaide Fold by active faults, forming an array of Laramide-type
Belt (Gibson & Stwe, 2000; McLaren et al., 2002). high-angle reverse structures cored by Palaeozoic or
older crystalline basement (Ghose et al., 1998). Major
4.2. Lithospheric architecture thrusts bound its northern margin with the stable
The lithospheric architecture of intracontinental orogens Kazakh Shield and southern margin with the relatively
is an important record of their geodynamic evolution. undeformed Tarim Basin (Fig. 1b). Tomographic
Intensive geophysical studies of the Tien Shan have imaging indicates that these faults extend to mid-
revealed a range of information about its structural crustal depths and produce thick-skinned deformation
17
Figure 15. ! " /# % # %

//

'G+ 5 W # W2# +# 0 #
/ / %%

#U #
# /#G#
/# *
?J!
#
/

#Y#?/ %

0 0#/ #%

*! /!1%/

%
XG5
#W2#+# #"
+ * % Wet al. (2005).
%% # F!@ #& # Lambeck, 1983; Lambeck & Burgess, 1992; Aitken
to typical collisional orogens (Bump & Sheehan, 1998; et al., 2009a,b). In the orogenic core situated between
Oreshin et al., 2002; Vinnik et al., 2004). A dominant these structures, granulite and transitional-eclogite
|N # Q # facies rocks record peak PT ;F
#' q
V #
?!@>!@ _& # B
of dextral shear to the active deformation of this region F@F!Q_et al., 1995; Camacho et
(e.g. Burtman et al., 1996). The Moho underlying the al., 1997; White & Clarke, 1997; Scrimgeour & Close,
| F!?!Q#' 1999; Raimondo et al., 2009, 2010). Combined with
15) and thickens to 70 km beneath the Tarim Basin, the observations that the crust currently underlying
whereas the lithosphere thickens from 90 km to 160 the eroded Musgrave Province is ~45 km thick (e.g.
km along the same trajectory (Mangino et al., 1999; Collins, 1991; Lambeck & Burgess, 1992; Clitheroe et
Vinnik et al., 2004; Kumar et al., 2005). The correlation al., 2000), that the Amadeus Basin has undergone little
between topographic variations and the depth of the +B &

## evidence of post-orogenic reworking, this suggests that
Tien Shan is isostatically supported by deep mantle the Petermann Orogeny involved crustal thickening
upwelling (e.g. Omuralieva et al., 2009). generally comparable to the Tien Shan (e.g. Camacho
The central Australian orogens share several key & McDougall, 2000; Flttmann et al., 2004; Aitken et
structural features with the Tien Shan, primarily with al., 2009b; Raimondo et al., 2009, 2010).
regard to their lithospheric scale. The Petermann Like the Musgrave Province, the lithospheric
Orogen constitutes a major dextral transpressive structure of the Arunta Region is dominated by
shear system (e.g. Camacho & McDougall, 2000; deeply-penetrative planar fault arrays that intersect
Flttmann et al., 2004; Aitken & Betts, 2009b; Aitken the deep crust and mantle, principally including the
et al., 2009a,b). North-vergent transport was principally Redbank Shear Zone and Napperby Thrust (Fig.
concentrated along the Woodroffe Thrust, while south- 16b). The former offsets the Moho by ~25 km and is
directed overthrusting was accommodated along the associated with an equivalent regional gravity high to
southern margin of the Musgrave Province (Fig. 9a). ` Q]
et
Dextral strike-slip offset is also recorded along deeply al., 1989, 1990; Lindsay & Leven, 1996; Korsch et
penetrating shear zones in the axial zone of the orogen al., 1998). Moderate crustal thickening is indicated by
(Fig. 1c), including the Mann Fault and the Wintiginna the exhumation of extensive granulite facies basement
' ` terranes and amphibolite facies shear zones with peak
displaces the Moho by ~30 km (Fig. 16a), producing PT !'@?'!
!@@?@@ _
a major (~150 mGal) gravity anomaly (Mathur, 1976; ^ } # | #$
18
Figure 16. Cross-sections along line AB in Figure 1c, showing the correspondence between the lithospheric architecture of central Australia

5 ?&
&ms2! % 0 #/?3/

# /%#U # *?
G/ ?
%
#U
? "#! "#!
U
*!
#U5[ 5
%
#Q*

+#V
!
'//*?"#!
#
Q
K
+
!
Metamorphic Complex (Cartwright & Buick, 1999; Chen et al., 1997; Lei & Zhao, 2007; Zhiwei et al.,
Ballvre et al., 2000; Hand & Buick, 2001; Raimondo 2009). This suggests that intracontinental orogens are
et al., 2011a,b), followed by the exposure of ~7 characterised by unusual orogenic roots, perhaps as a

!@@ _ _
consequence of their inherent spatial restrictions in the
assemblages in the Entia Gneiss Complex further east absence of a penetrative suture zone.
(Arnold et al., 1995; Hand et al., 1999). Relative to the
Petermann Orogen and Tien Shan, therefore, the Alice
4.3. Strain distribution and thermal regime
Springs Orogen involved a slightly reduced scale of
lithospheric deformation, but remains comparable to In keeping with their broadly comparable structural
typical collisional orogens. Rather than diminishing expressions, the central Asian and central Australian
the apparent impact of intracontinental orogenesis, orogens also share remarkably similar strain
this merely highlights its dramatic expression in both distributions. The deeply-penetrating thrusts that
ancient and modern terranes. characterise the Petermann and Alice Springs Orogens
In addition to their profound crustal effects, the are associated with comparatively little shortening.
+ # B The majority of strain is instead transferred to
to deeper realms. The amount of shortening across their footwalls, where it is accommodated by thick
both the Petermann and Alice Springs Orogens cannot duplexes incorporating interleaved basement and cover
be accounted for solely by their crustal expressions, sequences. Ultimately, this combination of thick- and
## # # # %
thin-skinned deformation resulted in total shortening
accommodated via partial delamination of the mantle @@;@@ & $ ;!

lithosphere (e.g. Aitken et al., 2009b). This inference Redbank Shear Zone and Woodroffe Thrust (Shaw et
is supported by tomographic imaging of the Australian al., 1992; Flttmann & Hand, 1999; Flttmann et al.,
continent, which shows a low-wavespeed anomaly 2004). This value closely coincides with that of the
immediately underlying the Arunta Region and Tien Shan (200 50 km), which absorbs only a minor
` #%% !@@Q'#'| et ;@@@[@@@
%#
al., 1999; Simons & van der Hilst, 2003; Fishwick et al., India into Eurasia (Molnar & Tapponnier, 1975; Avouac
2005; Fishwick & Reading, 2008). Seismic anisotropy et al., 1993; Abdrakhmatov et al., 1996; Bazhenov
within this zone remains frozen with respect to the & Mikolaichuk, 2004). Deformation is largely
" ^ & # #
is interpreted to represent an unusual lithospheric basin margins in this region, and shortening is again
signature of past deformation episodes, most notably strongly partitioned into the upper crust (Thompson
intraplate compression (Simons & van der Hilst, et al., 2002). Concurrent movement along these fault
2003; Fishwick & Reading, 2008). Similar wavespeed arrays, which span the width of the entire mountain belt
anomalies beneath the central Tien Shan, which form rather than being concentrated at a major frontal ramp,
large, slab-like bodies directly underlying range fronts, indicates that strain accommodation is not preferentially
are also attributed to lithospheric delamination (e.g. partitioned into individual detachments (Burbank et al.,
19
1999; Zhang et al., 2004). This mirrors the pervasive convergence rates of the Petermann and Alice Springs
deformation of deeper levels of the Petermann and Orogenies (< 2 mm yr; Camacho et al., 1997; Haines
Alice Springs Orogens, suggesting that all systems are et al., 2001; Sandiford et al., 2001; Sandiford, 2002).
controlled by a relatively weak bulk rheology conducive The cause of such a profound difference in the
+$ #Q evolutionary record of the central Australian orogens
et al., 2004). probably resides with their contrasting sources of stress.
The broad-scale strain distributions of %
# | +
intracontinental orogens thus appear to be largely ## %" N
dictated by their rheological structure, which is to collision. In contrast, the slow shortening rates of the
some extent independent of their tectonic setting: Petermann and Alice Springs Orogenies are associated
collisional zones may exhibit the same distributed with comparatively minor contemporaneous plate-
'
B
margin activity. This dichotomy has important thermal
the close correspondence between the structural and mechanical implications. Most importantly, slow
geometry and kinematic history of the Petermann and convergence permits conductive heat loss to outweigh
*
# ' material advection via deformation. The redistribution

# +$ of crustal heat sources thus exerts a primary control on
of lower-crustal material, and capable of supporting the thermal state of the lithosphere, allowing the deep
thick crustal wedges and sustaining large variations in denudation of radiogenic crust to produce long-term
crustal thickness during shortening (e.g. Bird, 1991; cooling and progressive strengthening (Sandiford et al.,
Nelson et al., 1996; Beaumont et al., 2001; Raimondo 2001; Sandiford, 2002). Accompanying Moho uplift
et al., 2009, 2010). Such similarity also extends to also results in an increase in the integrated lithospheric
their metamorphic petrogenesis, which is characterised strength, as relatively weak lower-crustal rocks are
by relatively low average geothermal gradients, slow replaced by much stronger upper mantle material
average cooling rates, and long-lived orogenic cycles (Aitken et al., 2009b). Ultimately, these processes
(e.g. Camacho et al., 1997; Scrimgeour & Close, 1999; may be instrumental in terminating orogenesis, as
Goscombe & Hand, 2000; Goscombe et al., 2006; lithospheric strength increases to the point where
Kohn, 2008; Raimondo et al., 2010). These features external forces can be resisted and isostatic imbalances
contrast markedly to those of extensional accretionary are supported (Sandiford et al., 2001; Sandiford, 2002).
orogens (e.g. Collins, 2002; Dewey, 2005; Brown, However, it should be noted that the calculated
;@@XV&
# convergence rates for the central Australian orogens
heat input via crustal attenuation and voluminous are time-integrated values estimated from their modest
#' / # total shortening and prolonged durations. As such, they
plate margin interactions, therefore, intracontinental give the false impression of temporal uniformity, when
crust appears capable of entertaining deformational in reality deformation may be strongly episodic (Fig.
responses comparable to collisional orogenic belts by 3). For example, the Alice Springs Orogeny rapidly
virtue of its similar rheological structure and thermal entered its terminal phase during the Carboniferous,
regime. with the fastest bulk strain rates occurring at this time
(Dunlap & Teyssier, 1995; Dunlap et al., 1995; Haines
et al., 2001; Raimondo et al., 2011b). Rather than
4.4. Convergence rate and orogenic evolution
convergence slowly abating due to progressive cooling
Although the basic anatomy of compressional and lithospheric strengthening, therefore, it apparently
intracontinental orogens is reminiscent of their plate- $ # #
# & #

#' +
differences in their progressive development. Primarily, ingress in stimulating increased tectonic activity at this
this concerns their bulk rates of convergence. The time has already been discussed (section 3.3). This
|

# Q scenario implies that the resistive strength acquired
as much as 50%) of the total shortening rate across by radiogenic heat removal and concurrent Moho
" N ' ] uplift may only be relevant to restricted pockets of the
% ?;@ orogenic system, in particular those which preserve
in this region (Abdrakhmatov et al., 1996; Holt et the large gravity anomalies indicative of isostatic
al.& ;@@@V& !;@ within the disequilibrium. An alternative and more widely
Himalaya (Larson et al., 1999; Banerjee & Brgmann, applicable hypothesis for the termination of orogenesis
;@@;V [?F@ for the Indian plate with is that this process acted in conjunction with a change in
respect to stable Eurasia (Paul et al., 2001; Wang plate-boundary conditions that resulted in the loss of a
et al., 2001; Zhang et al., 2004). These values are driving in-plane stress. This is more consistent with the
roughly commensurate with moderate subduction rates thin-plate geodynamical modelling of Braun & Shaw
estimated from both ancient and modern terranes (e.g. (2001) and Roberts & Houseman (2001).
Royden & Husson, 2009; Scholl & von Huene, 2010). Nevertheless, the contribution of acquired
*$%&# # %# lithospheric strength may be proportionally greater
20
with regard to the Petermann Orogeny. This event The proposed mechanical framework for intraplate
does not appear to be strongly episodic, and contains a stress regimes is married to a range of parameters
metamorphic peak relatively early in the orogenic cycle, controlling the distribution of deformation, primarily
followed by a prolonged period of slow cooling driven including structural heterogeneities, thermal effects
by exhumation (Camacho et al., 1997; Scrimgeour & + '

Close, 1999; Gregory et al., 2009; Raimondo et al., cooperatively to critical weakening of the lithosphere
2009, 2010). The orogenic core also features a thick, that enables it to accommodate rather than transmit
broad wedge of lower-crustal material exhumed along stress. Their dynamic interrelationships are best
the Woodroffe Thrust and Mann Fault (Figs 1c & 9a). illustrated in central Australia, where the poor
The progressive uplift of this extensive high-grade correspondence between the relatively simple structural
domain, which dominates the lithospheric architecture arrangement of major fault arrays and their complex
of the Musgrave Province, may have produced a spatial and temporal patterns of reactivation indicates
substantially greater strengthening effect relative to that structural inheritance alone cannot explain strain
the exposure of the axial zone of the Alice Springs localisation. Rather, thick sedimentary blanketing over
Orogen (Figs 1c & 9b). Coupled with an apparent lack a strongly heat-producing crust, coupled with deep
%% + + # # %
weakening, this process may therefore have played
&$
# # ' in moderating the susceptibility of stable continental
However, it should be noted that the cooling history interiors to large-scale reworking. These seemingly
of the Petermann Orogeny is poorly constrained due

to a comparative dearth of geochronological data. As to pre-orogenic basin formation, suggesting that
a result, its lack of episodicity is equivocal, and the & +
process profoundly affect the initiation and localisation
relevance of its slow time-integrated convergence rate
of intraplate deformation. Overall, their combined
remains unclear.
+ # $

+
& ## #
5. CONCLUSION the deformational response of continental lithosphere is
controlled by fundamental properties such as its thermal
Intracontinental orogens are comparatively rare in the
and rheological structure, rather than circumstantial
geological record, and as a consequence are poorly
features such as its tectonic setting.
understood relative to their plate-margin counterparts.
However, their good preservation in ancient terranes
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28
CHAPTER 2
This chapter is published as:
N +$'Geology, 37QFV&;X;XF&Y@'[@\];!F!;^''
Ediacaran intracontinental channel ow
Tom Raimondo1*, Alan S. Collins1, Martin Hand1, Althea Walker-Hallam1, R. Hugh Smithies2, Paul M. Evins2,
Heather M. Howard2
1
Continental Evolution Research Group, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005,
Australia
2
Geological Survey of Western Australia, Mineral House, 100 Plain Street, East Perth, WA 6004, Australia
ABSTRACT kinematics. The shear zones crosscut ca. 820 Ma

Migmatitic lower-crustal rocks in the Ediacaran intracontinental Petermann orogen, cen- mac dikes and overprint regional gneissic lay-
tral Australia, are bounded by regional-scale, low-angle shear fabrics that record opposing ering produced during the ca. 1200 Ma Mus-
shear senses. New sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP) titanite geochronol- gravian orogeny (Clarke et al., 1995).
ogy suggests that the contrasting shear systems developed synchronously. We argue that the 2. Between the Mann fault and the Wood-
macroscopic structural and metamorphic architecture satises the diagnostic criteria outlined roffe thrust: Mesoproterozoic granites, granitic
by recently proposed channel ow models, and thus the remarkably well-preserved Peter- gneisses, and mafic dikes are extensively
mann orogen is potentially an example of ancient intracontinental channel ow. reworked by pervasive mylonitic shear zones
that have obliterated earlier tectonic fea-
INTRODUCTION lithostatic pressure, which drives lateral crustal tures. In the Bates region and the western
The channelized ow of weak lower-crustal ow toward an orogenic front. Mann Ranges, mylonitic fabrics dip shal-
material is a controversial but appealing expla- We present structural, metamorphic, and geo- lowly to moderately southeast. Adjacent to the
nation for the evolution of some collisional chronologic data from the Ediacaran Petermann Mt. Charles thrust further east, they are uni-
orogens. Several authors have recently used orogen, central Australia, and assess their cor- formly south-dipping. Elongate aggregates of
thermal-mechanical models and extensive geo- respondence to these criteria. quartz, biotite, and feldspar dene an associ-
logical and geophysical observations to argue for ated elongation lineation that varies signi-
the existence of large-scale ductile ow within GEOLOGICAL SETTING cantly in orientation (Fig. 1).
the Himalayan-Tibetan system (e.g., Beaumont The Ediacaran (600530 Ma; Wade et al., High strain domains in the hanging wall
et al., 2001; Bird, 1991; Nelson et al., 1996). 2005) Petermann orogeny was a major intra- of the Woodroffe thrust display opposing
While the plausibility of such models is rarely plate event affecting the crustal architecture kinematics. In the eastern Mann Ranges,
disputed in a generic sense, their correspondence of central Australia. It occurred >1000 km shearing is uniformly north-directed (Fig.
to the metamorphic, structural, and geochrono- from any Neoproterozoic plate margin, and DR1A in the GSA Data Repository1), com-
logical record of Himalayan deformation is vig- more than 500 m.y. after the amalgamation patible with reverse dip-slip movement along
orously debated (e.g., Kohn, 2008; Webb et al., of the Australian craton during the assembly of the Woodroffe thrust (Scrimgeour and Close,
2007). Thus, despite widespread agreement on Rodinia (Camacho and McDougall, 2000; Wade 1999; Scrimgeour et al., 1999). Throughout the
the possibility of identifying an active or fossil- et al., 2008). Primarily, it resulted in the frag- Bates region, however, asymmetric shear struc-
ized channel in principle, the practical applicabil- mentation of an extensive intracratonic sedi- tures consistently record top-to-the-southwest
ity of channel ow models remains contentious. mentary basin into several smaller subbasins, displacement (Fig. DR1B) (Howard et al.,
Beyond the disagreement surrounding Hima- including the Amadeus and Ofcer Basins (inset 2006). Kinematics are poorly established in the
layan tectonics, this problem has been viewed of Fig. 1). The Amadeus Basin separates two western Mann Ranges, but the similarity of its
as virtually insurmountable in ancient terranes. exhumed Paleoproterozoic to Mesoproterozoic lineation distribution compared to the adjacent
Here, the recognition of channel ow must com- basement inliers: the Arunta block to the north Bates region, coupled with reconnaissance
bat deciencies such as incomplete outcrop, and the Musgrave block to the south. observations (Fig. DR1C), suggests southwest-
poorly preserved boundary conditions, and a lack The effects of the Petermann orogeny are directed transport. No crosscutting relation-
of transient geodynamic data (Jones et al., 2006). best preserved on the northwestern margin of ships are observed between lineated fabrics that
Nevertheless, if primary orogenic structures the Musgrave block, which is characterized record north- and southwest-directed shearing.
remain intact, deep dissection potentially allows by a series of major fault structures (Fig. 1). 3. North of the Woodroffe thrust: thin-
a complete crustal section to be exposed, and pre- The most signicant of these structures is the skinned structures are dominated by a large-
served orogenic channels should be identiable shallowly south-dipping Woodroffe thrust, a scale imbricate thrust stack (the Petermann
using diagnostic eld-based criteria (cf. Godin thick-skinned structure that accommodated nappe complex) that is dissected by several dis-
et al., 2006; Jones et al., 2006). These include: large displacement during north-south shorten- crete high-strain zones and involves interleaved
1. A discrete package of high-grade migma- ing. Deformation is strongly concentrated in its sedimentary sequences of the Amadeus Basin.
titic rocks anked by lower-grade rocks at the vicinity and includes substantial crustal thick- Elongation lineations are primarily south- and
channel margins; ening and basement-cored isoclinal folding north-plunging throughout this region, but they
2. Bounding shear zones that show evidence (Edgoose et al., 2004; Flttmann et al., 2004). rotate toward northwest-southeast along the
of coeval thrust- and normal-sense movement Wankari detachment zone. Mylonitic fabrics
(kinematic inversion); STRUCTURE correspondingly show north- to northwest-
3. Pervasive high shear strains throughout the Throughout the northwestern Musgrave directed kinematics (Flttmann et al., 2004;
channel, compared to decreased strain localiza- block, deformation associated with the Peter- Scrimgeour et al., 1999).
tion in the surrounding regions; and mann orogeny is expressed as a simple struc-
4. A signicant contrast in crustal thickness tural architecture (Figs. 1 and 2). Three major 1
GSA Data Repository item 2009076, accompa-
capable of producing a horizontal gradient in domains are distinguished. niments to Figure 1 and additional details on geo-
chronology, is available online at www.geosociety.
*E-mail: thomas.raimondo@adelaide.edu.au. 1. South of the Mann fault: synorogenic org/pubs/ft2009.htm, or on request from editing@

Current address: Heathgate Resources, Level 4, deformation is restricted to the development of geosociety.org or Documents Secretary, GSA, P.O.
25 Grenfell Street, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia. minor mylonitic shear zones with north-directed Box 9140, Boulder, CO 80301, USA.
[
;< =

12830E
2430S
ca. 570
ca. 600
ca. 555
13030E
2600S
Figure 1. Simplied geology of the northwestern Musgrave block, showing regional arrangement of elongation lineations (equal-area stereonets)
and associated kinematics (single arrows), and location of geochronology and thermobarometry samples. All pressure-temperature estimates
are from Clarke et al. (1995), Scrimgeour and Close (1999), and White and Clarke (1997). Inferred northern boundary of channel ow zone repre-
sents regional extent of predominant northeast-southwest lineation arrays and pervasively sheared and partially melted rocks. Southern bound-
ary is represented by Mann fault: discrete low-grade shear zones with north-directed kinematics occur south of this location, beyond map limits.
Locations A, B, and C refer to Figure DR1 (see footnote 1). Figure adapted from Howard et al. (2006), Liu et al. (2006), and Scrimgeour et al.
(1999). Inset: Intracratonic basins and major tectonic elements of central and western Australia (modied from Camacho and McDougall, 2000).
ABArunta block, AMBAmadeus Basin, GBGeorgina Basin, MBMusgrave block, NBNgalia Basin, OBOfcer Basin.
METAMORPHISM taining upper amphibolite and granulite facies Extensively recrystallized and simple meta-
Like its structural arrangement, the Petermann assemblages (~1014 kbar; ~700800 C); morphic assemblages are restricted to mylonitic
orogen is characterized by a simple metamor- 3. Slightly lower pressures and temperatures shear zones, and mineral aggregates commonly
phic architecture. Regional thermobarometric throughout the Umutju region and directly dene strong elongation lineations. Furthermore,
studies (Figs. 1 and 2) show consistent Ediacaran south of the Woodroffe thrust (~912 kbar; there is no evidence for polymetamorphism in
pressure-temperature trends in which the crustal- ~620730 C); the orogenic core or sequences closer to the
scale Woodroffe thrust forms a major metamorphic 4. Abruptly lower-grade shear zones exposed foreland. Numerous shear zones show evidence
discontinuity. Metamorphic grade then gradually in the immediate footwall of the Woodroffe of structurally focused partial melting; these are
decreases toward the foreland to the north and par- thrust (~6.5 kbar; ~610640 C); regionally widespread throughout the Bates and
allel to major structures toward the east (Edgoose 5. Lower amphibolite to greenschist facies Umutju regions and the Mann Ranges (Edgoose
et al., 2004; Scrimgeour and Close, 1999). assemblages throughout the Petermann Ranges et al., 2004; Scrimgeour and Close, 1999).
The key metamorphic components of the oro- and northern Pottoyu Hills (~35 kbar; ~300
gen are as follows: 450 C), grading to lower greenschist facies in GEOCHRONOLOGY
1. Discrete greenschist facies shear zones the Bloods Range; and Previous geochronological studies of the
south of the Mann fault that crosscut prechannel 6. An essentially unmetamorphosed sequence northwestern Musgrave block have used a vari-
features such as ca. 820 Ma mac dikes and at the northern margin of the Musgrave block, ety of methods to constrain the timing of Peter-
Mesoproterozoic gneissic layering; including a preserved foreland conglomerate mann orogeny reworking (see Figs. 1 and 2, and
2. A high-grade orogenic core exposed in the (the Mt. Currie Conglomerate). This completes Table DR1 [see footnote 1]). Within the orogenic
Bates region and the western Mann Ranges, con- an almost full range of crustal exposure. core, sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe
[;
;< =

NOTE:
This figure is included on page 33 of the print copy of
Figure 2. Conceptual cross section through western margin of Petermann orogen (adapted from Edgoose et al., 2004). Key features consis-
tent with channel ow are shown along with lateral distribution of geochronological data and pressure-temperature estimates.
(SHRIMP) U-Pb analysis of metamorphic zir- For this study, SHRIMP U-Pb analysis was tions, and garnet zonation indicate that titanite
con rims from migmatitic meta-granites have performed on four titanite samples (155731, production occurred at peak metamorphic con-
yielded two synkinematic age estimates, one 184495, 187323, and 187337) associated with ditions (see Data Repository). Since the majority
of which is supplemented by a comparable top-to-the-southwest kinematics. Details con- of SHRIMP analyses were positioned at grain
SHRIMP allanite age (Gregory et al., 2007; cerning titanite size and isotopic chemistry are cores, we interpret the age estimates to reect
Scrimgeour et al., 1999). One K-Ar hornblende summarized in Table DR2, and sample prepa- the progressively later timing of Pb closure as
cooling age and an imprecise Sm-Nd garnet age ration, operating procedures, and data reduc- a function of decreasing grain size and increas-
comprise the remaining data from this region tion are also outlined in the Data Repository. ingly extensive volumetric diffusion. Titanites
(Scrimgeour et al., 1999). Additional constraints Tera-Wasserburg plots are presented in Fig- from samples 187323 and 187337 are signi-
have been obtained from shear zones north of the ure 3, and analytical data are provided in Table cantly larger (~500 m average diameter) than
Woodroffe thrust. Here, decreased metamorphic DR3. The calculated ages cover the interval the remaining samples, and thus they record
temperatures (~300450 C for K-Ar muscovite ca. 573539 Ma, comparable with synkinematic the timing of initial titanite crystallization at
and Rb-Sr biotite samples from the Petermann ages further east and north of the Bates region ca. 570 Ma. In contrast, smaller grains from
Ranges and Pottoyu Hills; ~600 C for Sm-Nd (ca. 586550 Ma). They also coincide with esti- samples 155731 (~350 m average) and 184495
garnet sample from the Olia Chain) improve the mates obtained from high-pressure shear zones (~200 m average) record cooling below Pb clo-
likelihood of retaining synkinematic rather than in the central Musgrave block, 150200 km east sure between ca. 550 and 540 Ma.
cooling ages. All estimates from this northern of the Mann Ranges (ca. 600530 Ma; Camacho
area are associated with top-to-the-north kine- and McDougall, 2000). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
matics (Fig. 1) (Edgoose et al., 2004; Flttmann Metamorphic reactions inferred on the basis From a structural, metamorphic, and geo-
et al., 2004; Scrimgeour et al., 1999). of petrological relationships, mineral composi- chronologic perspective, the key characteristics
Figure 3. Tera-Wasserburg plots of sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP) titanite data. All age uncertainties are quoted at 2
level. Anchor values for each regression line are also shown with their associated 1 errors. MSWDmean square of weighted deviates.
[[
;< =

of channel ow appear to be satised by the compatible with alternative orogenic models eds., Deformation in the Desert, Specialist
Petermann orogen (Fig. 2). First, its gross such as critical taper, general shear, and tectonic Group in Tectonics and Structural Geology
Conference, 913 July 2007, Alice Springs:
structural arrangement features a crustal-scale wedging (e.g., Kohn, 2008; Webb et al., 2007). Sydney, Geological Society of Australia, p. 42.
thrust stack emplaced along the Woodroffe thrust It is likely that a range of additional constraints Howard, H.M., Smithies, R.H., Pirajno, F., and
during north-south compression. Widespread (e.g., increased geochronological resolution; Skwarnecki, M.S., 2006, Bates, W.A. Sheet
kinematic indicators indicate that overthrusting further geophysical investigation of the crustal 4646: Perth, Western Australia Geological Sur-
vey, scale 1:100,000.
was north-directed. Within the hanging wall of the structure beneath the northwestern Musgrave Jones, R.R., Holdsworth, R.E., Hand, M., and
Woodroffe thrust, however, a broad area of block) is needed to unequivocally discriminate Goscombe, B., 2006, Ductile extrusion in
low-angle mylonitic deformation consistently between these hypotheses. Nevertheless, the cor- continental collision zones: Ambiguities in the
shows southwest-directed shearing. The deeply respondence between the macroscopic structural, denition of channel ow and its identica-
exhumed orogenic core is thus bound by thrust- metamorphic, and kinematic architecture of the tion in ancient orogens, in Law, R.D., Searle,
M.P., and Godin, L., eds., Channel ow, ductile
and normal-sense shear zones on its northern Petermann orogen and the Himalayan-Tibetan extrusion and exhumation in continental
and southern margins, respectively. It also fea- system is remarkable and should indicate that collision zones: Geological Society of London
tures pervasive high shear strains compared to the existence of intracontinental channel ow Special Publication 268, p. 201219.
the more focused and discrete deformation in dating back to the Neoproterozoic is viable and Kohn, M.J., 2008, P-T-t data from central Nepal sup-
port critical taper and repudiate large-scale chan-
the adjacent upper-crustal blocks. worthy of further investigation. nel ow of the Greater Himalayan Sequence:
Second, the zone of pervasive southwest- Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 120,
directed shearing coincides with a package of ACKNOWLEDGMENTS p. 259273, doi: 10.1130/B26252.1.
high-grade migmatitic rocks exhumed from sig- Thanks are due to the Ngaanyatjarra Council and Liu, S.F., Raymond, O.L., Stewart, A.J., Sweet, I.P.,
the Geological Survey of Western Australia for logis- Duggan, M.B., Charlick, C., Phillips, D., and
nicantly deeper crustal depths than the ank- tical support. Simon Bodorkos, Mike Wingate, Dot Retter, A.J., 2006, Surface Geology of Australia,
ing regions. Ediacaran metamorphic grade then Close, Ian Scrimgeour, Rod King, and Mike Belperio Northern Territory [Digital Dataset]: Canberra,
abruptly decreases across both the Woodroffe are also thanked for their assistance. We are grateful to Geoscience Australia, scale 1:1,000,000.
thrust to the north and the Mann fault to the south. Laurent Godin, Alex Webb, and Chris Gerbi for con- Nelson, K.D., Zhao, W., Brown, L.D., Kuo, J., Che,
structive and detailed reviews. Funding for this work J., Liu, X., Klemperer, S.L., Makovsky, Y.,
It also diminishes parallel to major structures was provided by Australian Research Council Link- Meissner, R., Mechie, J., Kind, R., Wenzel, F.,
toward the east as the zone of normal-sense kine- age grant LP0560887. Ni, J., Nabelek, J., Leshou, C., Tan, H., Wei,
matics narrows and the Mann fault and Woodroffe W., Jones, A.G., Booker, J., Unsworth, M.,
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matics encompass the range ca. 586550 Ma, p. 10,27510,286. v. 17, p. 557572, doi: 10.1046/j.1525-1314.
while new crystallization ages obtained from the Camacho, A., and McDougall, I., 2000, Intracratonic, 1999.00217.x.
Bates region suggest that top-to-the-southwest strike-slip partitioned transpression and the Scrimgeour, I.R., Close, D., and Edgoose, C.J., 1999,
shearing was coeval at ca. 570 Ma. The large formation and exhumation of eclogite facies Petermann Ranges, Northern Territory (2nd
temporal spread of the former is problematic rocks: An example from the Musgrave block, edition). Geological Map Series Explanatory
central Australia: Tectonics, v. 19, p. 978996. Notes, SG 5207: Darwin, Northern Territory
and permits some doubt about the existence of Clarke, G.L., Buick, I.S., Glikson, A.Y., and Stewart, Geological Survey, scale 1:250,000, 59 p.
a kinematic overlap. At present, this deciency A.J., 1995, Structural and pressuretemperature Wade, B.P., Hand, M., and Barovich, K.M., 2005, Nd
is partially compensated by a complete lack evolution of host rocks of the Giles complex, isotopic and geochemical constraints on prov-
of polymetamorphic reaction textures or over- central Australia: Evidence for multiple high enance of sedimentary rocks in the eastern Of-
pressure events: Australian Geological Survey cer Basin, Australia: Implications for the duration
printing relationships. Further geochronology is Organisation, Journal of Australian Geology of the intracratonic Petermann orogeny: Journal
therefore required to increase the resolution of and Geophysics, v. 16, p. 127146. of the Geological Society of London, v. 162,
opposing kinematic events. Edgoose, C.J., Scrimgeour, I.R., and Close, D.F., p. 513530, doi: 10.1144/0016-764904-001.
Finally, there is a signicant variation in crustal 2004, Geology of the Musgrave Block, North- Wade, B.P., Kelsey, D.E., Hand, M., and Barovich,
thickness between the foreland and hinterland of ern Territory: Northern Territory Geological K.M., 2008, The Musgrave Province: Stitching
Survey Report 15, 44 p. north, west and south Australia: Precambrian
the Petermann orogen. The well-preserved Ama- Flttmann, T., Hand, M., Close, D., Edgoose, C.J., and Research, v. 166, p. 370386.
deus Basin has undergone little deformation aside Scrimgeour, I.R., 2004, Thrust tectonic styles of Webb, A.A.G., Yin, A., Harrison, T.M., Celerier, J.,
from exure, while the orogenic core exposed the intracratonic Alice Springs and Petermann and Burgess, W.P., 2007, The leading edge
immediately north of the Mann fault has been orogenies, central Australia, in McClay, K.R., of the Greater Himalayan crystalline com-
ed., Thrust Tectonics and Hydrocarbon Systems: plex revealed in the NW Indian Himalaya:
exhumed from ~40 to 45 km depth. Furthermore, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Implications for the evolution of the Hima-
the crust currently underlying the eroded orogen (AAPG) Memoir 82, p. 538557. layan orogen: Geology, v. 35, p. 955958, doi:
is~40 km thick, and there is no evidence of post- Godin, L., Grujic, D., Law, R.D., and Searle, M.P., 10.1130/G23931A.1.
Ediacaran reworking. We thus argue that gravi- 2006, Channel ow, ductile extrusion and ex- White, R.W., and Clarke, G.L., 1997, The role of
tational loading of the orogen by thrust-assisted humation in continental collision zones: An deformation in aiding recrystallisation: An ex-
introduction, in Law, R.D., Searle, M.P., and ample from a high-pressure shear zone, central
crustal thickening in the hinterland was sufcient Godin, L., eds., Channel ow, ductile extrusion Australia: Journal of Petrology, v. 38, p. 1307
to generate the lateral lithostatic pressure gradient and exhumation in continental collision zones: 1329, doi: 10.1093/petrology/38.10.1307.
necessary to drive lower-crustal ow. Geological Society of London Special Publica-
These characteristics satisfy the diagnostic tion 268, p. 123. Manuscript received 21 August 2008
Gregory, C., Buick, I.S., Hermann, J., and Rubatto, Revised manuscript received 3 November 2008
criteria for channel ow outlined in the intro- D., 2007, Timing of prograde upper amphibo- Manuscript accepted 7 November 2008
duction. However, numerous workers have lite metamorphism and partial melting during
suggested that such features are similarly the Petermann orogeny, in Collins, A.S., et al., Printed in USA
[F
;< =

Supporting information
GEOCHRONOLOGY that the proportion of very low abundance isotopes

(particularly 204Pb) was incorrectly measured, leading
Sample preparation, operating procedures and data
to an inappropriate common Pb correction. A strong
reduction
correlation between f 204 and 206
\;[U corrected
Titanite extraction was undertaken at the University of ages for all samples suggests that this was indeed the
Adelaide by a combination of standard crushing, sieving, case. The Pb data were thus treated as a simple two-
panning and heavy liquid techniques. Approximately component mixture of radiogenic and common leads,
!@ % # $ and the true end-member compositions determined via
from each sample and mounted in epoxy resin. All linear regression through the uncorrected data (Frost et
grains were then sectioned to approximately half their al., 2000; Kinny, 1997; Williams, 1998). A limitation
diameter and imaged using a Philips XL20 SEM at of this approach is that it assumes concordant data, i.e.,
Adelaide Microscopy, University of Adelaide. None that no analytical point has been affected by radiogenic
of the titanites showed any form of internal zonation Pb loss subsequent to geological closure. The validity
when viewed under BSE. Additional photography of this assumption can only be assessed from the
$ + #
# &
Curtin University, Perth, to identify grain inclusions, extrapolation required, and the realism of the calculated
morphology and topography. The mount was then intercepts.
%%$
!@@ # In order to estimate the initial Pb composition of
gold. each sample& # $

$ # uncorrected ;[\206Pb vs. 207
\206Pb isotope ratios
SHRIMP II at the John de Laeter Centre for Mass Q # $ V # "\NB
Spectrometry at Curtin University, Perth. Detailed ['@@ Q $#& ;@@[V'
operating procedures for SHRIMP II are outlined by regression through the data with individual data point
QXXV& $ # Q ` V'
to titanite are described by Kinny QXXV'
square of weighted deviates (MSWD) of the regression
fractionation was corrected using the Khan standard
& # #'!;'!'
(Kinny, 1997; Kinny et al., 1994), and data reduction In addition, the calculated 207
\206
Q@'F>
was completed using KRILL software (Kinny, 1997). 0.928) closely correspond to the Stacey-Kramers
Due to the very low radiogenic compositions of the bulk Earth 207
\206Pb ratios applicable to Ediacaran
titanites (Table DR2), corrections for initial lead are a Q@'F !?@ ` | {& X!V'
major consideration. Appreciable fractions of common #
Pb were detected for all samples, with f 204 values (i.e., regression represents a true two-component mixture
the fraction of common 206Pb in total 206Pb, based on between a single common Pb end-member (estimated
measured 204
\206
V # # @'@[>@' Q
from the 207
\206Pb intercept) and a geologically
/[V'_
$ meaningful radiogenic composition. The latter is
titanite analyses using KRILL software (Kinny, 1997), determined from the lower concordia intercept of the
;[
with contemporaneous common Pb compositions \206Pb vs. 207
\206Pb array when plotted on a Tera-
determined following the method of Stacey and Wasserburg concordia diagram (Tera and Wasserburg,
{ QX!V' *$%& # 1972). For each sample, the Tera-Wasserburg regression
background counts were measured throughout the was anchored to a common Pb composition estimated
analytical session. This produces the strong possibility % ' *# %
TABLE DR1. SUMMARY OF EXISTING GEOCHRONOLOGICAL DATA FROM NW MUSGRAVE BLOCK

Age
Method Location Reference
(Ma)
561 11 SHRIMP UPb zircon South of Woodroffe Thrust Scrimgeour et al., 1999
c. 555 SHRIMP UPb zircon and allanite Western Mann Ranges Gregory et al., 2007
494 59 SmNd mineral isochron Eastern Mann Ranges Scrimgeour et al., 1999
550 11 SmNd mineral isochron Olia Chain Close et al., 2003; Edgoose et al., 2004
c. 570 RbSr biotite Pottoyu Hills Scrimgeour et al., 1999
c. 600 RbSr biotite Pottoyu Hills Scrimgeour et al., 1999
568 5 KAr muscovite Petermann Ranges Scrimgeour et al., 1999
586 5 KAr muscovite Petermann Ranges Scrimgeour et al., 1999
565 9 KAr hornblende South of Woodroffe Thrust Scrimgeour et al., 1999
[!
;< =

TABLE DR2. SUMMARY OF TITANITE SIZE AND ISOTOPIC CHEMISTRY

Size range No. grains/ Th/U ratio Average U Average f Age estimate
Sample Location*
(m) No. spots range (ppm) 204 (%) (Ma)
0491863 E
184495 150350 13/13 0.220.44 302 0.08 539 4
7140895 N
0480390 E
187323 250750 15/15 0.140.23 69 0.18 572 7
7157417 N
0486861 E
187337 250550 14/14 0.080.76 27 0.44 573 14
7149675 N
0487000 E
155731 200500 10/10 0.130.31 32 0.40 552 12
7146000 N
* All coordinates derived from the Map Grid Australia Zone 52J (MGA94)
$# Q ;'!V $ The validity of the above inference depends
sample, reinforcing the suggestion that they had not crucially on two relationships. Firstly, diffusion radius
suffered Pb loss. However, a small number of analyses increases with increasing grain size, allowing large
contained high negative weighted residuals, and were grains to have higher closure temperatures relative to
removed on the basis that they have probably been small grains (Cherniak and Watson, 2001; Frost et al.,
affected by inherited Pb. 2000). This raises the possibility that large grains may be
impervious to Pb diffusion at temperatures approaching
Metamorphic reactions controlling titanite growth their crystallization conditions, reducing the likelihood
of age resetting. Secondly, effective diffusive volume
Unbroken and euhedral titanite grains are commonly
decreases with increasing grain size. This is because
aligned parallel to elongate biotite and hornblende
#
'
' ##
that titanite formed in equilibrium with high temperature
$

phases during shearing. Iron oxide tails and abundant # # & % # # %
opaque inclusions indicate that its Ti content is largely unaffected by diffusion. In contrast, Pb exchange in
sourced from ilmenite replacement. It is also commonly smaller grains will be much more extensive, allowing
in contact with plagioclase grains featuring clinozoisite a volumetrically greater proportion to undergo re-
rims, suggesting that Ca is sourced from the breakdown equilibration. This has two important implications: (1)
of anorthite. This is consistent with the uniformly sodic the core domains of large grains will be disconnected
composition of metamorphic plagioclase in all samples, from diffusion pathways, preventing disruption to their
compared to the more calcic composition of igneous
Q;V
grains. Furthermore, garnet rims feature an increase small grains may be in direct communication with grain
in grossular content, and usually contain clinozoisite boundaries, making them vulnerable to Pb diffusion
inclusions. This indicates that garnet production and resetting. In other words, age estimates from larger
came at the expense of clinozoisite during prograde grains are more likely to coincide with crystallization
metamorphism. Titanite growth can thus be inferred events, while those from smaller grains will usually
from the following reaction: + #
$
'
[;[ [[
__" ]'QV
# #Qc.!@@>m ave. diameter) than those
%% # FFX!Qc. 200 >m ave.), while those from
mineral assemblages, suggesting that titanite formation !![
$ $Qc.[!@
occurred at peak metamorphic conditions. >m ave.). The effective diffusive radius on the largest
# Q;!@ >V ;'! #
Interpretation of age estimates than that on the smallest grains (100 >m), indicating
If the closure temperature for titanite is below the peak that the former will have an appreciably elevated
conditions attained during metamorphism, then age closure temperature relative to the latter. Furthermore,
% +
it is likely that the volumetric proportion affected by
diffusion, rather than the timing of initial titanite growth. diffusion will be consistently lower for larger grains,
Frost et al. (2000) estimate a closure temperature of c. increasing the probability of minimal disturbance to
660 C for grains with a diffusive radius of 100 >m and
' Thus, assuming that all
#@_\`&$_ q samples experienced similar cooling rates, and since the
(2001) calculate a temperature of c. 600 C using the majority of SHRIMP analyses were positioned at grain
' ]%
cores, it is predicted that their estimated ages should
the Bates region indicates temperatures in excess of systematically reduce with decreasing grain size. This is
!@ _&
# precisely what is observed, and allows some constraints
age estimates could coincide with cooling below Pb to be placed on the events recorded by their respective
closure, rather than initial growth at peak metamorphic # ' ]% # # & #
conditions. estimates from samp [;[ [[ Qc. !@
[?
;< =

REFERENCES CITED
Cherniak, D.J., and Watson, E.B., 2001, Pb diffusion in zircon:
_ ]#& %' ;& ' !;F& Y @'@?\|@@@X
;!FQ@@V@@;[[['
_&/'&|# &"''& N#&_'~'&;@@[&_
geochronological data from the northwestern Musgrave Block,
Y ]# | %&
&;@@[@@?'
N#& _'~'& |# & "''& _& /''& ;@@F& ]#
of the Musgrave Block, Northern Territory: Darwin, Northern
]#| %&!&FF'
Frost, R.B., Chamberlain, K.R., and Schumacher, J.C., 2000,
Sphene (titanite): phase relations and use as a geochronometer:
_ ]#& %' ;& ' [F& Y @'@?\|@@@X
;!FQ@@V@@;F@@'
]#&_'& &"'|'&* &~'&
&/'&;@@& #
of prograde upper amphibolite metamorphism and partial
melting during the Petermann Orogeny, in Collins, A.S., Hand,
M., Schmidt-Mumm, A., Buckman, S., Direen, N., Kelsey, D.E.,
Rutherford, L., Brick, R., and Clark, C., eds., Deformation in the
/ _ Q]# | ^ & |
] | ]#VY ^ | #&
Northern Territory, Abstracts, p. 42.
{ & '/'& XX& #
# &
perovskite, monazite and baddeleyite using the W.A. SHRIMP:
Curtin University of Technology, Perth, W.A. Isotope Science
_ '||?X[\XX\^;&;'
Kinny, P.D., McNaughton, N.J., Fanning, C.M., and Maas, R., 1994,
! ` Q V { #&
&
southwest Africa: A potential ion-microprobe standard, Eighth
" _ ] #&_ #
"]#^
Y&|]#| %
Circular 1107, p. 171.
$#& {''& ;@@[& "\NB& %' ['@@Y ^ ] #
` NBY ] # _
Special Publication, v. 4, 71pp.
Scrimgeour, I.R., Close, D., and Edgoose, C.J., 1999, Petermann
#& Q| N V' Y;!@ @@@
## B & |] !;@Y /$ &
]#| %&!X'
|& ~'|'& {& ~'/'& X!&^B
lead isotope evolution by a two-stage model: Earth and
| &%';?&';@;;&Y@'@?\@@;
;Q!VX@@?'
&'&
#&]'~'&X;&

Apollo-14 basalts and the problem of initial Pb in lunar rocks:
N | & %' F& ' ;[@F& Y
@'@?\@@;;Q;VX@;'
&"'|'&XX&
] #
" `
&
in McKibben, M.A., Shanks III, W.C., and Ridley, W.I., eds.,
Applications of microanalytical techniques to understanding
mineralising processes, Volume 7, Reviews in Economic
]#&'[!'
Figure DR1. (A) SC fabric developed in porphyritic
granite from the Mt. Charles Thrust, indicating N-directed
kinematics. Pen is aligned parallel to C-plane. (B) Feldspar
delta-clast in felsic mylonite from the northern Bates
region, indicating SW-directed kinematics. Scale bar (10
cm) is aligned parallel to mylonitic foliation. Location of
geochronology sample 187323. (C) Feldspar delta-clast in
garnet-bearing mylonite from the western Mann Ranges,
indicating WSW-directed kinematics. Finger is aligned
parallel to mylonitic foliation.
`V + #

crystallisation. In contrast, geochronological data from
!![Qc.!!@`V FFX!Qc. !F@`V
are interpreted to represent the progressively later
timing of Pb closure as a function of decreasing grain
size and increasingly extensive volumetric diffusion.
[
[
TABLE DR3. SHRIMP U

U Th Th/U Pb f 204 Isotope Ratios*
204 206 207 206 208 206 206 238 207 235 208 232
Spot name (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (%) Pb/ Pb 1 Pb/ Pb 1 Pb/ Pb 1 Pb/ U 1 Pb/ U 1 Pb/ Th 1 rho
;<
Sample 184495
495-01.1 432 94 0.22 42 0.0336 0.0019 0.0001 0.0866 0.0005 0.1599 0.0010 0.0910 0.0011 1.0859 0.0146 0.0669 0.0009 0.876
495-02.1 305 101 0.33 34 0.0513 0.0029 0.0002 0.0991 0.0007 0.2915 0.0025 0.0918 0.0011 1.2543 0.0187 0.0811 0.0012 0.827
495-03.1 238 104 0.44 26 0.0588 0.0033 0.0003 0.1085 0.0011 0.2711 0.0029 0.0927 0.0012 1.3873 0.0244 0.0576 0.0010 0.763

495-04.1 165 70 0.42 20 0.0894 0.0050 0.0003 0.1351 0.0011 0.3230 0.0028 0.0955 0.0012 1.7788 0.0288 0.0727 0.0012 0.807
495-05.1 32 8 0.25 12 0.3706 0.0246 0.0011 0.4542 0.0039 1.0907 0.0100 0.1674 0.0028 10.4844 0.2049 0.7259 0.0156 0.842
495-06.1 249 57 0.23 25 0.0594 0.0033 0.0002 0.1044 0.0008 0.1886 0.0017 0.0911 0.0012 1.3118 0.0203 0.0751 0.0012 0.820
495-07.1 380 137 0.36 44 0.0501 0.0028 0.0002 0.1023 0.0006 0.3787 0.0021 0.0913 0.0011 1.2882 0.0182 0.0959 0.0013 0.858

495-08.1 396 95 0.24 40 0.0396 0.0022 0.0001 0.0892 0.0005 0.1770 0.0014 0.0926 0.0011 1.1393 0.0161 0.0685 0.0010 0.851
495-09.1 243 57 0.23 28 0.0742 0.0042 0.0002 0.1169 0.0007 0.2655 0.0018 0.0962 0.0012 1.5507 0.0221 0.1098 0.0016 0.858
495-10.1 279 79 0.28 30 0.0632 0.0035 0.0002 0.1085 0.0007 0.2402 0.0020 0.0928 0.0012 1.3889 0.0209 0.0785 0.0012 0.835
495-11.1 222 78 0.35 24 0.0663 0.0037 0.0002 0.1101 0.0008 0.2537 0.0021 0.0918 0.0012 1.3933 0.0214 0.0666 0.0010 0.818

495-12.1 374 132 0.35 37 0.0349 0.0020 0.0002 0.0884 0.0006 0.1928 0.0015 0.0896 0.0011 1.0926 0.0161 0.0489 0.0007 0.831
495-13.1 606 168 0.28 54 0.0289 0.0016 0.0001 0.0796 0.0005 0.1561 0.0013 0.0831 0.0010 0.9121 0.0128 0.0468 0.0007 0.853
Sample 187323

323-01.1 34 5 0.16 9 0.2630 0.0162 0.0010 0.3167 0.0033 0.7632 0.0084 0.1423 0.0024 6.2146 0.1291 0.6868 0.0162 0.807
323-02.1 112 19 0.17 14 0.1007 0.0057 0.0004 0.1293 0.0012 0.2453 0.0026 0.1044 0.0014 1.8618 0.0325 0.1523 0.0028 0.773
323-03.1 44 8 0.19 8 0.2068 0.0116 0.0009 0.2332 0.0026 0.5311 0.0065 0.1219 0.0020 3.9209 0.0822 0.3378 0.0078 0.779
323-04.1 94 14 0.15 11 0.0829 0.0047 0.0004 0.1238 0.0012 0.2218 0.0027 0.1013 0.0014 1.7286 0.0314 0.1498 0.0030 0.769

323-05.1 43 7 0.16 8 0.2367 0.0133 0.0010 0.2454 0.0029 0.5502 0.0072 0.1188 0.0020 4.0191 0.0879 0.4211 0.0104 0.773
323-06.1 42 8 0.20 9 0.2713 0.0152 0.0010 0.2668 0.0030 0.6339 0.0077 0.1285 0.0022 4.7262 0.1014 0.4047 0.0095 0.785
323-07.1 81 17 0.21 13 0.1505 0.0085 0.0006 0.1934 0.0018 0.4394 0.0045 0.1115 0.0016 2.9730 0.0547 0.2343 0.0047 0.800
323-08.1 27 4 0.17 7 0.3105 0.0194 0.0013 0.3665 0.0046 0.8789 0.0116 0.1422 0.0027 7.1875 0.1735 0.7482 0.0208 0.794

323-09.1 29 5 0.17 7 0.3180 0.0179 0.0012 0.3191 0.0038 0.7631 0.0096 0.1403 0.0026 6.1729 0.1425 0.6468 0.0171 0.796
323-10.1 69 16 0.23 10 0.1328 0.0075 0.0006 0.1744 0.0019 0.3804 0.0046 0.1066 0.0016 2.5632 0.0499 0.1755 0.0037 0.769
323-11.1 42 8 0.19 9 0.2322 0.0131 0.0009 0.2544 0.0028 0.5975 0.0070 0.1288 0.0021 4.5198 0.0944 0.3990 0.0092 0.788
323-12.1 113 21 0.18 13 0.0603 0.0034 0.0003 0.1146 0.0011 0.2117 0.0024 0.1008 0.0014 1.5926 0.0276 0.1159 0.0022 0.776
323-13.1 54 7 0.14 10 0.2142 0.0121 0.0008 0.2374 0.0024 0.6034 0.0065 0.1212 0.0019 3.9680 0.0782 0.5416 0.0120 0.791
323-14.1 105 18 0.17 12 0.0785 0.0044 0.0004 0.1190 0.0011 0.2168 0.0025 0.1004 0.0014 1.6474 0.0292 0.1294 0.0025 0.776
323-15.1 149 26 0.17 16 0.0518 0.0029 0.0003 0.1043 0.0009 0.1733 0.0019 0.0948 0.0012 1.3626 0.0226 0.0958 0.0017 0.786
Sample 187337
337-01.1 23 4 0.16 7 0.4271 0.0239 0.0012 0.3869 0.0039 0.8830 0.0095 0.1533 0.0026 8.1796 0.1711 0.8309 0.0201 0.820
337-02.1 60 17 0.29 10 0.1720 0.0097 0.0006 0.2080 0.0019 0.4628 0.0053 0.1133 0.0016 3.2488 0.0581 0.1813 0.0036 0.804
337-03.1 17 3 0.15 7 0.4151 0.0259 0.0014 0.4554 0.0050 1.0620 0.0124 0.1762 0.0034 11.0609 0.2587 1.2585 0.0358 0.824
337-04.1 39 4 0.11 8 0.2038 0.0127 0.0009 0.2707 0.0028 0.5666 0.0066 0.1197 0.0019 4.4693 0.0900 0.6050 0.0144 0.794
337-05.1 10 1 0.08 7 0.6028 0.0357 0.0021 0.5809 0.0076 1.3485 0.0186 0.2534 0.0063 20.2946 0.5983 4.4168 0.1942 0.842
337-06.1 89 17 0.20 13 0.1393 0.0078 0.0005 0.1835 0.0017 0.3612 0.0039 0.1125 0.0016 2.8453 0.0511 0.2076 0.0040 0.795
337-07.1 9 3 0.32 10 0.5172 0.0401 0.0019 0.6893 0.0077 1.6128 0.0189 0.3852 0.0099 36.6076 1.0759 1.9549 0.0681 0.878
337-08.1 17 4 0.22 9 0.4818 0.0326 0.0016 0.5463 0.0057 1.2878 0.0142 0.2143 0.0043 16.1418 0.3815 1.2354 0.0339 0.842
337-09.1 36 28 0.76 9 0.3487 0.0196 0.0010 0.3289 0.0032 0.8547 0.0087 0.1307 0.0021 5.9297 0.1182 0.1462 0.0030 0.811
337-11.1 12 2 0.18 7 0.5583 0.0346 0.0019 0.5747 0.0068 1.3749 0.0170 0.2431 0.0055 19.2621 0.5174 1.8156 0.0600 0.844
337-12.1 26 10 0.37 6 0.2661 0.0165 0.0011 0.3241 0.0037 0.7832 0.0096 0.1298 0.0023 5.8016 0.1291 0.2773 0.0066 0.793
337-13.1 10 1 0.13 8 0.7605 0.0426 0.0020 0.6672 0.0076 1.5702 0.0188 0.2833 0.0067 26.0626 0.7164 3.5143 0.1304 0.859
337-14.1 9 1 0.15 9 0.7816 0.0435 0.0021 0.6768 0.0078 1.6314 0.0198 0.3429 0.0087 31.9968 0.9351 3.6685 0.1426 0.870
=

* Displayed ratios are uncorrected for common Pb

;<

TABLE DR3 (cont.) SHRIMP U

U Th Th/U Pb f 204 Isotope Ratios*

204 206 207 206 208 206 206 238 207 235 208 232
Spot name (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (%) Pb/ Pb 1 Pb/ Pb 1 Pb/ Pb 1 Pb/ U 1 Pb/ U 1 Pb/ Th 1 rho
Sample 155731
731-01.1 29 5 0.19 7 0.3724 0.0209 0.0017 0.3410 0.0051 0.7585 0.0131 0.1360 0.0033 6.3911 0.1907 0.5433 0.0192 0.803
731-02.1 37 6 0.162 7 0.2918 0.0164 0.0014 0.2777 0.0040 0.5976 0.0102 0.1180 0.0026 4.5179 0.1248 0.4342 0.0145 0.790

731-03.1 41 10 0.254 8 0.2564 0.0144 0.0012 0.2558 0.0033 0.5616 0.0087 0.1157 0.0022 4.0806 0.1006 0.2560 0.0072 0.785
731-04.1 53 9 0.176 10 0.2649 0.0149 0.0012 0.2728 0.0032 0.6008 0.0082 0.1118 0.0020 4.2071 0.0936 0.3808 0.0099 0.792
731-05.1 54 10 0.178 9 0.2204 0.0124 0.0009 0.2198 0.0026 0.4485 0.0066 0.1099 0.0019 3.3301 0.0736 0.2774 0.0072 0.778
731-06.1 12 2 0.182 9 0.7229 0.0405 0.0026 0.6364 0.0100 1.5081 0.0257 0.2762 0.0095 24.2344 0.9612 2.2868 0.1123 0.870

731-07.1 25 5 0.207 7 0.3968 0.0222 0.0017 0.3740 0.0056 0.8438 0.0144 0.1341 0.0033 6.9146 0.2079 0.5464 0.0193 0.809
731-08.1 20 6 0.313 10 0.6578 0.0369 0.0022 0.5585 0.0077 1.3206 0.0201 0.2018 0.0056 15.5398 0.5062 0.8504 0.0320 0.854
731-09.1 21 3 0.127 7 0.4340 0.0243 0.0019 0.4214 0.0062 0.9781 0.0162 0.1563 0.0041 9.0783 0.2869 1.2049 0.0481 0.829
731-10.1 25 4 0.166 7 0.3593 0.0201 0.0016 0.3643 0.0053 0.8026 0.0134 0.1406 0.0034 7.0647 0.2088 0.6812 0.0244 0.813
* Displayed ratios are uncorrected for common Pb
=

[X
CHAPTER 3
The anatomy of a deep intracontinental orogen. Tectonics, 29(4), TC4024, doi: 10.1029/2009tc002504.
The anatomy of a deep intracontinental orogen
Tom Raimondo,1 Alan S. Collins,1 Martin Hand,1 Althea WalkerHallam,1,2
R. Hugh Smithies,3 Paul M. Evins,3,4 and Heather M. Howard3
Received 25 March 2009; revised 8 April 2010; accepted 27 April 2010; published 12 August 2010.
[1] The crustal architecture of central Australia has and Bird, 1970; England and Jackson, 1989]. Several
been profoundly affected by protracted periods of authors have identified intracontinental orogens in the
intracontinental deformation. In the northwestern Mus- present Earth, the most prominent being the Tien Shan
grave Block, the EdiacaranCambrian (600530 Ma) Orogen in central Asia [Molnar and Tapponnier, 1975,
1977; Hendrix and Davis, 2001; Cunningham, 2005; De
Petermann Orogeny resulted in pervasive mylonitic
Grave et al., 2007; Omuralieva et al., 2009]. In the ancient
reworking of Mesoproterozoic granites and granitic Earth, arguably the best examples of these unusual orogens
gneisses at deep crustal levels (P = 1014 kbar and are found in central Australia, where there is a remarkable
T = 700800C). SHRIMP and LAICPMS dating of record of intracontinental deformation spanning the late
zircon indicate that peak metamorphic conditions were Proterozoic and Phanerozoic [Duff and Langworthy, 1974;
attained at circa 570 Ma, followed by slow cooling to Hand and Sandiford, 1999; Sandiford et al., 2001]. The
600660C at circa 540 Ma driven by exhumation EdiacaranCambrian (600530 Ma) [Wade et al., 2005]
along the Woodroffe Thrust. Strong links between Petermann Orogeny and the OrdovicianCarboniferous
regional kinematic partitioning, pervasive high shear (450300 Ma) [Haines et al., 2001] Alice Springs Orogeny
strains and partial melting in the orogenic core, and are both major intraplate events affecting the crustal archi-
an anomalous lobate thrust trace geometry suggest tecture of this region [Shaw and Black, 1991; Shaw et al.,
that north vergent shortening was accompanied by the 1991; Lambeck and Burgess, 1992; Flttmann and Hand,
1999; Scrimgeour and Close, 1999; Flttmann et al.,
gravitational collapse and lateral escape of a broad 2004; Aitken et al., 2009a, 2009b].
thrust sheet. Like the presentday HimalayanTibetan [3] Despite the good exposure of these orogenic systems,
system, the macroscopic structural, metamorphic, and the precise details of their evolution remain poorly under-
kinematic architecture of the Petermann Orogen appears stood. This is most apparent with regard to the Petermann
to be dominantly shaped by largescale ductile flow of Orogeny, which has only recently become the subject of
lower crustal material. We thus argue that the anatomy more focused studies [e.g., Camacho et al., 1997, 2001,
of this deep intracontinental orogen is comparable to 2009; White and Clarke, 1997; Scrimgeour and Close,
collisional orogens, suggesting that the deformational 1999; Camacho and McDougall, 2000; Aitken and Betts,
response of continental crust is remarkably similar in 2009a, 2009b; Aitken et al., 2009a, 2009b; Gregory et al.,
different tectonic settings. Citation: Raimondo, T., A. S. 2009; Raimondo et al., 2009]. By integrating its macro-
Collins, M. Hand, A. WalkerHallam, R. H. Smithies, P. M. Evins, scopic structural, metamorphic, geochronologic and kine-
and H. M. Howard (2010), The anatomy of a deep intracontinental matic patterns, Raimondo et al. [2009] argued that the
orogen, Tectonics, 29, TC4024, doi:10.1029/2009TC002504. Petermann Orogen may preserve evidence for lower crustal
channel flow, similar to what has been attributed to the
presentday HimalayanTibetan system [e.g., Bird, 1991;
1. Introduction Nelson et al., 1996; Beaumont et al., 2001, 2004]. If this
[2] Intracontinental orogens are enigmatic deformational interpretation is viable, it has profound implications for the
zones produced at a considerable distance (>1000 km) from behavior of intracontinental crust during episodes of
active plate boundaries. Consequently, any account of their reworking, in particular the spatial and temporal scales of
evolution must be framed outside conventional plate tec- deformation, the rate and kinematics of exhumation, and the
tonic models, which can explain only the spatially restricted overall exhumation and cooling history [Holdsworth et al.,
effects of convergent plate margin interactions [e.g., Dewey 2001]. Perhaps most significantly, the apparent correspon-
dence between the lower crustal behaviors of both the
Himalayan and Petermann Orogens suggests that there may
not be fundamental differences between the thermal and
1
Centre for Tectonics, Resources and Exploration, School of Earth and rheological structures, and hence deformational responses,
Environmental Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South of collisional and intracontinental orogens.
Australia, Australia.
2
Now at Heathgate Resources, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia. [4] In order to illuminate better the characteristic anatomy
3
Geological Survey of Western Australia, East Perth, Western Australia, of an intracontinental orogen, this paper presents in more
Australia.
4
detail the structural, metamorphic and geochronologic record
Now at Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm, Sweden. of deep intracratonic reworking associated with the Peter-
mann Orogeny. It specifically addresses an area of shear
Copyright 2010 by the American Geophysical Union.
02787407/10/2009TC002504 zones on the northwestern margin of the orogen (the Bates
43
Chapter 3 Anatomy of a deep intracontinental orogen
region; Figure 1), which form part of a lower crustal maficultramafic intrusives and volcanics [Edgoose et al.,
orogenic core characterized by highgrade metamorphism 2004; Wade et al., 2008; Smithies et al., 2009]. These out-
and pervasive mylonitic deformation [Raimondo et al., crops preserve evidence of a complex history of polyphase
2009]. Structural mapping, thermobarometry, Sensitive metamorphism, magmatism and deformation, beginning
HighResolution Ion Microprobe (SHRIMP) and Laser with felsic magmatism and granulite facies metamorphism
Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry in the western Musgraves at circa 1300 Ma [White et al.,
(LAICPMS) dating of zircon, and trace element (Zr and 1999]. This was followed by regionally extensive granulite
Ti) thermometry are used to document the style of oro- facies metamorphism during the 12301150 Ma Musgravian
genesis, allowing an integrated and multifaceted approach Orogeny, which reached conditions of T = 800850C
to understanding the dynamics of intracratonic reworking. and P = 56 kbar [Clarke et al., 1995; White et al., 2002;
Ultimately, this also enables the development of critical Kelly et al., 2006; Wade et al., 2008]. Accompanying this
tests for the applicability of the channel flow hypothesis to event was voluminous granitic magmatism between 1220
the Petermann Orogen, and its distinction from alternative 1140 Ma, resulting in the emplacement of Pitjantjatjara
orogenic models such as critical taper [Kohn, 2008], wedge Supersuite lithologies that dominate outcrops in the North-
and general shear extrusion [Burchfiel and Royden, 1985; ern Territory and parts of Western Australia [Camacho and
Vannay and Grasemann, 2001; Vannay et al., 2004], tec- Fanning, 1995; Edgoose et al., 2004; Smithies et al., 2009].
tonic wedging [Webb et al., 2007] and extensional collapse The layered maficultramafic sills and dikes of the Giles
[Coney and Harms, 1984; Dewey, 1988; Platt and Vissers, Complex were subsequently emplaced at circa 1080 Ma,
1989; Fossen, 2000]. followed by syntectonic gabbros and granites at circa
1075 Ma [Clarke et al., 1995; Glikson et al., 1995, 1996;
Smithies et al., 2009]. Related bimodal magmatism contin-
2. Geologic Setting and Previous Work ued until circa 1026 Ma [Smithies et al., 2009; Evins et al.,
[5] The Musgrave Block (Figure 1) is a Mesoproterozoic 2010]. From this period until the onset of the Petermann
mobile belt that forms a broad EW trending gravity high Orogeny, activity within the Musgrave Block was punctuated
straddling the South Australian, Western Australian and only by the emplacement of two mafic dike suites at circa
Northern Territory borders [Wade et al., 2008]. It is boun- 1000 and circa 800 Ma [Sun and Sheraton, 1992; Zhao et al.,
ded to the north by the Amadeus Basin and to the south by 1994; Sun et al., 1996].
the Officer Basin, which contain correlatable sequences with [7] An influx of basementderived sediments into the
depocenters several hundred kilometers from any Neopro- Officer Basin at circa 600 Ma is interpreted to mark the
terozoic plate margin [Shaw et al., 1991; Lindsay and Leven, exhumation of the Musgrave Block from beneath the Cen-
1996; Sandiford and Hand, 1998; Collins and Pisarevsky, tralian Superbasin, and thus the beginning of the Petermann
2005]. The stratigraphic continuity between these basins Orogeny [Wade et al., 2005]. The main locus of deformation
strongly suggests that they comprised part of an extensive was subsequently focused on the northern margin of the
intracratonic sedimentary basin initiated after the amal- Musgrave Block, producing a series of major EW trending
gamation of the Australian craton during the assembly of fault structures that dissect the deep crust. These include the
Rodinia [Lindsay et al., 1987; Walter et al., 1995; Wade et al., Hinckley and Mann Faults and the Woodroffe Thrust
2008]. This depression probably blanketed much of central (Figure 1). The latter is a shallowly south dipping mylonite
Australia and has been termed the Centralian Superbasin. It and pseudotachylyte zone up to 3 km thick that offsets the
remained intact until fragmentation occurred during late Moho by 20 km [Bell, 1978; Lambeck and Burgess, 1992;
Neoproterozoic, when the Musgrave Block was exhumed Camacho et al., 1995; Aitken et al., 2009a, 2009b]. In the
from beneath it and a series of smaller subbasins resulted. northwestern Musgraves, its position is inferred from aero-
[6] Current exposures throughout the Musgrave Block are magnetic and gravity data due to lack of exposure [Edgoose
dominated by 16001300 Ma ortho and paragneisses, et al., 2004].
widespread 12201140 Ma granites, and 10801020 Ma
Figure 1. (a) Regional geologic map of the Musgrave Block, showing its position relative to the intracratonic Amadeus
and Officer basins. Also shown are the locations of key EW trending fault structures of the Petermann Orogen and the
boundaries of the field areas discussed in this study. Modified from Edgoose et al. [2004] and Aitken et al. [2009a,
2009b]. (b) Schematic cross section (YY) across the central Musgrave Block, showing the structural arrangement of major
faults and lithologies. Note the overall crustalscale dextral transpressive shear system, involving significant Moho dis-
placement and deep exhumation along the Woodroffe Thrust/Mann Fault. Modified from Hand and Sandiford [1999] and
Aitken et al. [2009b]. (c) Comparison of structural measurements from three key areas of the orogenic core outlined in
Figure 1a. Stereonets summarize foliation and lineation data from mylonitic shear zones using equalangle, lower hemi-
sphere projections. Note the coincidence between the best fit pole to regional fold corrugations and the maximum density of
lineation data. Abbreviations: AB, Amadeus Basin; BBZ, Bloods Back Thrust Zone; CL, Caroline Lineament; HF, Hinckley
Fault; LL, Lindsay Lineament; MAF, Mount Aloysius Fault; MF, Mann Fault; OB, Officer Basin; PDZ, Piltardi Detach-
ment Zone; WDZ, Wankari Detachment Zone; WHL, WintiginnaHinckley Lineament; WL, Wintiginna Lineament; WT,
Woodroffe Thrust.
44
Figure 1
45
Figure 2
46
[8] The Woodroffe Thrust accommodated significant the Wintiginna Lineament (Figure 1) [Aitken et al., 2009a,
displacement during NS shortening, assisted by rapid initial 2009b]. It is likely that intracontinental orogenesis was
unroofing of the Musgrave Block and sustained sediment driven by NS compression of the Australian plate during
production throughout the orogenic cycle [Lindsay and the amalgamation of Gondwana in the Neoproterozoic
Leven, 1996; Calver and Lindsay, 1998; Wade et al., [Collins and Pisarevsky, 2005; Hand and Sandiford, 1999;
2005]. This facilitated the exhumation of granulite facies Aitken and Betts, 2009a]. The stationary position of
gneisses from depths of 4045 km and their structural jux- northwestern Australia relative to anticlockwise rotation
taposition against amphibolite facies gneisses to the north of the southern plate margin may be responsible for the
[Maboko et al., 1992; Scrimgeour and Close, 1999]. Middle generation of largescale dextral transpression within the
to upper crustal rocks are exposed in a largescale imbricate continental interior.
thrust stack (the Petermann Nappe Complex) in its footwall,
and contain interleaved sedimentary sequences of the
Amadeus Basin. The northern margin of the Musgrave 3. Structural Relationships
Block also includes a preserved foreland conglomerate (the [11] The Bates region (Figure 1) is situated at the junction
Mount Currie conglomerate) [Camacho and McDougall, of the South Australian, Western Australian and Northern
2000; Edgoose et al., 2004; Flttmann et al., 2004]. The Territory borders, on the northwestern margin of the Mus-
Petermann Orogen thus features a nearcomplete range of grave Block [Howard et al., 2006]. It forms part of a deep
crustal exposure. The youngest record of deformation is crustal wedge exhumed between the Mann Fault and the
preserved by synkinematic biotite and muscovite growth Woodroffe Thrust, and is characterized by highgrade
from the Woodroffe Thrust in the eastern Musgrave Block at metamorphism and pervasive mylonitic deformation
circa 530 Ma [Maboko et al., 1992; Camacho and Fanning, [Raimondo et al., 2009]. Mesoproterozoic Pitjantjatjara
1995]. Supersuite granites and various granitic gneisses are exten-
[9] The dimensions of the Petermann Orogen and its sively reworked to form structures ranging from discrete 1
extension through northwestern Australia are comparable 5 cm recrystallized shear bands to 50100 m wide mylonitic
to typical plate margin orogens, spanning 1500 km EW shear zones. Some of the bestpreserved and most extensive
and up to 300 km NS. Sequential cross section restora- outcrops occur at Spaghetti Hill in the central Bates region
tions suggest that north vergent shortening during oro- (Figure 2). This area has been studied in detail to document
genesis exceeded 100 km and was accommodated by the interactions between mylonitisation, metamorphism and
substantial crustal thickening [Flttmann et al., 2004]. This migmatization accompanying Petermann Orogeny rework-
is supported by thermobarometric constraints from the ing. The outcropscale structural relationships observed in
highgrade orogenic core exposed between the Woodroffe this location are then compared to the broad patterns evident
Thrust and The Mann Fault, which indicate pressures of across the Bates region, and further east in the Mann Ranges
1214 kbar and temperatures of 650750C [Clarke et al., (Figure 1), to build up an overview of the structural ar-
1995; Camacho et al., 1997; White and Clarke, 1997; rangement of the orogenic core.
Scrimgeour and Close, 1999; Gregory et al., 2009]. Meta-
morphic grade decreases toward the foreland to the north 3.1. Outcrop Structure (Spaghetti Hill)
and parallel to major structures toward the east [Edgoose [12] At the outcrop scale, the structural organization of
et al., 2004]. mylonitic shear zones is quite complex. Spaghetti Hill
[10] The Petermann Orogen is usually regarded as a comprises a megacrystic rapakivi granite that is strongly
crustalscale dextral transpressive shear system [Camacho recrystallized to form felsic mylonites with relict Kfeldspar
and McDougall, 2000; Edgoose et al., 2004; Flttmann augen and prominent elongation lineations defined by
et al., 2004]. North vergent transport was principally con- aligned aggregates of quartz, biotite and feldspar. The
centrated along the Woodroffe Thrust, while south directed mylonites are arranged in an anastomosing pattern that dis-
overthrusting was accommodated along the southern mar- sects the country rock into multiple discrete blocks, each one
gin of the Musgrave Block. Dextral strikeslip offset is completely enveloped by the mylonitic fabric (Figure 2a).
primarily recorded along deeply penetrating shear zones in The strike of this fabric mimics the outline of the unde-
the axial zone of the orogen, including the Mann Fault and formed blocks, creating complex convergence zones where
Figure 2. Summary of structural relationships at Spaghetti Hill, central Bates region. (a) Outcrop map showing the com-
plex anastomosing trend lines of mylonitic shear zones, which wrap around discrete blocks of undeformed granitic country
rock. Orientation data from mylonitic fabrics (M.F.) and elongation lineations (E.L.) are summarized using equalangle,
lower hemisphere projections. Also shown are the sample and photograph locations mentioned in the text. (b) Detailed
structural map of the central Spaghetti Hill section, showing complex convergence zones where anastomosing mylonite
strands with very oblique strikes are juxtaposed without truncation. Also note strain variations within the shear zones,
particularly around granitic inliers. See text for explanation. (c) Smooth strain gradient from protomylonite to ultramylonite
at the margins of an undeformed granitic block, entirely enveloped by the mylonitic fabric. Scale bar is 10 cm. (d) Rotated
garnet porphyroblast showing toptotheSW (normalsense) kinematics (deltaclast). Field of view is 5 cm. (e) Deformed
leucosome from the eastern Spaghetti Hill section, containing coarse (centimeterscale) garnet porphyroblasts.
47
blocks are in close proximity or shear zones with highly sistently observed from the immediate hanging wall of the
oblique strikes are juxtaposed, as illustrated in detail for the Woodroffe Thrust in the north to the Mann Fault in the
central section of Spaghetti Hill (Figure 2b). This results in south. There is some scatter in the lineation data, with a
widely dispersed foliation data, with considerable variation smaller cluster of N/S plunging lineations again evident.
in the stereonet distributions of the central and NW sections However, as documented at Spaghetti Hill, they are
(containing several convergence zones) compared to the SW contained within the same shear zones that feature the more
and eastern sections (containing fairly uniform strike). abundant NE/SW plunging lineations, without any evidence
However, when the outcrop is considered as a whole, of truncation or overprinting. On the contrary, at Heathers
moderately to steeply NE to NW dipping orientations are Hill in southeast Bates (see Figure 3), lineations are observed
most common (probably representative of a largerscale to rotate progressively from SW to south plunging orienta-
bifurcation of the mylonitic fabric at the southern tip of tions between high and lowstrain domains in a single shear
Spaghetti Hill), and define a steeply dipping fold profile zone of approximately 60 m width. Similarly to Spaghetti
plane whose best fit pole (25036) closely corresponds to Hill, south plunging lineations are restricted to proto-
the predominant NE plunging elongation lineations of all mylonites with symmetrical flattening fabrics, while SW
sections (maximum density at 28032). plunging lineations are contained in mylonite packages
[13] Strain is considerably varied across individual shear associated with pervasive asymmetric augens showing top
zones at Spaghetti Hill, particularly at the margins of un- totheSW kinematics. Based on structural criteria, therefore,
deformed granitic pods, which often show smooth strain the oblique lineation arrays throughout Bates are temporally
gradients from protomylonite to ultramylonite (Figure 2c). indistinguishable from one another, and are invariably asso-
Highstrain packages feature asymmetric sigma and delta ciated with a single kinematic vector (toptotheSW).
clasts, along with SC and C fabrics, that invariably record [16] The structural arrangement of the Bates region is
toptotheSW tectonic transport (Figure 2d) [Howard et al., strongly reflected in the western Mann Ranges, further east
2006]. Tight to isoclinal intrafolial folds are also common and of this location (Figure 1c). Here, elongation lineations are
typically have hinges orthogonal to the lineation orientation. predominantly west to SW and east to NE plunging (max-
In contrast, lowstrain packages do not record rotational imum density at 10247), and again closely match the best
kinematics, but instead contain symmetrical porphyroclasts fit pole to a profile plane defined by poles to the mylonitic
and meterscale tight to open folds with N/S plunging foliation (5260). Kinematic indicators are toptotheWSW
elongation lineations (slightly oblique to the predominant in this area [Raimondo et al., 2009]. A distinct group of
NE/SW plunging orientation) parallel to fold hinges. south plunging lineations is also apparent, but rotational
[14] Strain patterns are particularly complex at the constrain and crosscutting relationships are again absent from
vergence of oblique shear zones, where LS tectonites their host fabrics [Scrimgeour and Close, 1999; Scrimgeour
progressively lose their planar fabric and are converted into et al., 1999]. The adjacent eastern Mann Ranges, in contrast,
Ltectonites that plunge parallel to the strike of the adjacent are very structurally distinct. They feature invariably south
units (Figure 2b). However, detailed observation of the dipping mylonitic fabrics with pervasive south plunging
contact relationships between multiple anastomosing mylo- elongation lineations. Kinematic indicators are uniformly
nite strands in the central section of Spaghetti Hill showed a toptotheN in this region [Scrimgeour and Close, 1999;
consistent conformable transition between shear zones of Scrimgeour et al., 1999; Edgoose et al., 2004].
different strike; that is, no evidence was found for truncation [17] A lateral shift from east to west through the orogenic
of earlier mylonitic fabrics. core, therefore, appears to be marked by gradual change
from uniformly planar mylonitic fabrics to broad regional
3.2. Regional Structure fold corrugations. The profile plane of the corrugations
[15] At the regional scale, the structural organization of shows increased strike rotation toward the west between the
mylonitic shear zones throughout Bates (Figure 3) appears western Mann Ranges and the Bates region, as indicated
to reflect the broad patterns evident at Spaghetti Hill. by the shift of its best fit pole from shallowly WSW to SW
Mylonitic fabrics are considerably dispersed, but again define plunging (Figure 1c). This transition is accompanied by
a steeply dipping profile plane whose best fit pole (10234) the change from WSW to SW directed normalsense kine-
closely corresponds to the predominant shallowly NE/SW matics, which strongly disagrees with the north vergent
plunging elongation lineations of the region (maximum reverse kinematics observed in the eastern Mann Ranges. It
density at 17236). In addition, toptotheSW kinematic is also marked by the development of a pronounced lobate
indicators (red doublebarbed arrows in Figure 3) are con- geometry along the Woodroffe Thrust that is convex toward
the foreland, in the direction of net thrust displacement,
Figure 3. Regional geologic map of the Bates region, showing the distribution of mylonitic shear zones, the orientations
and transport directions of shear sense indicators (red doublebarbed arrows), and key field locations mentioned in the text.
The locations of all samples and their associated average PT, age and Zr/Ti thermometry estimates are displayed with ref-
erence to the data key (top right). Inset shows equalangle, lower hemisphere stereographic projections of orientation data
for mylonitic fabrics (as poles) and elongation lineations. Map is modified from Howard et al. [2006] and includes a
superimposed pseudocolor aeromagnetics image (total magnetic intensity) sourced from Geological Survey of Western
Australia [2006]. Coordinates derived from the Map Grid Australia Zone 52 (MGA94).
48
Figure 3
49
Figure 4. Photomicrographs of petrological relationships. All images except Figure 4c are in plane
polarized light and have a mylonitic foliation parallel to their base. Mineral abbreviations are after Kretz
[1983]. (a) Recrystallized leucosome containing coarse garnet porphyroblasts wrapped by a mylonitic
fabric composed of finely disseminated biotite, hornblende and ilmenite. Sample 155718. (b) Relict
porphyroclastic garnet in contact with metamorphic biotite and hornblende needles and separated from
fragmented primary hornblende grains by a plagioclase moat. Sample 187305. (c) Linear inclusion trails in
relict hornblende surrounded by coarse titanite porphyroblasts associated with ilmenite and a recrystallized
matrix of biotite, hornblende, plagioclase, Kfeldspar and quartz. Sample 155733. (d) Diamondshaped
titanite porphyroblasts parallel to mylonitic foliation defined by elongate biotite and hornblende needles.
Sample 187323.
and parallel to the spreading direction of the regional fold zofeldspathic bulk compositions and consist of finegrained
hinges. recrystallized biotite, hornblende, garnet, clinopyroxene,
quartz, Kfeldspar and plagioclase, with titanite, clin-
4. Metamorphic Petrology ozoisite, ilmenite, magnetite, apatite and zircon present as
accessories (Figure 4). Coarse fragmented porphyroclasts of
and Thermobarometry clinopyroxene, hornblende, garnet, Kfeldspar and plagio-
4.1. Field Relationships and Sample Descriptions clase are variably preserved, except in migmatized domains
[18] Mineral assemblages associated with mylonitic shear where primary igneous minerals are absent and leucosomes
zones have limited variability throughout the Bates region, contain coarse garnet and hornblende porphyroblasts.
and largely reflect compositional variations in their granitic Metamorphic mineral populations are distinguished on the
and gneissic precursors. The majority formed from quart- basis of reduced grain size and the absence of abundant
50
Table 1. Summary of THERMOCALC Average Pressure and Temperature Estimates From Mylonitic Shear Zones in the Bates Region
Average
Average Average Average Geothermal
P 1s T 1s PT 1s Gradient
Sample (kbar) (C) (kbar; C) (C km1)
155733 11.05 0.75 754 50 760 72; 11.3 1.1 20
155735 10.18 0.57 741 70 739 76; 10.1 0.8 22
184464 11.22 0.74 714 27 712 35; 10.7 0.9 20
184468 11.60 0.74 699 32 718 37; 11.8 0.9 18
184484 11.87 0.97 774 38 782 40; 11.8 1.0 20
184486 B 10.79 0.90 770 48 776 66; 10.7 1.2 22
185674 11.81 0.88 695 44 712 47; 12.0 0.9 18
185679 10.42 1.12 787 44 785 47; 10.7 1.2 22
187305 11.04 0.67 688 38 692 38; 10.7 0.7 19
187314 9.62 0.78 622 38 622 34; 9.6 0.8 19
187323 10.49 0.65 677 48 676 70; 10.8 1.0 19
187330 A 11.38 0.69 644 30 650 35; 11.8 0.8 17
Recalculated PT Estimates Using the Mineral Compositions of White and Clarke [1997]
M010 (Core) 10.94 0.64 743 24 752 28; 11.0 0.7 21
(Rim) 8.98 0.77 791 39 777 33; 9.1 0.8 26
M213 (Core) 13.13 1.06 710 40 732 46; 13.0 1.2 17
(Rim) 11.33 0.83 761 34 755 36; 11.4 0.9 20
M214 (Core) 13.32 0.80 717 32 733 37; 13.1 0.9 17
(Rim) 11.11 0.79 781 34 795 40; 11.6 0.9 21
inclusions, consistent with their having undergone extensive rized in Text S1 in the auxiliary material.1 Pressure and
recrystallization. In addition, metamorphic aggregates of temperature (PT) calculations were performed using the
hornblende and biotite are dominantly acicular and exhibit a compositional analyses presented in Data Set S1, with
strong preferred orientation that defines the mylonitic fabric, activity and composition relationships for mineral end
allowing them to be differentiated from their porphyroclastic members determined using the software AX [Powell et al.,
igneous equivalents. 1998]. Additional PT calculations were also completed
[19] In the northern Bates region, immediately south of using the published mineral analyses of White and Clarke
the Woodroffe Thrust, mylonitic mineral assemblages are [1997] from samples M010, M213 and M214. These samples
sparsely garnetbearing, typically annealed, and feature ex- are sourced from the same outcrop as sample 184468, 12 km
tensive pseudotachylyte veining. The proportion of garnet west of Mount Gosse (see Figure 3). Pressure and temperature
and hornblende increases moving southward toward the estimates were obtained using the average P, average T and
Mann Fault, concomitant with an increase in the regional average PT approaches of Powell and Holland [1988,
distribution of migmatitic shear zones. Localized migmati- 1994]. These multiple equilibria techniques deploy the soft-
zation in the form of melt veins along thin shears is evident ware THERMOCALC (version 3.26) and the updated inter-
at Spaghetti Hill and Mount Gosse (see Figure 3), while more nally consistent data set of Holland and Powell [1998] to
extensive partial melting occurs further south of these calculate the optimal metamorphic conditions from the ther-
locations. Migmatitic domains are structurally confined to modynamics of an independent set of mineral reactions.
discrete shear zones, and are characterized by finegrained
recrystallized leucosomes, irregular layering, and coarse 4.3. Average PT Estimates
(centimeterscale) porphyroblastic minerals (Figures 2e [21] A summary of average PT estimates from mylonitic
and 4a). shear zones is presented in Table 1. Sample locations and
their associated PT conditions are also shown in Figure 3.
4.2. THERMOCALC Average PT Methodology In general, the results show a gradual trend of increasing
[20] Mylonitic lithologies from the Bates region are con- temperatures toward southeast Bates (Figure 5). Conditions
ducive to thermobarometry because they contain a large vary from 620C in the immediate hanging wall of the
number of minerals in textural equilibrium. All samples Woodroffe Thrust to 780C approximately 30 km further
selected for thermobarometry are garnetbearing and contain south, adjacent to the Mann Fault. Estimates are consistently
metamorphic minerals that either define the mylonitic fabric 700750C in the central domain that comprises Spaghetti
or exhibit strong grain size reduction relative to primary Hill, Mount Gosse and additional outcrops to the west, coin-
igneous phases. Metamorphic mineral compositions were ciding with evidence of localized migmatization in these
obtained using a Cameca SX51 Electron Microprobe with areas. In contrast, temperatures range between 650 and 700C
four wavelength dispersive spectrometers, located at the
University of Adelaide. Quantitative analyses were done
using an accelerating voltage of 15 kV and a beam current 1
Auxiliary material data sets are available at ftp://ftp.agu.org/apend/tc/
of 20 nA. The mineral chemistry of all samples is summa- 2009tc002504. Other auxiliary material files are in the HTML.
51
Figure 5. Comparison of THERMOCALC average pressure and temperature estimates from mylonitic
lithologies with Zr/Ti thermometry values, showing the metamorphic field gradient of the Bates region
and its correspondence to an increase in the regional distribution of migmatitic shear zones between
the Woodroffe Thrust and the Mann Fault.
in the regions surrounding Mount Daisy Bates, where no cence (CL) (Figures 6a6c). In some cases, oscillatory
migmatization is observed. zoned domains appear to be overprinted by patchy segments
[22] The general trend toward elevated temperatures in with variable luminescence. In others, convolutely zoned
southeast Bates is accompanied by a steady fluctuation in cores are mantled by thin concentric banding. Overall, how-
pressure, with peak values in the central zone and lower ever, most grains feature reasonably homogeneous or patchily
values immediately adjacent to both the Woodroffe Thrust zoned cores with low CL responses. They are enveloped by
and the Mann Fault (Figure 5). Conditions vary from moderately luminescent, irregular rims, which in some cases
9.5 kbar in the north to 11 kbar in the south. Estimates extend deep into the core. As an exception, sample 184464
are higher in the regions west of Mount Gosse, reaching displays much darker rims with highly luminescent cores
13 kbar using the recalculated core assemblages of White and several grains with relatively featureless CL domains.
and Clarke [1997]. Several variations are also evident [25] Samples 155735 and 187323 display much greater
throughout the domain south of Spaghetti Hill, but generally regularity of internal features when viewed under CL
these occur over a range of 0.5 kbar, which remains within (Figures 6d and 6e). Grain interiors are characterized by
error of the typical THERMOCALC pressure uncertainties. patchy or convolute zoning with moderate luminescence,
usually mantled by distinct oscillatory zoned domains with
overall low luminescence. Featureless dark cores are also
5. UThPb Geochronology occasionally present in some grains. However, all grains
[23] SHRIMP UThPb analysis was conducted on zir- display highly luminescent rims of variable thickness, which
cons from sample 155735, while LAICPMS UThPb are observed to either truncate concentric banding or irreg-
analysis was performed on zircons from samples 184464, ularly contact homogeneous cores. Sample 187323 contains
184468, 187323 and 187325. All samples are moderately to a number of thick rims with ghost textures, regions of
highly strained felsic mylonites. Additional geochronology of subtle banding that appear to mimic the primary oscillatory
titanites from the Bates region is discussed by Raimondo et al. zoning. Several large fractures through individual grains
[2009]. Both SHRIMP and LAICPMS operating procedures also appear to have completely rehealed, and appear as
and data reduction methods are outlined in Text S2. highly luminescent bands that intersect rim areas.
5.1. Zircon Descriptions 5.2. Age Estimates

[24] Samples 184464, 184468 and 187325 show convo- [26] Age data for all samples are presented in Figures 7
lute internal zoning when viewed under cathodolumines- and 8 and summarized in Table 2, and analytical data are
52
Figure 6. Cathodoluminescence images of representative zircon grains from all geochronology samples,
showing the range of textural features. Note in particular the ghost zoning exhibited by highly lumines-
cent rim areas of sample 187323, regions of subtle banding that appear to mimic the primary oscillatory
pattern. Displayed spot ages <1000 Ma and >1000 Ma are 206Pb/238U and 207Pb/206Pb ages, respectively.
Spot size shown is 30 mm.
53
Figure 7
54
Figure 8. Concordia plots of zircon data from samples 184464, 184468, and 187325. Age uncertainties
are quoted at the 95% confidence level unless indicated otherwise. Inset probabilitydensity plots use
207
Pb/206Pb ages for data included in the regression lines with >90% concordance. (a) All analyses from
sample 184464, showing the calculated regression line. Black ellipses indicate data included in Figure 8b.
Gray ellipses indicate data included in the regression but excluded from the concordia calculation for rea-
sons mentioned in the text. (b) Concordant data from sample 184464, showing the weighted average error
ellipse of the concordant age calculation (shaded gray). (c and d) All analyses from samples 184468 and
187325, respectively. Black ellipses indicate data included in the regression lines. Gray ellipses indicate
data excluded from the regressions for reasons mentioned in the text.
Figure 7. Concordia plots of zircon data from samples 155735 and 187323. Age uncertainties are quoted at the 95% con-
fidence level unless indicated otherwise. Inset probabilitydensity plots contain analyses included in the regression lines and
use 206Pb/238U and 207Pb/206Pb ages for data <1000 Ma and >1000 Ma, respectively. (a) All analyses from sample 155735.
Black ellipses indicate data included in Figures 7b and 7c. Gray ellipses indicate data excluded from age calculations for
reasons mentioned in the text. (b) Rim analyses, showing the weighted average error ellipse of the concordant age calcu-
lation (shaded gray). (c) Core analyses, showing the regression line and age calculations. (d) All analyses from sample
187323. Black ellipses indicate data included in Figures 7e and 7f. Gray ellipses indicate data excluded from age calcula-
tions for reasons mentioned in the text. (e) TeraWasserburg plot of rim analyses, showing the regression line and age cal-
culations. Common lead composition used as an anchor value for the regression (0.814 0.023) is based on SHRIMP
analysis of titanites from the same sample [see Raimondo et al., 2009]. (f) Core analyses, showing the regression line
and age calculations.
55
Table 2. Summary of Zircon Characteristics

Size Number of Grains/ Average Average U Average Age
Sample (mm) Number of Spots Th/U (ppm) f 204 (%) (Ma)
155735 200500 11/14 Rims: 0.15 57 2.16 568 12
Cores: 0.71 164 1.00 1158 61
184464 100300 15/15 0.94 1186 5
184468 100350 21/28 0.52 1173 5
187323 2001000 40/60 Rims: 0.11 574 5
Cores: 0.28 1170 6
187325 100300 17/21 0.59 1178 13
provided in Tables 3 and 4. All errors in the data tables are weighted average of 207Pb/206Pb ages from core analyses
quoted at the 1 sigma (1s) level, while intercept ages and yields an estimate of 1118 31 Ma (MSWD = 1.50). This is
weighted averages are at the 95% confidence level. All age within error of a model 1 solution for the discordia chord
calculations were performed using Isoplot/Ex version 3.57 (Figure 7c), which yields an upper intercept age of 1158
[Ludwig, 2003]. The spatial distribution of all samples is 61 Ma and a lower intercept age of 422 340 Ma (MSWD =
shown in Figure 3, along with their associated age estimates. 0.82). The upper concordia intercept age is used as the best
See also Figure 2a for Spaghetti Hill sample locations. estimate of the true zircon core age, as it takes into account a
5.2.1. Sample 155735 (Highly Strained Felsic Mylonite) small number of concordant grains that have undergone
[27] Fourteen SHRIMP analyses of eleven zircon grains minimal Pbloss.
were obtained from sample 155735, targeting the weakly 5.2.2. Sample 187323 (Moderately Strained Felsic
luminescent cores and highly luminescent rims. Two age Mylonite)
maxima are apparent on a probability density plot at circa [29] Sixty LAICPMS analyses of forty zircon grains
570 Ma (rims) and circa 1140 Ma (cores). Rim analyses are were obtained from sample 187323, targeting the weakly
concordant to reversely discordant, while core analyses luminescent cores and highly luminescent rims. Two age
define a linear Pbloss trend with concordant to moderately maxima are apparent on a probability density plot at circa
discordant components. Two outliers (shown as gray ellip- 575 Ma (rims) and circa 1160 Ma (cores). Rim analyses are
ses in Figure 7a) are excluded from subsequent age calcu- strongly discordant, and plot on a linear array that approx-
lations because they were positioned on narrow rims and imates a commonPb trend. In contrast, core analyses define
probably represent mixed ages. a linear Pbloss trend with concordant to moderately dis-
[28] A weighted average of 206Pb/238U ages from rim cordant components. A number of outliers (shown as gray
analyses yields an estimate of 568 12 Ma, with the mean ellipses in Figure 7d) are excluded from subsequent age
square of weighted deviates (MSWD) equal to 1.03. This calculations for the following reasons. First, several analyses
estimate is comparable to the concordant age calculation showed clear mixing between core and rim zones, but with
(568 6 Ma; MSWD = 0.94), which takes into account the no resolvable parts of the spectrometry signal that could be
equivalence and concordance of 206Pb/238U, 207Pb/235U and isolated. This is largely the result of both the fine width of
207
Pb/206Pb ages simultaneously [Ludwig, 1998], with ana- the rims (occasionally <20 mm) and the high intensity of the
lytical and decayconstant errors included (Figure 7b). A laser. Second, a small number of analyses (particularly
Table 3. SHRIMP Zircon UThPb Age Data for Sample 155735

Isotopic Ratiosa Age Estimatesa
207 206 207 208 206 207
Spot U Th f 204 Pb/ 1s Pb/ 1s Pb/ 1s Pb/ 1s Pb/ Pb/ Eff
206 238 235 232
Name (ppm) (ppm) Th/U (%) Pb (%) U (%) U (%) Th (%) Rhob 238
U 1s 206
Pb 1s agec
73501.1 172 105 0.61 0.59 0.0768 1.7 0.1816 1.8 1.9218 2.5 0.0566 2.1 0.723 1076 18 1115 34 1115
73501.2 102 79 0.78 0.35 0.0751 1.5 0.1736 2.2 1.7979 2.6 0.0518 2.5 0.831 1032 21 1071 30 1071
73502.1 12 1 0.07 1.97 0.0318 57.7 0.0970 3.6 0.4254 57.8 0.0780 10.0 0.063 597 21 983 1704 597
73502.2 229 249 1.09 0.45 0.0777 1.1 0.1751 1.9 1.8756 2.2 0.0529 2.1 0.861 1040 18 1139 22 1139
73503.1 26 0 0.01 1.05 0.0457 22.1 0.0910 2.8 0.5728 22.3 0.0579 1.9 0.124 561 15 21 534 561
73504.1 20 3 0.14 1.05 0.0404 56.1 0.0877 3.5 0.4892 56.2 0.2831 17.1 0.062 542 18 322 1441 542
73504.2 226 244 1.08 8.57 0.0777 2.8 0.1859 1.8 1.9920 3.3 0.1301 7.6 0.543 1099 18 1140 55 1140
73505.1 269 172 0.64 0.57 0.0761 0.8 0.1632 1.8 1.7132 2.0 0.0487 2.0 0.905 974 16 1099 17 1099
73506.1 251 138 0.55 0.23 0.0594 2.4 0.0933 1.8 0.7639 3.0 0.0276 2.3 0.606 575 10 581 52 575
73507.1 236 146 0.62 0.18 0.0782 1.1 0.1913 1.8 2.0640 2.1 0.0544 2.1 0.849 1128 19 1153 22 1153
73508.1 34 12 0.35 1.13 0.0554 13.5 0.1430 2.4 1.0921 13.7 0.0559 3.8 0.173 862 19 428 301 862
73509.1 47 24 0.51 0.21 0.0609 7.8 0.1833 2.1 1.5403 8.0 0.0559 3.0 0.263 1085 21 637 167 637
73510.1 19 2 0.09 4.05 0.0397 62.2 0.0929 3.5 0.5083 62.3 0.1057 8.3 0.057 573 19 372 1614 573
73511.1 16 1 0.04 0.59 0.0572 30.9 0.0901 3.4 0.7107 31.0 0.0607 20.4 0.108 556 18 499 680 556
a
Displayed ratios and ages are corrected for common Pb following the method of Stacey and Kramers [1975].
b
Error correlation; defined as [(err. 206Pb/238U)/(measured 206Pb/238U)]/[(err. 207Pb/235U)/(measured 207Pb/235U)].
c
Effective age; for ages <1000 Ma and >1000 Ma, this corresponds to calculated 206Pb/238U and 207Pb/206Pb ages, respectively.
56
Table 4. LAICPMS Zircon UThPb Age Data
Isotopic Ratiosa Age Estimatesa c
Chapter 3
Spot Conc Eff

207 206 206 238 207 235 208 232 b 207 206 206 238 207 208 d
Name Th/U Pb/ Pb 1s Pb/ U 1s Pb/ U 1s Pb/ Th 1s Rho Pb/ Pb 1s Pb/ U 1s Pb/235U 1s Pb/232Th 1s (%) Age
Sample 184468
Spot 1 0.37 0.0794 0.0011 0.1908 0.0026 2.0872 0.0326 0.0465 0.0007 0.864 1182 27 1125 14 1145 11 918 14 95 1182
Spot 2 0.52 0.0792 0.0011 0.1798 0.0021 1.9643 0.0275 0.0578 0.0008 0.850 1178 26 1066 12 1103 9 1135 15 90 1178
Spot 3 0.82 0.0793 0.0009 0.1834 0.0023 2.0061 0.0265 0.0484 0.0005 0.934 1181 23 1085 12 1118 9 956 10 92 1181
Spot 4 0.45 0.0783 0.0011 0.1903 0.0024 2.0548 0.0308 0.0538 0.0008 0.829 1156 28 1123 13 1134 10 1059 16 97 1156
Spot 5 0.30 0.0795 0.0010 0.1958 0.0027 2.1445 0.0323 0.0480 0.0007 0.900 1184 25 1153 14 1163 10 948 14 97 1184
Spot 6 0.46 0.0793 0.0010 0.1928 0.0023 2.1069 0.0292 0.0561 0.0008 0.867 1179 26 1137 13 1151 10 1104 16 96 1179
Spot 7 0.52 0.0792 0.0010 0.1858 0.0023 2.0290 0.0279 0.0528 0.0007 0.902 1178 24 1098 13 1125 9 1040 13 93 1178
Spot 9 0.43 0.0787 0.0010 0.2030 0.0025 2.2026 0.0314 0.0557 0.0008 0.878 1164 26 1192 14 1182 10 1096 16 102 1164
Spot 10 0.51 0.0789 0.0012 0.1952 0.0024 2.1226 0.0320 0.0593 0.0010 0.810 1170 29 1149 13 1156 10 1164 18 98 1170
Spot 11 0.56 0.0791 0.0010 0.1902 0.0024 2.0745 0.0289 0.0527 0.0007 0.916 1175 24 1123 13 1140 10 1038 13 96 1175
Spot 12 0.43 0.0798 0.0011 0.1918 0.0024 2.1087 0.0311 0.0608 0.0010 0.842 1192 27 1131 13 1152 10 1194 19 95 1192
Spot 13 0.39 0.0793 0.0011 0.1946 0.0026 2.1266 0.0329 0.0531 0.0009 0.875 1180 26 1146 14 1158 11 1045 16 97 1180
Spot 14 0.62 0.0789 0.0010 0.1453 0.0018 1.6052 0.0206 0.0456 0.0006 0.851 1172 28 874 10 891 9 901 12 75 1172
Spot 15 0.79 0.0793 0.0009 0.1997 0.0025 2.1827 0.0291 0.0619 0.0008 0.921 1180 23 1174 13 1176 9 1215 15 100 1180
Spot 16 0.44 0.0784 0.0012 0.1899 0.0024 2.0495 0.0315 0.0597 0.0011 0.811 1156 29 1121 13 1132 11 1171 20 97 1156
Spot 17 0.47 0.0793 0.0010 0.1939 0.0025 2.1202 0.0303 0.0602 0.0009 0.889 1180 25 1143 13 1155 10 1182 17 97 1180
Spot 21 0.44 0.0786 0.0017 0.2037 0.0036 2.2077 0.0506 0.0524 0.0012 0.761 1163 41 1195 19 1184 16 1032 24 103 1163
Spot 22 0.52 0.0786 0.0010 0.1922 0.0027 2.0831 0.0321 0.0615 0.0009 0.894 1163 26 1133 14 1143 11 1206 18 97 1163
Spot 23 0.46 0.0793 0.0010 0.1883 0.0026 2.0589 0.0318 0.0598 0.0009 0.907 1181 25 1112 14 1135 11 1174 17 94 1181
Spot 24 0.63 0.0792 0.0011 0.1931 0.0027 2.1075 0.0337 0.0610 0.0009 0.878 1176 27 1138 15 1151 11 1196 17 97 1176
Spot 25 0.42 0.0791 0.0016 0.1926 0.0030 2.0994 0.0450 0.0575 0.0014 0.727 1174 39 1135 16 1149 15 1129 26 97 1174
Spot 26 0.43 0.0794 0.0010 0.1910 0.0026 2.0912 0.0316 0.0592 0.0009 0.910 1183 25 1127 14 1146 10 1162 17 95 1183
Spot 27 1.07 0.0810 0.0010 0.1933 0.0026 2.1574 0.0309 0.0628 0.0008 0.940 1221 23 1139 14 1167 10 1231 16 93 1221
Spot 28 0.48 0.0864 0.0010 0.1949 0.0026 2.3202 0.0330 0.0670 0.0010 0.939 1346 23 1148 14 1219 10 1311 18 85 1346
Spot 29 0.45 0.0820 0.0009 0.1926 0.0025 2.1750 0.0298 0.0611 0.0009 0.962 1246 22 1135 14 1173 10 1198 17 91 1246
Spot 30 0.43 0.0792 0.0010 0.1383 0.0020 1.5108 0.0235 0.0441 0.0007 0.909 1178 25 835 11 935 10 872 13 71 1178
Spot 31 0.44 0.0789 0.0011 0.1989 0.0028 2.1627 0.0346 0.0610 0.0010 0.876 1170 27 1169 15 1169 11 1197 19 100 1170
Spot 32 0.60 0.0790 0.0009 0.1915 0.0030 2.0871 0.0332 0.0483 0.0007 0.995 1173 22 1130 16 1145 11 954 14 96 1173
Sample 184464
Spot 1 0.73 0.0807 0.0017 0.1973 0.0030 2.1944 0.0474 0.0660 0.0014 0.704 1214 41 1161 16 1179 15 1291 26 96 1214
Spot 2 0.86 0.0806 0.0029 0.2005 0.0038 2.2263 0.0772 0.0687 0.0021 0.545 1212 69 1178 20 1189 24 1343 39 97 1212
Spot 3 0.94 0.0798 0.0015 0.1812 0.0027 1.9944 0.0403 0.0600 0.0011 0.735 1193 38 1074 15 1114 14 1178 20 90 1193
Spot 4 0.81 0.0814 0.0024 0.2093 0.0037 2.3491 0.0677 0.0703 0.0018 0.605 1231 56 1225 19 1227 21 1374 34 100 1231
Spot 5 1.10 0.0821 0.0014 0.2122 0.0031 2.4010 0.0451 0.0682 0.0011 0.789 1248 33 1240 17 1243 13 1334 20 99 1248
Spot 6 1.47 0.0798 0.0014 0.2031 0.0030 2.2347 0.0422 0.0578 0.0009 0.792 1192 34 1192 16 1192 13 1135 17 100 1192
Spot 7 0.71 0.0806 0.0016 0.1993 0.0030 2.2146 0.0449 0.0597 0.0012 0.738 1212 37 1172 16 1186 14 1172 22 97 1212
Spot 8 0.80 0.0794 0.0035 0.2038 0.0049 2.2338 0.0963 0.0380 0.0016 0.555 1182 85 1196 26 1192 30 753 31 101 1182
Spot 9 0.76 0.0792 0.0014 0.2047 0.0031 2.2334 0.0434 0.0592 0.0011 0.772 1176 35 1200 16 1192 14 1162 20 102 1176
Spot 10 0.75 0.0800 0.0015 0.2022 0.0031 2.2294 0.0440 0.0588 0.0010 0.766 1197 36 1187 16 1190 14 1154 20 99 1197
Spot 11 0.74 0.0818 0.0020 0.2121 0.0034 2.3906 0.0592 0.0583 0.0014 0.644 1240 47 1240 18 1240 18 1146 26 100 1240
Spot 13 1.43 0.0816 0.0020 0.1856 0.0031 2.0852 0.0520 0.0457 0.0012 0.667 1236 47 1097 17 1144 17 904 24 89 1236
Spot 14 1.25 0.0818 0.0018 0.1745 0.0024 1.9716 0.0429 0.0460 0.0009 0.638 1241 43 1037 13 1106 15 910 18 84 1241
Spot 15 0.83 0.0796 0.0021 0.2020 0.0034 2.2222 0.0592 0.0458 0.0011 0.629 1186 52 1186 18 1188 19 905 22 100 1186
Spot 16 0.92 0.0821 0.0011 0.1799 0.0022 2.0319 0.0305 0.0514 0.0007 0.825 1247 27 1067 12 1126 10 1014 13 86 1247
Anatomy of a deep intracontinental orogen
57
58
Table 4. (continued)
Isotopic Ratiosa Age Estimatesa

Chapter 3
Spot Concc Eff

207 206 206 238 207 235 208 232 b 207 206 206 238 207 208
Name Th/U Pb/ Pb 1s Pb/ U 1s Pb/ U 1s Pb/ Th 1s Rho Pb/ Pb 1s Pb/ U 1s Pb/235U 1s Pb/232Th 1s (%) Aged
Sample 187323
Spot 1 0.03 0.0890 0.0034 0.0410 0.0008 0.5029 0.0187 0.0975 0.0059 0.529 1404 71 259 5 414 13 1881 109 18 259
Spot 2 0.46 0.0935 0.0021 0.0711 0.0011 0.9170 0.0210 0.0357 0.0008 0.695 1498 42 443 7 661 11 710 15 30 443
Spot 3 0.01 0.0644 0.0016 0.0946 0.0015 0.8396 0.0213 0.1131 0.0110 0.625 755 51 583 9 619 12 2165 200 77 583
Spot 4 0.28 0.0980 0.0039 0.0946 0.0019 1.2789 0.0495 0.0331 0.0019 0.509 1587 73 583 11 836 22 657 36 37 583
Spot 5 0.17 0.0819 0.0010 0.1838 0.0025 2.0735 0.0300 0.0578 0.0009 0.942 1242 23 1088 14 1140 10 1137 17 88 1242
Spot 6 0.41 0.0795 0.0013 0.1823 0.0025 2.0000 0.0340 0.0195 0.0005 0.791 1186 31 1079 13 1116 12 391 9 91 1186
Spot 14 0.10 0.0643 0.0018 0.0791 0.0013 0.7013 0.0201 0.0131 0.0011 0.585 751 59 491 8 540 12 263 21 65 491
Spot 15 0.24 0.0574 0.0036 0.0941 0.0023 0.7455 0.0454 0.0050 0.0010 0.385 508 134 580 13 566 26 100 21 114 580
Spot 9 0.21 0.0789 0.0008 0.2004 0.0027 2.1780 0.0292 0.0566 0.0007 0.987 1169 21 1177 14 1174 9 1112 14 101 1169
Spot 10 0.24 0.0783 0.0008 0.1928 0.0026 2.0809 0.0272 0.0581 0.0007 0.981 1155 20 1136 14 1143 9 1142 13 98 1155
Spot 11 0.17 0.0904 0.0064 0.0614 0.0016 0.7658 0.0518 0.0192 0.0028 0.376 1435 129 384 10 577 30 384 55 27 384
Spot 12 0.28 0.0774 0.0011 0.1914 0.0025 2.0423 0.0322 0.0536 0.0011 0.843 1131 28 1129 14 1130 11 1056 20 100 1131
Spot 13 0.25 0.0811 0.0035 0.0220 0.0005 0.2454 0.0102 0.0040 0.0003 0.476 1224 82 140 3 223 8 82 7 11 140
Spot 14 0.00 0.0627 0.0013 0.0944 0.0014 0.8169 0.0184 0.1488 0.0142 0.719 700 45 582 9 606 10 2805 251 83 582
Spot 15 0.00 0.0632 0.0010 0.0946 0.0014 0.8241 0.0152 0.1147 0.0106 0.873 715 35 583 8 610 8 2195 193 82 583
Spot 16 0.01 0.0641 0.0015 0.0923 0.0015 0.8154 0.0197 0.0937 0.0112 0.685 744 48 569 9 606 11 1810 207 77 569
Spot 17 0.04 0.0650 0.0029 0.0925 0.0018 0.8279 0.0363 0.0137 0.0034 0.437 773 93 570 11 613 20 275 68 74 570
Spot 18 0.03 0.0663 0.0032 0.0926 0.0019 0.8468 0.0388 0.0408 0.0068 0.430 817 96 571 11 623 21 808 132 70 571
Spot 19 0.02 0.0705 0.0024 0.0925 0.0016 0.8987 0.0303 0.1420 0.0121 0.521 944 68 570 10 651 16 2684 214 60 570
Spot 20 0.32 0.1991 0.0092 0.1140 0.0032 3.1307 0.1299 0.1236 0.0055 0.608 2819 73 696 18 1440 32 2356 99 25 696
Spot 21 0.38 0.0789 0.0017 0.1889 0.0028 2.0544 0.0457 0.0472 0.0015 0.668 1169 43 1115 15 1134 15 932 28 95 1169
Spot 22 0.04 0.1567 0.0109 0.0935 0.0036 2.0179 0.1243 0.3532 0.0559 0.552 2420 114 576 21 1122 42 6114 834 24 576
Spot 23 0.18 0.0775 0.0008 0.1625 0.0021 1.7366 0.0232 0.0459 0.0006 0.986 1134 21 971 12 1022 9 908 12 86 1134
Spot 24 0.45 0.0790 0.0013 0.1905 0.0029 2.0713 0.0379 0.0537 0.0010 0.821 1171 32 1124 15 1139 13 1057 20 96 1171
Spot 25 0.96 0.0870 0.0015 0.1701 0.0025 2.0382 0.0374 0.0395 0.0007 0.787 1360 32 1013 14 1128 13 782 14 74 1360
Spot 26 0.19 0.0779 0.0008 0.1687 0.0022 1.8115 0.0240 0.0411 0.0006 0.985 1144 21 1005 12 1050 9 813 11 88 1144
Spot 27 0.18 0.0784 0.0008 0.1658 0.0022 1.7928 0.0237 0.0371 0.0005 0.983 1157 21 989 12 1043 9 737 10 85 1157
Spot 28 0.04 0.0706 0.0015 0.0926 0.0014 0.9014 0.0204 0.0756 0.0033 0.722 946 43 571 8 653 11 1473 61 60 571
Spot 29 0.07 0.0732 0.0014 0.0927 0.0014 0.9355 0.0187 0.0276 0.0012 0.808 1020 36 571 8 671 10 549 23 56 571
Spot 30 0.10 0.0703 0.0035 0.0925 0.0019 0.8971 0.0425 0.0706 0.0048 0.426 938 98 571 11 650 23 1379 91 61 571
Spot 31 0.09 0.1022 0.0028 0.0626 0.0011 0.8826 0.0239 0.0690 0.0025 0.642 1664 49 392 7 642 13 1349 47 24 392
Spot 32 0.07 0.0774 0.0008 0.1644 0.0022 1.7533 0.0237 0.0352 0.0005 0.988 1130 21 981 12 1028 9 699 9 87 1130
Spot 33 1.14 0.0566 0.0038 0.0641 0.0015 0.4999 0.0325 0.0006 0.0002 0.343 477 142 400 9 412 22 13 4 84 400
Spot 34 0.09 0.0721 0.0026 0.0928 0.0017 0.9220 0.0322 0.0409 0.0027 0.521 989 70 572 10 663 17 810 52 58 572
Spot 35 0.00 0.0667 0.0027 0.0933 0.0018 0.8575 0.0341 0.0811 0.0322 0.458 828 83 575 10 629 19 1576 602 69 575
Spot 36 0.07 0.0731 0.0021 0.0754 0.0013 0.7602 0.0217 0.0538 0.0023 0.610 1018 56 469 8 574 12 1059 44 46 469
Spot 37 0.16 0.0890 0.0038 0.0780 0.0017 0.9591 0.0394 0.0772 0.0038 0.494 1404 80 484 10 683 20 1502 72 34 484
Spot 38 0.75 0.0988 0.0136 0.0872 0.0047 1.1868 0.1529 0.0167 0.0031 0.390 1601 237 539 28 795 71 334 61 34 539
Spot 39 0.16 0.0785 0.0010 0.1997 0.0029 2.1600 0.0338 0.0630 0.0012 1.113 1160 25 1173 15 1168 11 1236 22 101 1173
Spot 40 0.24 0.0787 0.0010 0.1707 0.0023 1.8527 0.0271 0.0355 0.0007 0.908 1165 25 1016 13 1064 10 705 13 87 1165
Spot 41 0.89 0.0783 0.0010 0.1765 0.0024 1.9040 0.0291 0.0217 0.0003 0.894 1154 25 1048 13 1083 10 434 7 91 1154
Spot 42 0.01 0.0619 0.0015 0.0928 0.0014 0.7913 0.0195 0.0575 0.0134 0.640 671 50 572 8 592 11 1129 256 85 572
Spot 43 0.32 0.0783 0.0012 0.1637 0.0023 1.7661 0.0307 0.0322 0.0008 0.810 1154 31 977 13 1033 11 641 15 85 1154
Spot 44 0.01 0.0552 0.0028 0.0927 0.0019 0.7042 0.0349 0.0749 0.0211 0.400 419 110 571 11 541 21 1459 397 137 571
Spot 45 0.01 0.0635 0.0021 0.0927 0.0016 0.8122 0.0267 0.1169 0.0135 0.515 726 68 572 9 604 15 2234 245 79 572
Spot 46 0.36 0.0787 0.0009 0.1813 0.0025 1.9660 0.0278 0.0597 0.0008 0.961 1163 22 1074 13 1104 10 1171 15 92 1163
Spot 47 0.12 0.1938 0.0055 0.0929 0.0019 2.4778 0.0664 0.2203 0.0083 0.733 2775 46 573 11 1266 19 4025 137 21 573
Spot 48 0.22 0.0783 0.0008 0.1719 0.0023 1.8546 0.0251 0.0545 0.0007 0.978 1154 21 1023 13 1065 9 1073 14 89 1154
Chapter 3
Isotopic Ratiosa Age Estimatesa c

Spot Conc Eff
207 206 206 238 207 235 208 232 b 207 206 206 238 207 235 208 232 d
Name Th/U Pb/ Pb 1s Pb/ U 1s Pb/ U 1s Pb/ Th 1s Rho Pb/ Pb 1s Pb/ U 1s Pb/ U 1s Pb/ Th 1s (%) Age
Spot 49 0.01 0.0878 0.0031 0.0927 0.0018 1.1218 0.0391 0.5108 0.0382 0.537 1377 67 572 10 764 19 8341 511 42 572
Spot 50 0.24 0.0783 0.0009 0.1937 0.0029 2.0925 0.0320 0.0498 0.0007 0.975 1154 22 1142 16 1146 11 983 14 99 1154
Spot 51 0.13 0.0789 0.0008 0.1960 0.0028 2.1326 0.0299 0.0625 0.0008 0.999 1169 20 1154 15 1159 10 1225 15 99 1169
Spot 52 0.17 0.0777 0.0010 0.1673 0.0024 1.7930 0.0281 0.0600 0.0011 0.912 1140 25 997 13 1043 10 1177 20 88 1140
Spot 53 0.03 0.0614 0.0015 0.0927 0.0014 0.7840 0.0199 0.0399 0.0030 0.623 652 52 571 8 588 11 791 59 88 571
Spot 54 0.01 0.0567 0.0048 0.0928 0.0027 0.7252 0.0590 0.1082 0.0389 0.349 480 178 572 16 554 35 2076 709 119 572
Spot 55 0.01 0.0845 0.0038 0.0931 0.0022 1.0842 0.0465 0.5522 0.0530 0.518 1305 84 574 13 746 23 8886 690 44 574
Spot 56 1.40 0.0853 0.0051 0.0514 0.0013 0.6044 0.0348 0.0020 0.0002 0.417 1322 112 323 8 480 22 40 4 24 323
Spot 57 0.15 0.0795 0.0057 0.0931 0.0027 1.0206 0.0689 0.0297 0.0060 0.399 1184 135 574 16 714 35 591 119 48 574
Spot 58 1.54 0.0896 0.0024 0.0544 0.0009 0.6714 0.0179 0.0071 0.0002 0.599 1416 51 341 5 522 11 144 4 24 341
Spot 59 0.07 0.1078 0.0020 0.0927 0.0014 1.3771 0.0275 0.1557 0.0039 0.823 1762 34 571 8 879 12 2926 68 32 571
Spot 60 0.46 0.1394 0.0044 0.0926 0.0018 1.7811 0.0536 0.0381 0.0013 0.626 2220 53 571 11 1039 20 756 26 26 571
Sample 187325
Spot 1 0.32 0.0785 0.0008 0.1814 0.0025 1.9643 0.0270 0.0468 0.0005 0.988 1161 21 1075 13 1103 9 925 10 93 1161
Spot 2 0.49 0.0791 0.0010 0.1960 0.0029 2.1366 0.0340 0.0441 0.0006 0.925 1174 25 1154 16 1161 11 872 11 98 1174
Spot 3 0.38 0.0784 0.0009 0.1871 0.0026 2.0211 0.0290 0.0404 0.0005 0.968 1156 22 1106 14 1123 10 800 10 96 1156
Spot 4 0.55 0.0800 0.0013 0.1961 0.0027 2.1620 0.0390 0.0611 0.0011 0.776 1196 33 1154 15 1169 13 1199 20 97 1196
Spot 5 0.63 0.0791 0.0010 0.1881 0.0026 2.0512 0.0313 0.0550 0.0007 0.891 1175 26 1111 14 1133 10 1081 14 95 1175
Spot 6 0.37 0.0789 0.0009 0.1826 0.0026 1.9845 0.0299 0.0439 0.0006 0.957 1169 23 1081 14 1110 10 868 11 92 1169
Spot 7 0.85 0.0789 0.0012 0.1882 0.0026 2.0490 0.0340 0.0543 0.0008 0.828 1170 29 1112 14 1132 11 1068 15 95 1170
Spot 8 0.63 0.0783 0.0011 0.1726 0.0024 1.8626 0.0308 0.0457 0.0007 0.854 1154 28 1026 13 1068 11 904 13 89 1154
Spot 9 0.73 0.0788 0.0010 0.1962 0.0028 2.1295 0.0324 0.0458 0.0005 0.945 1166 24 1155 15 1158 11 905 10 99 1166
Spot 10 0.42 0.0788 0.0010 0.1964 0.0026 2.1359 0.0314 0.0527 0.0008 0.915 1168 24 1156 14 1161 10 1038 14 99 1168
Spot 11 0.58 0.0789 0.0009 0.1840 0.0026 2.0014 0.0291 0.0483 0.0006 0.959 1170 23 1089 14 1116 10 953 11 93 1170
Spot 12 0.44 0.0784 0.0009 0.1751 0.0024 1.8913 0.0267 0.0483 0.0006 0.971 1156 22 1040 13 1078 9 954 11 90 1156
Spot 13 0.58 0.0783 0.0013 0.1784 0.0026 1.9253 0.0356 0.0521 0.0009 0.779 1154 33 1058 14 1090 12 1027 18 92 1154
Spot 14 0.77 0.0791 0.0013 0.1892 0.0027 2.0628 0.0365 0.0516 0.0008 0.809 1174 31 1117 15 1137 12 1017 16 95 1174
Spot 15 0.41 0.0789 0.0009 0.1940 0.0027 2.1081 0.0311 0.0522 0.0007 0.957 1171 23 1143 15 1152 10 1028 14 98 1171
Spot 16 0.96 0.0789 0.0016 0.1916 0.0033 2.0810 0.0475 0.0570 0.0014 0.754 1170 40 1130 18 1143 16 1121 26 97 1170
Spot 17 0.61 0.0794 0.0013 0.1878 0.0023 2.0625 0.0334 0.0605 0.0014 0.754 1181 31 1109 12 1137 11 1187 27 94 1181
Spot 19 0.40 0.0798 0.0011 0.1854 0.0025 2.0425 0.0315 0.0420 0.0007 0.871 1192 26 1097 14 1130 11 832 13 92 1192
Spot 20 0.69 0.0791 0.0011 0.1947 0.0027 2.1309 0.0339 0.0402 0.0006 0.871 1173 27 1147 15 1159 11 796 12 98 1173
Spot 21 0.70 0.0800 0.0011 0.1910 0.0026 2.1051 0.0332 0.0431 0.0006 0.847 1197 27 1127 14 1151 11 853 12 94 1197
Spot 22 0.81 0.0827 0.0017 0.1606 0.0021 1.8369 0.0370 0.0486 0.0017 0.646 1261 40 960 12 1059 13 960 33 76 1261
a
Displayed ratios and ages are uncorrected for common Pb.
b
Error correlation; defined as [(err. 206Pb/238U)/(measured 206Pb/238U)]/[(err. 207Pb/235U)/(measured 207Pb/235U)].
c
Degree of concordance; defined as 100 [(206Pb/238U age)/(207Pb/235U age)] for grains <1000 Ma, and 100 [(206Pb/238U age)/(207Pb/206Pb age)] for grains >1000 Ma.
d
Effective age; for ages <1000 Ma and >1000 Ma, this corresponds to calculated 206Pb/238U and 207Pb/206Pb ages, respectively.
59
ages from analyses with >90% concordance yields an esti-

mate of 1207 24 Ma (MSWD = 0.33). This is similar to a
model 1 solution for the discordia chord, which yields an
upper intercept age of 1209 17 Ma (MSWD = 0.82).
However, there appears to be one distinct and another less
distinct cluster of analyses situated on the concordia line,
separated by approximately 60 Ma. The younger cluster con-
tains the majority of analyses, and produces a concordant age
of 1186 5 Ma (MSWD = 0.45) with analytical and decay
constant errors considered (Figure 8b). The older cluster is
situated at circa 1250 Ma, and does not appear to correspond
to any distinctive CL domains.
5.2.4. Sample 184468 (Highly Strained Felsic Mylonite)
[32] Twentyeight LAICPMS analyses of twentyone
zircon grains were obtained from sample 184468, targeting
the homogenous and convolutely zoned cores and moder-
ately luminescent rims. Like the previous sample, there is no
correspondence between different CL domains and resolv-
Figure 9. Plot of Th/U versus age for zircon grains with able age populations. A single age maximum is apparent on a
both core and rim analyses. Note that rim analyses are con- probability density plot at circa 1180 Ma, with the majority of
sistently lower in Th than core analyses from the same grain. analyses defining a linear Pbloss trend with concordant to
Gray shaded area indicates rim analyses 0.05. Convention- strongly discordant components (Figure 8c). Three outliers
al cut off for metamorphic zircon is 0.1. Displayed ages are excluded from age calculations due to highly variable
<1000 Ma and >1000 Ma are 206Pb/238U and 207Pb/206Pb spectrometry signals and are shown as gray ellipses. A
ages, respectively. weighted average of 207Pb/206Pb ages from analyses with
>90% concordance yields an estimate of 1175 11 Ma
(MSWD = 0.11). This agrees with a model 1 solution for the
discordia chord, which yields an upper intercept age of
outliers >1000 Ma) showed highly variable spectrometry 1173 5 Ma and a lower intercept age of 59 79 Ma
signals with strong sensitivity to the selection used for iso- (MSWD = 0.41).
topic measurements. In such cases, very little confidence 5.2.5. Sample 187325 (Highly Strained Felsic L
can be assigned to the representative age, and thus these Tectonite)
analyses are discarded. Apart from analytical reasons for [33] Twentyone LAICPMS analyses of seventeen zircon
exclusion, it is also possible that a number of analyses are grains were obtained from sample 187325, targeting the
affected by both commonPb and postdeformational Pb homogeneous and convolutely zoned cores and moderately
loss, resulting in a large scatter of data points younger than luminescent rims. Again, the wide variety of internal fea-
500 Ma. tures viewed under CL did not correspond to any distinctive
[30] A weighted average of 206Pb/238U ages from rim age populations, with a single maximum on a probability
analyses yields an estimate of 574 4 Ma (MSWD = 0.22). density plot at circa 1170 Ma (Figure 8d). The majority of
This is comparable to the age determined by linear regres- analyses define a linear Pbloss trend with concordant to
sion through the uncorrected 238U/206Pb versus 207Pb/206Pb moderately discordant components. One outlier (shown as a
isotope ratios (574 5 Ma; MSWD = 0.23) (Figure 7e). A gray ellipse) is excluded from age calculations due to a
weighted average of 207Pb/206Pb ages from core analyses highly variable spectrometry signal. A weighted average of
207
with >90% concordance yields an estimate of 1161 15 Ma Pb/206Pb ages from analyses with >90% concordance
(MSWD = 0.27). This is within error of a model 1 solution yields an estimate of 1171 12 Ma (MSWD = 0.21). This is
for the discordia chord (Figure 7f), which yields an upper within error of a model 1 solution for the discordia chord,
intercept age of 1170 6 Ma and a lower intercept age of which yields an upper intercept age of 1178 13 Ma and a
204 59 Ma (MSWD = 1.90). Again, the upper concordia lower intercept age of 217 160 Ma (MSWD = 0.71).
intercept age is used as the best estimate of the true zircon
core age, as it takes into account a small number of con- 5.3. Zircon Trace Element Partitioning
cordant grains that have undergone minimal Pb loss. [34] Th/U elemental ratios calculated from UThPb
5.2.3. Sample 184464 (Highly Strained Felsic Mylonite) geochronology (Tables 2 and 4) show a systematic decrease
[31] Fifteen LAICPMS analyses of an equal number of between core and rim domains in sample 187323. Figure 9
zircon grains were obtained from sample 184464, targeting shows a distinct cluster of rim analyses with Th/U ratios
the highly luminescent featureless cores, patchily zoned 0.05 (gray shaded area), while core analyses from the same
domains and weakly luminescent rims. Despite the wide grains lie above 0.18. This trace element partitioning is
variety of internal features revealed by CL, only a single age commonly attributed to differential Th expulsion during
maximum is apparent on a probability density plot at circa metamorphism, as a result of its incompatibility within the
1210 Ma (Figure 8a). A weighted average of 207Pb/206Pb zircon lattice relative to U [Cherniak et al., 1997a;
60
Table 5. Titanium Concentrations, Associated Errors, and Calcu- which Hoskin and Black [2000] interpret as indicative of
lated Temperatures for Zircon metamorphic recrystallization in the solid state. The effect of
Ediacaran metamorphism on zircon therefore appears to be
Spot Ti 1s Ta Tb
Name Position (ppm) (C) (C) limited to closedsystem recrystallization of protolith mag-
matic grains, rather than local dissolution and reprecipitation.
Sample 187323
323spot01 Core 7.43 0.17 716 2 716 14
323spot02 Core 7.49 0.22 716 2 716 14
323spot03 Rim 7.77 0.29 719 3 719 15 6. Trace Element (Zr and Ti) Thermometry
323spot04 Rim 9.01 0.30 732 3 732 15
323spot05 Rim 10.42 0.31 745 3 745 15 [35] Trace element data were collected from zircon and
323spot06 Rim 6.93 0.32 710 4 710 15 titanite grains that record evidence of Ediacaran metamor-
323spot07 Rim 7.06 0.32 711 4 711 15 phism for the purpose of thermometry. This assists in
323spot08 Rim 5.81 0.32 695 4 695 16 placing their growth or recrystallization within a specific
323spot09 Rim 8.46 0.33 726 3 727 15
323spot10 Rim 7.99 0.34 722 4 722 15 metamorphic context, thus providing a crucial link between
323spot11 Rim 6.19 0.35 700 5 701 16 UThPb age data and the conditions of paragenesis [e.g.,
323spot12 Rim 6.98 0.39 710 5 710 16 Schaltegger et al., 1999; Rubatto, 2002; Gregory et al.,
323spot13 Rim 8.08 0.39 722 4 723 16 2009]. Geochronology from zircon samples 187323 and
323spot14 Rim 8.00 0.47 722 5 722 17
323spot15 Rim 7.39 0.47 715 5 715 17
155735 is discussed Section 5. Additional geochronology
323spot16 Core 7.19 0.26 713 3 713 15 concerning titanite samples 184495, 187323, 187337 and
323spot17 Core 6.65 0.24 706 3 706 14 155731 is documented by Raimondo et al. [2009]. LA
323spot18 Rim 6.59 0.50 705 6 706 18 ICPMS operating procedures and data reduction methods
323spot19 Rim 4.83 0.52 680 8 681 19 for trace element analysis are outlined in Text S3.
323spot20 Rim 7.16 0.54 712 6 712 18
323spot21 Rim 7.86 0.57 720 6 720 18
323spot22 Rim 6.03 0.61 698 8 698 19 6.1. Thermometer Calibrations and Use
323spot23 Rim 6.30 0.70 701 9 702 20 [36] This study utilizes the Tiinzircon thermometer of
323spot24 Core 6.46 0.24 704 3 704 14
323spot25 Core 6.76 0.26 708 3 708 15 Watson et al. [2006a] and the Zrinsphene (titanite) ther-
323spot26 Core 6.82 0.26 708 3 709 15 mometer of Hayden et al. [2008]. For each temperature
323spot27 Core 7.03 0.25 711 3 711 14 estimate calculated using the former, we take into account
323spot28 Core 6.50 0.26 704 3 705 15 uncertainties generated by both analytical and thermometer
323spot29 Core 6.38 0.27 703 3 703 15
323spot30 Core 5.25 0.29 687 4 687 15
calibration errors (Table 5). Detection errors for each anal-
323spot31 Core 5.37 0.26 689 4 689 15 ysis contribute uncertainties of 29C (1s), while errors
Wtd avec Cores 6.73 0.44 708 5 706 8 inherent in the thermometer calibration contribute more
Rims 7.56 0.64 720 7 719 8 significant uncertainties of 1113C (1s). Overall, the
Sample 155735
combined uncertainties give a temperature resolution of 8
735_01_01 Core 17.18 0.57 791 3 791 16 14C for a weighted average of all estimates at the 95%
735_01_02 Core 16.94 0.59 789 3 790 16 confidence level.
735_02_01 Rim 16.00 0.66 784 4 784 17 [37] The Tiinzircon thermometer is largely independent
735_02_02 Core 17.15 0.65 791 4 791 17 of pressure, while Zrinsphene shows significant sensitivity
735_03_01 Rim 15.64 0.66 782 4 782 17
735_04_01 Rim 18.52 0.69 798 4 798 17
to pressure, decreasing by a factor of approximately five in
735_04_02 Core 13.39 0.65 767 5 767 17 response to a pressure increase of 10 kbar [Hayden et al.,
735_05_01 Core 16.99 0.57 790 3 790 16 2006, 2008; Watson et al., 2006a]. We therefore consider
735_06_01 Rim 22.19 0.76 816 3 816 17 uncertainties generated by combined analytical, pressure
735_07_01 Rim 15.75 0.81 782 5 783 18 estimate and thermometer calibration errors for the latter
735_08_01 Rim 22.63 0.81 818 4 818 17
735_09_01 Rim 17.50 0.84 793 5 793 18
(Table 6). For each sample, temperature estimates are cal-
735_10_01 Rim 15.54 0.66 781 4 781 17 culated for pressure fluctuations 1 kbar from a reference
Wtd avec Cores 16.4 1.90 787 10 786 14 pressure of 11 kbar. This contributes an uncertainty of 11
Rims 17.7 2.40 796 13 794 12 12C (1s), which is much larger than the negligible influ-
a
Including 1s analytical uncertainties. ence of 1s detection errors for each analysis (14C). The
b
Including analytical and thermometer calibration uncertainties. uncertainty inherent in the thermometer calibration contrib-
c
Weighted average (95% confidence level). utes the most significant error to each estimate (2426C;
1s). Overall, the combined uncertainties give a temperature
resolution of 2024C for a weighted average of all esti-
mates at the 95% confidence level.
Schaltegger et al., 1999; Hoskin and Schaltegger, 2003].
Although some rim analyses have significantly higher Th/U 6.2. Temperature Estimates
ratios than the conventional cutoff for metamorphic zircon [38] Temperature estimates and propagated errors for
(0.1), they remain systematically lower than core analyses each titanite and zircon sample are presented in Tables 5
from the same grain. This is consistent with the appearance and 6. The calculated values for titanite are in reasonably
of ghost zoning on several of the zircon rims (Figure 6e), close agreement with average T estimates produced using
61
Table 6. Zirconium Concentrations, Associated Errors, and Calculated Temperatures for Titanite
Zr 1s Ta Tb Tc
Spot Name (ppm) (C) (C) (C)
Sample 187323
323spot01 72.4 3.1 728 2 728 13 728 38
323spot02 75.7 3.2 730 2 730 13 731 38
323spot03 73.9 3.2 729 2 729 13 730 38
323spot04 75.9 3.3 730 2 730 13 731 38
323spot05 90.6 3.3 739 2 739 13 740 38
323spot06 70.8 3.5 727 2 727 14 727 38
323spot07 98.1 4.1 743 2 743 13 744 38
323spot08 87.9 4.3 738 2 738 14 738 38
323spot09 96.9 4.7 743 3 743 14 743 39
323spot10 66.8 4.8 724 4 724 15 724 39
323spot11 80.8 6.6 733 4 733 15 734 40
323spot12 85.1 6.8 736 4 736 15 737 40
323spot13 79.7 6.9 733 4 733 16 733 40
323spot14 84.7 7.2 736 4 736 15 736 40
323spot15 75.4 7.4 730 5 730 16 730 41
Wtd aved 79.8 5.3 734 3 733 7 734 20
Sample 184495
495spot01 127.5 3.7 757 2 757 13 758 38
495spot02 120.1 4.7 754 2 754 13 755 39
495spot03 120.2 5.0 754 2 754 14 755 39
495spot04 96.5 5.5 742 3 743 14 743 39
495spot05 74.5 5.6 729 4 729 15 730 39
495spot06 107.8 5.7 748 3 748 14 749 39
495spot07 152.7 5.9 767 2 767 14 767 39
495spot08 94.3 6.2 741 3 741 15 742 39
495spot09 118.9 6.5 753 3 753 14 754 40
495spot10 110.7 8.0 750 4 750 15 750 40
495spot11 107.7 8.3 748 4 748 15 749 40
495spot12 142.7 9.5 763 4 763 15 764 41
495spot13 92.9 10.4 740 6 740 17 741 42
495spot14 79.9 15.8 732 10 732 21 733 46
495spot15 144.7 25.9 763 10 763 21 764 47
Wtd aved 114.0 11.0 753 5 750 8 750 20
Sample 187337
337spot01 120.1 4.5 754 2 754 13 755 39
337spot02 106.7 4.7 748 2 748 14 748 39
337spot03 113.4 5.0 751 2 751 14 752 39
337spot04 105.3 5.1 747 3 747 14 748 39
337spot05 117.6 5.1 753 2 753 14 753 39
337spot06 117.5 5.3 753 2 753 14 753 39
337spot07 83.5 5.8 735 4 735 15 736 39
337spot08 94.8 6.0 741 3 742 14 742 39
337spot09 109.6 6.0 749 3 749 14 750 39
337spot10 97.2 6.3 743 3 743 15 744 40
337spot11 97.8 6.4 743 3 743 15 744 40
337spot12 127.4 6.4 757 3 757 14 758 40
337spot13 106.7 6.9 748 3 748 15 748 40
337spot14 89.4 7.3 738 4 738 15 739 40
337spot15 96.4 8.6 742 5 742 16 743 41
Wtd aved 107.4 6.6 749 3 747 7 748 20
Sample 155731
731_01_01 101.7 2.6 745 1 745 13 746 38
731_02_01 146.2 3.2 764 1 764 13 765 38
731_03_01 160.2 3.2 769 1 769 13 770 39
731_04_01 101.9 2.6 745 1 745 13 746 38
731_05_01 159.1 2.5 769 1 769 12 770 38
731_06_01 80.4 5.0 733 3 733 14 734 39
62
Zr 1s Ta Tb Tc
Spot Name (ppm) (C) (C) (C)
731_07_01 111.5 4.6 750 2 750 13 751 39
731_08_01 76.7 5.1 731 3 731 14 731 39
731_09_01 119.2 3.6 754 2 754 13 754 38
731_10_01 81.4 3.8 734 2 734 14 734 38
Wtd aved 121.0 22.0 759 9 751 10 750 24
a
Including 1s analytical uncertainties.
b
Including analytical and pressure estimate uncertainties (1 kbar).
c
Including analytical, pressure estimate and thermometer calibration uncertainties.
d
Weighted average (95% confidence level).
THERMOCALC (Figure 5 and Table 7). Sample 187323 differences between the calculated temperatures of core
records a temperature of 734 20C, which is within error and rim domains in both zircon samples.
of a THERMOCALC average T estimate of 676 70C.
Similarly, sample 155731 (750 24C) is indistinguishable 7. Discussion
from THERMOCALC average T estimates of 739 76C
and 760 72C from samples 155733 and 155735, 7.1. Timing of Intracontinental Reworking and
sourced from the same outcrop (Spaghetti Hill; Figure 2a). Protolith Formation
Samples 184495 (750 20C) and 187337 (748 20C) [40] Metamorphic zircon rims from mylonitic lithologies
also conform to the regional pattern of gradually increasing in the Bates region return an age estimate of circa 570 Ma
temperatures toward the zone of migmatization in south- (Table 2), correlating to deep crustal reworking during the
east Bates. intracontinental Petermann Orogeny (600530 Ma)
[39] Recrystallized zircon rims from sample 187323 record [Maboko et al., 1992; Scrimgeour et al., 1999; Camacho
a temperature of 719 8C, which closely corresponds to and McDougall, 2000; Edgoose et al., 2004; Wade et al.,
the conditions determined using the Zr content of titanite 2005, 2008; Gregory et al., 2009; Raimondo et al., 2009].
from the same sample (734 20C), and is again within Given that the temperatures estimated by Ti thermometry
error of a THERMOCALC average T estimate of 676 70C (Table 5) are well below the closure temperature for Pb
(Figure 5 and Table 7). This reinforces the suggestion that volume diffusion in zircon (>900C) [Cherniak and Watson,
temperatures are slightly lower in the immediate hanging 2001], we interpret this age to represent the timing of peak
wall of the Woodroffe Thrust. Rim domains on sample metamorphism. This is in good agreement with additional
155735 (794 12C) record a higher temperature than SHRIMP titanite geochronology discussed by Raimondo et al.
estimates based on the Zr content of titanite (750 24C) [2009]. On the basis of inferred metamorphic reactions in-
and THERMOCALC average T calculations on samples from volving prograde mineral assemblages, they interpret large
the same outcrop (739 76; 760 72C), but remain within grains from sample 187323 to record initial titanite crys-
error of these values. Finally, there are minimal (13C) tallization at 572 7 Ma, coinciding with estimates from
Table 7. Comparison of Alternative Temperature Estimates Versus Geochronology

Zr/Ti THERMOCALC
Thermometry Average T
T Estimate Estimate Average Average U Average f 204 Age
Sample (C) (C) Th/U (ppm) (%) (Ma)a
Zircon
155735
Rims 794 12 739 76 0.15 57 2.16 568 12
Cores 786 14 0.71 164 1.00 1158 61
187323
Rims 719 8 676 70 0.11 574 5
Cores 706 8 0.28 1170 6
Titanite
155731 750 24 760 72; 739 76b 0.20 32 0.40 552 12
184495 750 20 0.31 302 0.08 539 4
187323 734 20 676 70 0.18 69 0.18 572 7
187337 748 20 0.24 27 0.44 573 14
a
Geochronologic data for titanite samples sourced from Raimondo et al. [2009].
b
Values quoted are derived from samples 155733 and 155735, located at the same outcrop as sample 155731.
63
Figure 10
64
this study (Table 7). A younger age of 552 12 Ma is hence increased likelihood of preserving a Ti chemical sig-
obtained from sample 155731, sourced from the same out- nature representative of crystallization conditions [Cherniak
crop as zircon sample 155735 (Spaghetti Hill; Figure 2a). et al., 1997b; Cherniak and Watson, 2001; Cherniak, 2006;
This discrepancy is attributed to the later timing of cooling Watson et al., 2006a, 2006b]. Temperature estimates gen-
below Pb closure in small titanite grains due to increased erated using the Tiinzircon thermometer may therefore be
volumetric diffusion. decoupled from UThPb geochronology, because the
[41] Core domains from samples 155735 and 187323 metamorphic recrystallization of protolith zircons must in-
record ages of 11701158 Ma (Table 2), consistent with volve significant diffusive reequilibration in order to alter
the timing of Pitjantjatjara Supersuite granite emplacement their preexisting thermal signatures. This could account for
in the western Musgrave Block (12201140 Ma) [Wade the close agreement between the measured Ti content of core
et al., 2008; Smithies et al., 2009]. Coupled with their and rim domains, which may preserve Ti chemistry
characteristic oscillatory zoning, which is interpreted as a corresponding to the conditions of magmatic crystallization
primary magmatic growth pattern, this suggests that they rather than mylonitic reworking.
record the timing of protolith igneous zircon formation. [44] However, this explanation does not resolve the large
In contrast, the convolute internal structures exhibited by discrepancy (80C) in calculated temperatures between
samples 184464, 184468 and 187325 are consistent with samples 155735 and 187323, given that they are sourced
high temperature metamorphism, which has partially or from similar granitic precursors. We suggest that the lower
completely obliterated the regular internal geometries of temperature estimate from sample 187323 is the product of
magmatic zircon. It is likely that age estimates from these extensive trace element reequilibration during Ediacaran
samples (11861173 Ma) correspond to the timing of metamorphism, eradicating the preexisting magmatic ther-
granulite facies metamorphism during the Musgravian mal imprint. The ghost zoning preserved by several of its
Orogeny (12301150 Ma) [Camacho et al., 1997; Edgoose recrystallized rims (Figure 6e), a feature not exhibited by
et al., 2004; Wade et al., 2008; Smithies et al., 2009], sample 155735, indicates that at a bare minimum the slug-
throughout which the voluminous Pitjantjatjara Supersuite gish REE have undergone diffusion [Cherniak et al.,
lithologies were emplaced. An older age cluster from sample 1997b]. Furthermore, Th/U ratios demonstrate extensive
184464 (circa 1250 Ma) does not appear to correspond to partitioning of Th away from zircon cores (Figure 9), and
any distinctive CL domains, and may be representative of there is strong agreement between the Ti thermometry of rim
inherited xenocrystic grains. domains and Zr thermometry of titanites from the same
sample (Table 7). The problem of temperature inheritance is
7.2. Thermal and Fluid Conditions Associated not as significant in this case, given that petrological (e.g.,
With Intracontinental Reworking Figures 4c and 4d), compositional and geochronologic evi-
[42] Experimental data indicate that Zr diffusivity in tita- dence confirms that the titanites have grown during shearing
nite is slower than Pb but faster than REE [Cherniak, 2006; [Raimondo et al., 2009]. Peak temperatures associated with
Watson et al., 2006b]. These diffusivity rates imply that intracontinental reworking are hence constrained at 734
titanite should be retentive of Zr chemical signatures 750C.
imprinted during crystallization and relatively robust to [45] The overall scarcity of Ediacaran zircon recrystalli-
later thermal disruption. All temperature estimates obtained zation throughout the Bates region suggests that the condi-
using the Zrinsphene thermometer are thus interpreted to tions of mylonitic reworking were dominantly anhydrous
represent the conditions of titanite growth. With this in during the Petermann Orogeny. Zircon growth or resetting
mind, their generally good agreement with THERMOCALC was suppressed due to a lack of fluid infiltration, limiting
average T temperature estimates (Table 7) reinforces the disturbance to Mesoproterozoic UPb systematics. This is
suggestion that titanite formation occurred at peak meta- consistent with several other studies of the Musgrave Block
morphic conditions (734750C). that note the generally fluidpoor nature of its shear systems
[43] Diffusion of Ti in zircon is slower than both Pb and [e.g., Clarke et al., 1995; Camacho et al., 1997; Scrimgeour
REE, and also slower than Zr in titanite, implying an even and Close, 1999]. Nevertheless, discrete shear zones may
greater resistance to thermally driven diffusive alteration and have been associated with elevated fluid influx caused by a
Figure 10. Simplified geology of the northwestern Musgrave Block, showing the regional arrangement of elongation
lineations (equalarea, lower hemisphere stereonets) and associated kinematics (black arrows), and the location of geochro-
nology and thermobarometry samples. Also shown are the orientations and polarities of gross kinematic vectors (red dou-
blebarbed arrows) across the orogenic core and the adjacent upper crustal sections in the footwall of the Woodroffe Thrust.
Inferred northern boundary of the channel flow zone (green shaded area) represents the regional extent of predominant
NE/SW plunging lineation arrays and pervasively sheared and partially melted rocks. The southern boundary is represented
by the Mann Fault: discrete lowgrade shear zones with toptotheN kinematics occur south of this location, beyond map
limits. All PT estimates sourced from Clarke et al. [1995], White and Clarke [1997] and Scrimgeour and Close [1999]. For
geochronology data sources, see Table 8. Map adapted from Scrimgeour et al. [1999], Howard et al. [2006], Liu et al. [2006]
and Raimondo et al. [2009]. Inset shows intracratonic basins and major tectonic elements of central and western Australia;
AB, Arunta Block; AMB, Amadeus Basin; GB, Georgina Basin; MB, Musgrave Block; NB, Ngalia Basin; OB, Officer
Basin. Modified from Camacho and McDougall [2000].
65
Figure 11. Proposed strain partitioning models for mylonitic shear zones that display rotated lineation
arrays between predominant NE/SW orientations and oblique NS alignments. (a) Lowstrain rock
packages, showing the development of N/S plunging elongation lineations and symmetrical flattening
fabrics consistent with noncoaxial (pure shear) strain. (b) Highstrain rock packages, showing the devel-
opment of NE/SW plunging elongation lineations and asymmetric shear structures consistent with rota-
tional (simple shear) strain. Also shown are pre and poststrain configurations of the finite strain
ellipsoid in response to both pure and simple shear.
complex pattern of hydrothermal alteration either prior to or conditions of P = 910 kbar and T = 620730C. These
during orogenesis [White and Clarke, 1997; Buick et al., estimates are consistently lower than those obtained from
2001], which produced localized partial melting, diffusion deep crustal mylonites in the western Mann Ranges, adja-
of trace elements (ghost texturing) and recrystallization of cent to the Mann Fault, which fall within the range P = 11
relict magmatic zircons in the solid state. 13 kbar and T = 700770C [Scrimgeour and Close, 1999].
This gradational change may reflect a slightly asymmetric
7.3. Metamorphic Architecture and Exhumation exhumation pattern, with the central orogenic core con-
History taining deeper levels of exposure than the marginal areas.
[46] The pattern of gradually increasing temperatures and [47] The average geothermal gradient (defined here as the
fluctuating pressures between the Woodroffe Thrust and the ratio of temperature over depth) calculated from metamor-
Mann Fault in the Bates region (Figure 5) broadly agrees phic mineral assemblages throughout the Bates region varies
with PT estimates obtained by Clarke et al. [1995] from between 1726C km1 (20C km1 average), assuming a
the same area. It is also consistent with metamorphic trends pressure gradient of 0.3 kbar per kilometer (Table 1). The
documented in surrounding regions of the northwestern lowest estimates are obtained from the immediate hanging
Musgraves (Figure 10) [Raimondo et al., 2009]. Myloni- wall of the Woodroffe Thrust, and become progressively
tized granites from the Umutju region, east of Bates in the higher moving southward, with peak values in the central
immediate hanging wall of the Woodroffe Thrust, record domain comprising Spaghetti Hill and other outcrops to the
66
Table 8. Summary of Existing EdiacaranCambrian Geochronologic Data From the Northwestern Musgrave Block
Age (Ma) Method Location Reference
565 9 KAr hornblende Umutju region Scrimgeour et al. [1999]
561 11a SHRIMP UPb zircon (rim) Umutju region Scrimgeour et al. [1999]
555 7a SHRIMP UPb zircon (rim) Western Mann Ranges Gregory et al. [2009]
559 6a SHRIMP ThPb allanite (core) Western Mann Ranges Gregory et al. [2009]
551 6a SHRIMP ThPb allanite (rim) Western Mann Ranges Gregory et al. [2009]
494 59 SmNd mineral isochron Eastern Mann Ranges Scrimgeour et al. [1999]
550 11a SmNd mineral isochron Olia Chain Close et al. [2003]; Edgoose et al. [2004]
circa 570a RbSr biotite Pottoyu Hills Scrimgeour et al. [1999]
circa 600a RbSr biotite Pottoyu Hills Scrimgeour et al. [1999]
568 5a KAr muscovite Petermann Ranges Scrimgeour et al. [1999]
586 5a KAr muscovite Petermann Ranges Scrimgeour et al. [1999]
572 7a SHRIMP UPb titanite Bates region Raimondo et al. [2009]
573 14a SHRIMP UPb titanite Bates region Raimondo et al. [2009]
552 12 SHRIMP UPb titanite Bates region Raimondo et al. [2009]
539 4 SHRIMP UPb titanite Bates region Raimondo et al. [2009]
568 12a SHRIMP UPb zircon (rim) Bates region This study
574 5a LAICPMS UPb zircon (rim) Bates region This study
a
Synkinematic ages (see Raimondo et al. [2009] for a discussion of synkinematic versus cooling ages from various parts of the Petermann Orogen).
west. All estimates are comparable to gradients obtained orogenesis [Collins and Pisarevsky, 2005; Aitken and Betts,
from the Mann Ranges (17C km 1) [Scrimgeour and 2009a].
Close, 1999] and the Musgrave Ranges (1618C km1)
[Camacho et al., 1997], situated in the same crustal block 7.4. Mechanisms for RegionalScale Kinematic
between the Woodroffe Thrust and the Mann Fault (Figures Partitioning
1 and 10). Such low average values are comparable to [49] The structural organization of the hanging wall of the
current stable cratonic geotherms, implying that the deep Woodroffe Thrust must play a key role in any attempt to
crust did not undergo a significant transient thermal per- explain the dynamics of the Petermann Orogeny. Primarily,
turbation during the Petermann Orogeny, and that cooling this is because the existence of consistent toptotheSW
subsequent to peak metamorphism was dominantly con- (normalsense) kinematics along the western margin of this
trolled by exhumation [Camacho et al., 1997; Scrimgeour region appears incompatible with the macroscopic orogenic
and Close, 1999]. architecture: there is unequivocal evidence that the majority
[48] An estimate of the approximate cooling rate during of shortening was accommodated by toptotheN over-
exhumation can be determined using the thermal and tem- thrusting of a deep crustal wedge [Aitken et al., 2009a,
poral separation between titanite crystallization and subse- 2009b]. Kinematics throughout the central and eastern parts
quent Pb closure. If the age and Zr temperature estimates of the orogen are consistent with reverse dipslip movement
from grains with large (500 mm) diffusive radii (187323 along the south dipping Woodroffe Thrust [Scrimgeour and
and 187337) are interpreted to represent the timing and Close, 1999; Scrimgeour et al., 1999; Edgoose et al., 2004;
metamorphic conditions of titanite crystallization [Raimondo Flttmann et al., 2004]. Furthermore, a crustalscale thrust
et al., 2009], then a constraint of 734 20750 24C stack located in its footwall (the Petermann Nappe Complex)
(714774C) can be placed at circa 570 Ma. Similarly, if incorporates interleaved basement and cover successions
the age determined from grains with smaller (200 mm) that contact essentially undeformed foreland sequences
diffusive radii (184495) corresponds to the timing of cooling along the southern margin of the Amadeus Basin (Figures 1
below Pb closure, then a constraint of 600660C can be and 10).
placed at circa 540 Ma [Frost et al., 2001; Cherniak and [50] At present, there is no evidence that kinematic par-
Watson, 2001]. This implies a temperature drop of 54 titioning in the deep orogenic core is the product of multiple
174C in 30 Myr at an average rate of 1.85.8C/Myr, deformation episodes. First, no overprinting relationships
indicative of nearisobaric cooling. It is comparable to esti- are observed in mylonitic shear zones that record normal
mates obtained from the Musgrave Ranges using the dis- sense kinematics, either in the Bates region or the western
crepancy between garnet (SmNd) and muscovite/biotite/ Mann Ranges. The existence of scattered regional linea-
Kfeldspar (40Ar39Ar) closure, which suggest an average tion patterns in these areas, particularly the clusters of N/S
cooling rate of 3C/Myr between 630 and 520 Ma, and plunging orientations, may argue for oblique and temporally
4C/Myr between 525 and 490 Ma [Camacho et al., 1997]. distinct toptotheN transport vectors that are difficult
These constraints are consistent with the exhumation history to identify given the limited outcrop available. Indeed, a
of the Petermann Orogen being dominantly controlled by deficiency of our current understanding of the kinematic
slow average convergence rates of <2 mm/yr [Camacho et framework of the Petermann Orogen is that a definitive shift
al., 1997; Haines et al., 2001; Sandiford et al., 2001], pos- between the opposing shear directions has not been mapped
sibly reflecting the relatively minor scale of contemporane- in detail. However, careful field observations at Spaghetti
ous plate margin activity accompanying intracontinental Hill and Heathers Hill (Figures 2 and 3) indicate that N/S
67
68
Chapter 3
Figure 12. Conceptual cross section (XX) through the western margin of the Petermann Orogen, with superimposed par-
ticle paths, metamorphic isograds, shear couples and strain distribution markers showing the exhumation of a lower crustal
channel between the Woodroffe Thrust and the Mann Fault. Also shown are descriptions of the major metamorphic and
structural discontinuities that define the channel margins, and the lateral distribution of geochronologic data and PT esti-
mates. See Figures 1 and 10 for section line location. Adapted from Edgoose et al. [2004] and Raimondo et al. [2009].
plunging lineations are hosted within shear zones that also Camacho et al., 1997; Scrimgeour et al., 1999; Camacho
contain exclusively toptotheSW kinematics, with evi- and McDougall, 2000; Edgoose et al., 2004; Gregory et
dence of their gradual rotation to oblique orientations rather al., 2009], where no suggestion of multiple events has
than truncation or superposition. Furthermore, their rotation been identified. Furthermore, within the context of the
can be correlated with distinct strain gradients, suggesting Petermann Orogeny as a whole (600530 Ma), the com-
that they developed simultaneously in response to progres- paratively early timing of normalsense shearing and peak
sive strain partitioning (Figure 11) [Curtis, 1998; Bailey et metamorphism rules out the possibility of late to post
al., 2004; Pereira and Silva, 2004]. Highstrain zones are orogenic extensional collapse [e.g., Coney and Harms,
dominated by simple shear, and feature rotational kinemat- 1984; Platt and Vissers, 1989; Fossen, 2000] as a mecha-
ics and elongation lineations parallel to the bulk shearing nism for regional kinematic inversion.
vector (NE/SW). Alternatively, lowstrain zones are domi-
nated by pure shear, and involve a component of extension 7.5. Anatomy and Tectonic Evolution of the Petermann
oblique to the shortening direction and parallel to the ex- Orogen
trusion direction of fold hinges (N/S). The gradual rotation [54] The plausible existence of a regionalscale coeval
of linear markers is thus interpreted to represent an incre- kinematic reversal in the highgrade orogenic core of the
mental change in orientation of the principal axes of the Petermann Orogen is reminiscent of the structural arrange-
finite strain ellipsoid in response to variable strain intensity ment of the HimalayanTibetan system, which appears
[Fossen and Tikoff, 1993, 1998; Jiang et al., 2001]. The to be dominantly shaped by the gravitationally driven flow
maximum principal strain (X) axis is parallel to the bulk of midcrustal material [Clark and Royden, 2000; Searle
shearing direction (NE/SW) within a simple shear system, and Szulc, 2005; Goscombe et al., 2006; Hodges, 2006;
and oblique (N/S) within a pure shear system. Klemperer, 2006]. Using this analogy, Raimondo et al.
[51] The absence of structural criteria for separate defor- [2009] argued that despite its unusual intracontinental set-
mational phases is reinforced by the available geochrono- ting, the macroscopic structural, metamorphic and kinematic
logic and metamorphic data. Raimondo et al. [2009] architecture of the Petermann Orogen closely matches
compiled all existing synkinematic age constraints from recently advanced channel flow models [e.g., Bird, 1991;
western margin of the Petermann Orogen (Table 8 and Nelson et al., 1996; Beaumont et al., 2001, 2004].
Figure 10), and argued that samples with toptotheN [55] A characteristic architectural feature of Petermann
kinematics encompass the range 586550 Ma, while titanite Orogen consistent with channel flow models is the discrete
growth ages indicate that toptotheSW shearing was shift in strain gradient and metamorphic grade across the
coeval at circa 570 Ma. The zircon recrystallization ages structures that bound its deep orogenic core from the sur-
presented in this study lend further weight to this inference, rounding upper crustal blocks (Figures 10 and 12). The
constraining the timing of peak metamorphism and perva- hanging wall of the Woodroffe Thrust is characterized by
sive toptotheSW mylonitic deformation at circa 570 Ma. pervasive lowangle mylonitic deformation, highgrade
Normalsense shearing within the pervasively deformed metamorphism and widespread partial melting. In contrast,
orogenic core therefore spanned a similar temporal spread its footwall and the area south of the Mann Fault contain
to north vergent thrusting in the adjacent middle to upper discrete, lowgrade shear zones. This segmented structural
crustal sections, ranging from circa 570 Ma in the Bates and metamorphic organization is matched by a large varia-
region to circa 555 Ma in the western Mann Ranges. tion in crustal thickness between the foreland and hinterland
[52] The overlap of age data from the orogenic core is of the orogen. Exhumation varies from 4045 km in the
relatively broad and associated with large uncertainties, orogenic core to essentially zero at the southern margin of
meaning that the definitive identification of coeval kine- the Amadeus Basin, which has undergone little deformation
matic partitioning probably falls outside the resolution of the aside from flexure [Scrimgeour and Close, 1999; Flttmann
currently available data. However, this deficiency is miti- et al., 2004]. Coupled with the fact that the crust currently
gated by good agreement between the metamorphic histories underlying the eroded orogen is 40 km thick [Lambeck and
of samples with opposing kinematics. The PT patterns and Burgess, 1992; Aitken et al., 2009a, 2009b], this suggests
field gradients of the Bates region closely correspond with that the scale and configuration of the orogen was sufficient
trends established in both the western (toptotheSW) and to generate the horizontal gradient in lithostatic pressure
eastern (toptotheN) Mann Ranges (Figure 10) [Scrimgeour necessary to drive lower crustal flow [Godin et al., 2006;
and Close, 1999; Edgoose et al., 2004]. In addition, poly- Jones et al., 2006; Searle et al., 2006]. We therefore propose
metamorphic reaction textures are entirely absent from mylo- that gravitational loading via thrustassisted crustal thick-
nitic lithologies throughout the orogenic core, reinforcing field ening in the hinterland produced lateral escape of lower
observations of an absence of reactivation or overprinting crustal material toward the western orogenic margin. Ductile
events. migmatitic material was translated at a different rate to net
[53] There is no evidence, therefore, for thermal or de- thrust displacement toward the north, and interacted with the
formational pulses that could be correlated with the oppos- relatively rigid upper crustal sections in the footwall of the
ing kinematic expressions along the western margin of the Woodroffe Thrust to generate shortening orthogonal to its
Petermann Orogen. This agrees with additional geochrono- curved fault trace. This produced broad fold corrugations
logic studies of its central and eastern parts [Maboko et al., throughout the Bates region and the western Mann Ranges
1992; Camacho and Fanning, 1995; Sun et al., 1996; (Figures 1 and 10), and pervasive mylonitic shear zones
69
whose kinematic polarity is decoupled from the bulk tec- amounts of supporting evidence to be conclusively recog-
tonic transport of the orogenic system. nized. This problem is particularly acute for ancient orogens
[56] An additional striking similarity between the Peter- (such as the Petermann Orogen), because the transient
mann and HimalayanTibetan Orogens is the correspon- geodynamic and geophysical data sets that support active
dence between the average geothermal gradients of their channel flow in modern orogens are entirely absent. As a
exhumed orogenic cores. Both systems are characterized by result, any deficiencies or ambiguities in the available struc-
relatively cool values (2035C km1) typical of colli- tural, metamorphic and geochronologic data are exacerbated.
sional orogens [Camacho et al., 1997; Scrimgeour and [59] However, the reality of studying orogenic systems is
Close, 1999; Goscombe and Hand, 2000; Goscombe et al., that the quantity and quality of fieldbased evidence is
2006]. They contrast markedly to extensional accretionary ultimately constrained by the extent of outcrop, the preser-
orogens, which involve significant thermal input from vation of primary orogenic structures and the range of
magmatic sources, elevating geothermal gradients and crustal exposure. This means that diagnostic criteria for any
maintaining thin crust [Collins, 2002; Dewey, 2005; Brown, orogenic model, including channel flow, will inevitably be
2009]. The rheological structure of collisional orogens is imperfectly satisfied. In the case of the Petermann Orogen,
therefore probably reflected by their intracontinental coun- we believe that the available data, when taken as a whole,
terparts, leading to similar deformational responses. For ex- are best explained by the channel flow model. Some gaps
ample, they are both capable of supporting thick, broad and deficiencies in our current knowledge remain, such as
crustal wedges and sustaining large variations in crustal those documented above. In particular, structural relation-
thickness during shortening. Likewise, both types are asso- ships at the outcrop scale are quite complex and limited by
ciated with slow average cooling rates and relatively long overall poor exposure, and the usefulness of geochronologic
lived orogenic cycles [Camacho et al., 1997; Kohn, 2008]. data is affected by large uncertainties. Nevertheless, at a
[57] Nevertheless, there are some features of the Peter- regional scale, the unambiguous metamorphic record of a
mann Orogen not shared by the HimalayanTibetan system, deep orogenic core being emplaced northward along the
and arguably nondiagnostic of channel flow [e.g., Godin et Woodroffe Thrust fundamentally disagrees with the wide-
al., 2006; Jones et al., 2006]. First, the metamorphic record spread existence of toptotheSW kinematics in the lower
of gravity spreading is not easily distinguished from the bulk crust. The gross transpressional architecture of the Peter-
exhumation history of the orogen. Thermobarometric data mann Orogen, coupled with the exhumation of pervasive
do not readily indicate if the migmatitic core has been normalsense mylonitic fabrics in the hanging wall of its
subjected to substantial stretching and vertical thinning. major crustalscale thrust, necessitates that these shear
Although there is some evidence for peak pressures in the structures cannot be interpreted as extensional [Ring and
central domain relative to its margins (Figure 5), the pres- Glodny, 2010]. This unequivocal relationship is the best
sure gradient is not anomalously high, and is subject to the argument against the suitability of alternative orogenic
relatively large errors associated with THERMOCALC mechanisms such as lateorogenic transtension or synoro-
average P estimates. We suggest that the absence of more genic extensional collapse [e.g., Dewey, 1988; Krabbendam
significant pressure variations may be due to thermal and Dewey, 1998; Gilotti and McClelland, 2008]. On the
thickening of the channel via heating of its wall rocks. This other hand, the macroscopic structural, metamorphic and
process is necessary in order for the channel to move, but kinematic architecture of the Petermann Orogen compares
involves recrystallization of the channel envelope, thereby quite favorably with the HimalayanTibetan system in sev-
obscuring the pressure gradient. Additionally, it is likely that eral crucial respects, suggesting that in the absence of more
the estimates provided by thermobarometers depend on detailed data sets, the channel flow hypothesis is at the very
grain size and the local strain variations that are associated least a viable one.
with any thinning. These variables significantly control re-
crystallization rates and diffusive behavior, making strict
calculation of pressure gradients subject to considerable 8. Conclusion
uncertainty except for cases where prograde mineral com- [60] The Petermann Orogen is a significant intraconti-
positions are preserved. Given that channel flow behavior is nental deformational zone active during EdiacaranCam-
most likely to occur in high temperature rocks, it is rela- brian times. It exposes an almost complete crustal section.
tively unlikely that these criteria would be satisfied in The orogenic core in the hanging wall of the Woodroffe
enough parts of a channel to demonstrate an anomalous Thrust is characterized by pervasive mylonitic deformation
pressure gradient. This is especially apparent given that the and low geothermal gradient metamorphism that formed at
pressure gradient effectively records the hightemperature deep crustal levels (P = 1014 kbar and T = 700800C),
stretching deformation in the channel that is associated with while the adjacent foreland basin remains essentially unde-
recrystallization. formed and unmetamorphosed. Peak metamorphic condi-
[58] A second criticism is that several of the requirements tions were attained at circa 570 Ma, followed by slow
of channel flow models are equally compatible with alter- cooling to 600660C by circa 540 Ma at an average rate
native orogenic models such as critical taper [Kohn, 2008], of 1.85.8C/Myr.
wedge and general shear extrusion [Burchfiel and Royden, [61] A range of features consistent with channel flow
1985; Vannay and Grasemann, 2001; Vannay et al., 2004] models suggest that north vergent emplacement of a broad
and tectonic wedging [Webb et al., 2007]. The diagnostic crustal wedge along the Woodroffe Thrust involved sub-
features of channel flow zones therefore require prohibitive stantial flow of deep crustal material. These features include:
70
regionalscale lowangle shear fabrics that record opposing tween the structural geometry, metamorphic petrogenesis
shear senses; a pervasively deformed, highgrade orogenic and kinematic history of the Petermann and Himalayan
core bounded by coeval lowgrade, discretely deformed Tibetan Orogens. The macroscopic architecture of both
upper crustal blocks; widespread partial melting throughout systems appears to be profoundly affected by largescale
the orogenic core; broadly synchronous geochronology on ductile flow of lower crustal material. Perhaps unexpectedly,
opposing sets of kinematics; and a significant contrast in this forces the conclusion that an ancient intracontinental
crustal thickness capable of producing the lateral lithostatic orogen is in many ways analogous to the worlds foremost
gradient necessary to drive crustal flow. It is thus interpreted modern collisional orogen. In general terms, then, the source
that gravitational loading of the orogen by thrustassisted of stress in continental interiors may remain enigmatic, but
crustal thickening in the hinterland induced lateral spreading the basic anatomy of orogens in these settings is familiar
of lower crustal material toward the western orogenic mar- from our acquaintance with their plate margin counterparts.
gin, resulting in pervasive normalsense shearing and an
arcuate thrust trace geometry.
[62] Taken holistically, the above points suggest that [63] Acknowledgments. Thanks are due to the Ngaanyatjarra Coun-
intracontinental and collisional orogens share similar evo- cil and the people of the Blackstone and Wingellina communities for allow-
lutionary features. Their spatial and temporal scales, overall ing access to their lands and to the Geological Survey of Western Australia
for providing logistical support for fieldwork. Simon Bodorkos and Mike
cooling histories, average geothermal gradients, levels of Wingate are thanked for their help with SHRIMP analysis; Ben Wade
exhumation and extent of crustal thickening are closely and Justin Payne for their contributions to LAICPMS analysis; Dave Kelsey,
matched. Despite its significant displacement from plate Rodney King, and Mike Belperio for field assistance; and Dot Close and
margin interactions, therefore, intracontinental crust appears Ian Scrimgeour for supplying structural data from the NT Musgraves.
capable of entertaining deformational responses comparable We are grateful to Bill Collins, Bob Miller, and an anonymous reviewer
for detailed and constructive reviews that greatly improved this paper.
to collisional orogenic belts, most likely by virtue of its R.H.S., P.M.E., and H.M.H. publish with the permission of the Executive
similar thermal and rheological structure. This inference is Director of GSWA. Funding for this work was provided by ARC linkage
emphasized by the remarkably close correspondence be- grant LP0560887. This publication is TRaX record 84.
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Growth, annealing and recrystallization of zircon sion, Geol. Mag., 138(3), 253276, doi:10.1017/ for Tectonics, Resources and Exploration, School of
and preservation of monazite in highgrade meta- S0016756801005313. Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of
morphism: Conventional and insitu UPb isotope, Vannay, J.C., B. Grasemann, M. Rahn, W. Frank, Adelaide, Adelaide SA 5005, Australia. (thomas.
cathodoluminescence and microchemical evidence, A. Carter, V. Baudraz, and M. Cosca (2004), Miocene raimondo@adelaide.edu.au)
Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., 134(23), 186201, to Holocene exhumation of metamorphic crustal P. M. Evins, Swedish Museum of Natural History,
doi:10.1007/s004100050478. wedges in the NW Himalaya: Evidence for tectonic Box 50007, SE104 05 Stockholm, Sweden.
Scrimgeour, I. R., and D. F. Close (1999), Regional extrusion coupled to fluvial erosion, Tectonics, 23, H. M. Howard and R. H. Smithies, Geological
highpressure metamorphism during intracratonic TC1014, doi:10.1029/2002TC001429. Survey of Western Australia, Mineral House, 100
deformation: The Petermann Orogeny, central Aus- Wade, B. P., M. Hand, and K. M. Barovich (2005), Nd Plain St., East Perth WA 6004, Australia.
tralia, J. Metamorph . Geol., 17, 557 572, isotopic and geochemical constraints on provenance A. WalkerHallam, Heathgate Resources, Level 4,
doi:10.1046/j.1525-1314.1999.00217.x. of sedimentary rocks in the eastern Officer Basin, 25 Grenfell St., Adelaide SA 5000, Australia.
Australia: Implications for the duration of the intra-
73
TEXT S1 University of Adelaide. An operating voltage of 20 keV

was used and standard cathodoluminescence (CL) and
Summary of the mineral chemistry of all samples from backscattered electron (BSE) imaging techniques were
the Bates region used for THERMOCALC average PT applied to investigate internal zonation. Sample 155735
estimates was also evaporatively coated with about 500 nm of
high-purity gold for use on the SHRIMP.
Garnet has a relatively homogeneous composition in
all samples. It is typically an almandinegrossular- S2.2. SHRIMP operating procedures and data
dominated solid solution, with XFe (Fe/Fe+Ca+Mg+Mn) reduction
= 0.540.60 and XCa (Ca/Fe+Ca+Mg+Mn) = 0.190.33.
UThPb analysis of zircon was conducted using
Pyrope and spessartine are correspondingly low, with
SHRIMP II at the John de Laeter Centre for Mass
XMg (Mg/Fe+Ca+Mg+Mn) = 0.090.15 and XMn (Mn/
Spectrometry, Curtin University of Technology, Perth.
Fe+Ca+Mg+Mn) = 0.020.06.
Detailed operating procedures for SHRIMP analysis
Biotite is uniformly Ti-rich, with XTi (Ti/
are outlined by Compston et al. [1992] and Williams
Fe+Mg+AlVI+Ti) = 0.040.13 based on eleven oxygen
[1998]. A beam diameter of 30 >m was used. Prior
atoms. XFe (Fe/Fe+Mg+AlVI+Ti) and XMg typically vary
to analysis, each spot was rastered with the ion beam
between 0.320.52 and 0.370.59, respectively. XAlVI
for 3 minutes at 160 nA, in order to remove the gold
is predominantly low (< 0.02), as is XNa (Na/Na+K) (<
#
' %
0.02).
were then run for each spot with 25 nanoseconds dead
^

time, and the results were averaged. UPb fractionation
amphibole group [Leake et al., 1997], having CaB >1.50,
was corrected using the CZ3 standard [Pidgeon et al.,
NaB < 0.50 and (Ca+Na)B'!@'^ %
1994; De Laeter and Kennedy, 1998; Nasdala et al.,
(Na+K)A@'!@&@'!@ |!'XX>?'[@&
2008], and data reduction was completed using SQUID
fall within the pargasiteferropargasite subgroup on a
software [Ludwig, 2001].
plot of XMg (Mg/Mg+Fe2+) vs. Si per formula unit. Most
Appreciable fractions of common Pb were detected
samples are typically magnesian, with XMg = 0.400.56.
for sample 155735, with average f 204 values (i.e.,
Metamorphic plagioclase is invariably sodic for
the fraction of common 206Pb in total 206Pb, based on
all samples, with XAb (Na/Na+Ca) = 0.740.84, and
measured 204Pb/206Pb) ranging from 0.238.57 (Table
the albite content of K-feldspar is typically low, with
3). This is considerably higher than that contributed
XAb (Na/Na+K) = 0.050.13. Orthoclase content in
from the mount surface, estimated from the proportion
plagioclase is never greater than 2%, while anorthite
of common Pb in the CZ3 standard (313 ppb), and
content within K-feldspar is negligible (< 0.5%).
+
# 207Pb/206Pb
Ilmenite is an ilmenitehematite solid solution,
ages. Common Pb corrections were applied to all zircon
with XIlm (Ti/Ti + Fe3+) = 0.901.00 and XMn (Mn/
analyses using SQUID software, with contemporaneous
Fe+Mg+Mn) < 0.02. Titanomagnetite is of relatively
common Pb compositions determined following the
uniform composition, with XTi (Ti/Fe+Ti) = 0.140.16.
method of Stacey and Kramers [1975].
TEXT S2 S2.3. LA-ICPMS operating procedures and data

reduction
Sample preparation, operating procedures and data
Additional UThPb analysis of zircon was conducted
reduction methods for SHRIMP and LA-ICPMS UTh
using an Agilent 7500cs ICPMS coupled with a New
Pb analysis
Wave 213 nm NdYAG laser. Ablation was performed
in a helium atmosphere, with a beam diameter of 30 >m,
S2.1. Sample preparation
repetition rate of 5 Hz and laser intensity of 70%. Total
Zircon separation was performed at the University acquisition time for each analysis was 110 seconds,
of Adelaide by a combination of standard crushing, and involved 40 seconds of background measurement,
sieving, panning and heavy liquid techniques. 10 seconds for beam and crystal stabilization, and 60
Approximately 150 representative zircon grains seconds of sample ablation. Other operating conditions
were hand-picked from each sample and mounted in and equipment utilized are outlined by Payne et al.
epoxy resin, with four grains of CZ3 standard added [2006]. UPb fractionation was corrected using the
to the SHRIMP mount (155735). All grains were then GEMOC GJ-1 standard [Jackson et al., 2004], and data
sectioned to approximately half their diameter using a reduction was completed using GLITTER software
combination of 100, 50 and 1 >m polishing cloths. [Van Achterbergh et al., 2001]. Accuracy was also
The polished mounts were imaged using a Philips monitored by repeat analyses of the in-house internal
XL20 SEM with attached Gatan CL detector at the standard Pleovice [Slma et al., 2008].
74
Given the inability of LA-ICPMS to measure were performed on both core and rim domains using
common lead, unknowns from each sample were a 40 >m beam diameter and repetition rate of 5 Hz.
initially corrected using the ComPbCorr Excel macro For sample 155735, spot analyses overprinted existing
[Andersen, 2002]. Using the 3D concordia method, SHRIMP pits, while for sample 187323 they were
negligible common Pb (< 0.5% 206Pb) was detected placed immediately adjacent to laser excavations. Total
for samples 184464, 184468 and 187325. Uncorrected acquisition time for each analysis was 105 seconds,
isotope ratios are thus used in age calculations for these and involved 40 seconds of background measurement,
samples, with concordia plots and discordia chords 10 seconds for beam and crystal stabilization, and
generated using Isoplot/Ex 3.57 [Ludwig, 2003]. Ages 55 seconds of sample ablation. The NIST 610 glass
used for weighted average calculations are 238U/206Pb standard was used for calibration, employing the
ages for analyses younger than 1000 Ma, and 207Pb/206Pb Pearce et al. [1997], and accuracy was
ages for analyses older than 1000 Ma. This distinction monitored via repeat measurements of the NIST 612
is employed due to the well documented reduction in glass standard. Data reduction was then performed
precision of 207Pb/206Pb ages for younger zircons [e.g., using GLITTER software [Van Achterbergh et al.,
Ireland et al., 1998; Collins et al., 2007]. 2001]. Internal calibration for both titanite and zircon
Sample 187323 displayed appreciable was completed using measurements of 43Ca (for titanite)
concentrations of common Pb for analyses < 1000 Ma, and 178Hf (for zircon) obtained via electron microprobe
consistent with SHRIMP analysis of titanites from the analysis (EMPA). Quantitative analyses were run at
same sample [Raimondo et al., 2009]. Unfortunately, the University of Adelaide using a Cameca SX51
large variations in detected common Pb across spot Microprobe with an accelerating voltage of 15 kV and
analyses meant that an effective correction could not beam current of 20 nA. Measurements of Ca and Hf
be applied using ComPbCorr. This is most likely were collected for each corresponding LA-ICPMS
due to a wide discordance in 208Pb/232Th, perhaps as a trace element analysis.
result of secondary Th loss on selected grains during
metamorphism [Andersen, 2002]. The younger age
DATA SET S1
data were thus modeled as a simple two-component
mixture between radiogenic and common leads. Using Representative electron microprobe compositional
this technique, the true end-member compositions analyses of all samples from the Bates region used for
can be determined via linear regression through the THERMOCALC average PT estimates
uncorrected data [Williams, 1998; Frost et al., 2000;
Cox and Wilton, 2006]. Please see tables included at the end of this chapter.
In order to estimate the initial Pb composition,

# $
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76
DATA SET S1*
Sample 155733
Grt Grt Bt Bt Hbl Pl Pl Pl Pl Mag Mag Mag
core rim core rim core core rim core rim
SiO2 37.10 37.11 35.21 35.81 37.96 62.50 62.92 62.10 62.10 0.17 0.02 0.06
TiO2 0.15 0.05 3.53 2.93 1.01 0.01 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.11 0.01 0.05
Al2O3 20.04 20.13 13.64 13.76 12.36 22.56 22.91 23.01 22.40 0.21 0.23 0.21
Cr2O3 0.01 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03
FeO 26.60 25.54 24.78 24.30 24.04 0.05 0.07 0.17 0.13 90.60 92.51 91.07
MnO 1.72 3.94 0.35 0.40 0.58 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.10 0.08
MgO 1.77 1.51 7.81 8.17 5.24 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
CaO 11.19 11.31 0.05 0.00 10.58 4.67 4.69 4.84 4.63 0.00 0.00 0.03
Na2O 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.10 1.60 8.84 8.64 8.53 8.66 0.00 0.00 0.00
K2O 0.01 0.00 9.26 9.33 2.06 0.27 0.29 0.27 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.00
Totals 98.60 99.62 94.76 94.80 95.46 98.99 99.56 99.11 98.18 91.15 92.88 91.53
Oxygens 12 12 11 11 23 8 8 8 8 4 4 4
Si 2.99 2.97 2.79 2.83 6.08 2.80 2.80 2.78 2.80 0.01 0.00 0.00
Ti 0.01 0.00 0.21 0.17 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Al 1.91 1.90 1.28 1.28 2.33 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.19 0.01 0.01 0.01
Cr 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
3+
Fe 0.09 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.54 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 1.97 1.99 1.98
2+
Fe 1.70 1.55 1.64 1.61 2.68 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.01 1.00 1.00
Mn 0.12 0.27 0.02 0.03 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Mg 0.21 0.18 0.92 0.96 1.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ca 0.97 0.97 0.01 0.00 1.82 0.22 0.22 0.23 0.22 0.00 0.00 0.00
Na 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.50 0.77 0.74 0.74 0.76 0.00 0.00 0.00
K 0.00 0.00 0.94 0.94 0.42 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
Sum 8.00 8.00 7.83 7.83 15.82 5.00 4.98 4.99 4.99 3.00 3.00 3.00
Sample 155735
Grt Grt Bt Bt Hbl Hbl Pl Pl Mag Mag
core rim core rim core rim core rim
SiO2 38.85 39.09 37.81 37.22 40.43 40.90 64.67 64.79 0.23 0.06
TiO2 0.03 0.07 1.99 2.33 1.09 1.18 0.05 0.02 0.45 0.17
Al2O3 19.23 19.34 15.42 14.91 13.17 12.78 23.57 23.50 0.34 0.17
Cr2O3 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.09 0.04 0.01
FeO 22.87 22.68 21.78 23.06 22.76 22.75 0.21 0.06 94.12 95.79
MnO 6.67 5.74 0.33 0.50 0.70 0.52 0.01 0.04 0.08 0.00
MgO 1.29 1.25 8.37 8.41 5.69 5.96 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.03
CaO 11.48 12.32 0.09 0.28 10.70 10.61 5.25 4.79 0.21 0.06
Na2O 0.03 0.02 0.12 0.08 1.57 1.59 8.44 8.79 0.00 0.00
K2O 0.00 0.00 8.12 8.99 2.00 1.94 0.16 0.18 0.03 0.00
Totals 100.41 100.52 94.04 95.80 97.87 97.98 102.36 102.25 89.08 89.72
Oxygens 12 12 11 11 23 23 8 8 4 4
Si 3.09 3.10 2.92 2.87 6.25 6.30 2.79 2.80 0.01 0.00
Ti 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01
Al 1.80 1.81 1.41 1.36 2.40 2.32 1.20 1.20 0.02 0.01
Cr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
3+
Fe 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.29 0.29 0.01 0.00 1.94 1.98
2+
Fe 1.50 1.50 1.41 1.49 2.62 2.60 0.00 0.00 1.01 1.00
Mn 0.45 0.39 0.02 0.03 0.09 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Mg 0.15 0.15 0.96 0.97 1.31 1.37 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ca 0.98 1.05 0.01 0.02 1.77 1.75 0.24 0.22 0.01 0.00
Na 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.47 0.47 0.71 0.74 0.00 0.00
K 0.00 0.00 0.80 0.89 0.40 0.38 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
Sum 8.00 8.00 7.67 7.77 15.72 15.69 4.96 4.97 3.00 3.00
* All mineral abbreviations after Kretz [1983].
77
Sample 184464
Grt Grt Bt Bt Hbl Hbl Cpx Cpx Ksp Ksp Pl Pl Mag Spl
core rim core rim core rim core rim core rim core rim
SiO2 37.40 37.54 36.35 36.04 40.57 39.86 50.90 50.14 64.75 63.94 61.94 62.58 0.04 0.05
TiO2 0.05 0.09 4.68 4.28 1.68 1.94 0.18 0.19 0.03 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.08 13.75
Al2O3 21.11 21.01 14.14 14.44 12.13 12.08 3.56 3.48 18.98 18.75 22.55 23.38 0.09 0.07
Cr2O3 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.00
FeO 25.68 25.94 14.68 14.99 16.47 17.88 12.58 11.68 0.32 0.20 0.17 0.07 94.88 77.47
MnO 1.96 1.95 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.15 0.22 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00
MgO 3.66 3.59 14.92 15.39 10.39 10.27 9.84 11.02 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.08
CaO 9.36 9.46 0.06 0.06 11.59 11.24 19.26 20.76 0.03 0.02 3.63 4.60 0.00 0.04
Na2O 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.08 1.54 1.26 2.31 1.68 1.36 1.01 9.14 9.05 0.03 0.00
K2O 0.01 0.00 8.93 8.32 1.72 1.75 0.01 0.02 13.31 14.92 0.22 0.23 0.02 0.01
Totals 99.41 99.78 93.83 93.87 96.41 96.97 99.30 99.84 98.90 98.92 97.85 99.93 102.19 95.38
Oxygens 12 12 11 11 23 23 6 6 8 8 8 8 4 4
Si 2.96 2.97 2.75 2.72 6.20 6.07 1.93 1.89 2.99 2.98 2.80 2.77 0.00 0.00
Ti 0.00 0.01 0.27 0.24 0.19 0.22 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.41
Al 1.97 1.96 1.26 1.28 2.19 2.17 0.16 0.15 1.03 1.03 1.20 1.22 0.00 0.00
Cr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
3+
Fe 0.10 0.10 0.02 0.14 0.35 0.72 0.15 0.19 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 1.99 1.17
Fe2+ 1.60 1.62 0.91 0.80 1.75 1.56 0.25 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 1.41
Mn 0.13 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Mg 0.43 0.42 1.69 1.73 2.37 2.33 0.56 0.62 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01
Ca 0.79 0.80 0.01 0.01 1.90 1.83 0.78 0.84 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.22 0.00 0.00
Na 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.46 0.37 0.17 0.12 0.12 0.09 0.80 0.78 0.00 0.00
K 0.00 0.00 0.86 0.80 0.34 0.34 0.00 0.00 0.78 0.89 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
Sum 8.00 8.00 7.77 7.73 15.74 15.62 4.00 4.00 4.94 5.00 5.00 5.01 3.00 3.00
Sample 184468
Grt Grt Bt Bt Hbl Hbl Cpx Cpx Ksp Ksp Ksp Pl Pl Ilm
core rim core rim core rim core rim core core rim core rim
SiO2 37.27 37.04 34.83 35.54 40.44 40.86 50.17 49.68 63.34 63.45 64.25 63.84 63.45 0.01
TiO2 0.08 0.06 5.42 6.08 1.97 2.05 0.18 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.02 46.18
Al2O3 20.85 20.88 13.54 13.29 12.01 11.63 2.22 3.17 18.43 18.70 18.60 21.85 23.09 0.00
Cr2O3 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
FeO 31.25 28.16 22.90 21.71 20.24 20.24 16.74 14.09 0.18 0.14 0.18 0.15 0.29 50.97
MnO 1.12 1.50 0.04 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.37
MgO 2.74 2.32 9.15 9.01 8.11 8.07 8.83 9.42 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.05
CaO 7.66 9.90 0.04 0.12 11.23 11.18 19.10 20.29 0.01 0.08 0.01 3.29 3.89 0.00
Na2O 0.01 0.00 0.07 0.07 1.76 1.59 1.71 1.50 1.36 0.76 1.10 9.83 9.77 0.00
K2O 0.01 0.03 8.09 9.13 1.74 1.72 0.02 0.01 14.50 14.65 14.88 0.11 0.13 0.00
Totals 101.29 100.13 94.12 95.04 97.86 97.69 99.66 98.94 97.96 97.86 99.06 99.11 100.71 98.69
Oxygens 12 12 11 11 23 23 6 6 8 8 8 8 8 3
Si 2.94 2.95 2.74 2.76 6.20 6.27 1.93 1.91 2.98 2.98 2.99 2.84 2.79 0.00
Ti 0.01 0.00 0.32 0.36 0.23 0.24 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.89
Al 1.94 1.96 1.26 1.22 2.17 2.10 0.10 0.14 1.02 1.04 1.02 1.15 1.20 0.00
Cr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
3+
Fe 0.17 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.26 0.16 0.15 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.21
Fe2+ 1.89 1.72 1.51 1.41 2.31 2.33 0.38 0.31 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.88
Mn 0.08 0.10 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01
Mg 0.32 0.28 1.07 1.04 1.85 1.84 0.51 0.54 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ca 0.65 0.84 0.00 0.01 1.85 1.84 0.79 0.84 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.18 0.00
Na 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.52 0.47 0.13 0.11 0.12 0.07 0.10 0.85 0.83 0.00
K 0.00 0.00 0.81 0.91 0.34 0.34 0.00 0.00 0.87 0.88 0.88 0.01 0.01 0.00
Sum 8.00 8.00 7.72 7.73 15.78 15.71 4.00 4.00 5.00 4.97 4.99 5.01 5.03 2.00
78
Sample 184484
Grt Grt Grt Grt Bt Hbl Hbl Hbl Cpx Cpx Ksp Ksp Ksp Pl Pl Mag Spl
core rim core rim core core rim core core rim core rim core core rim
SiO2 36.87 37.02 36.81 37.05 37.28 41.79 40.58 41.08 51.51 51.85 63.63 64.24 62.90 62.34 59.09 0.02 0.00
TiO2 0.01 0.00 0.21 0.04 5.44 1.81 1.55 1.86 0.13 0.08 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.09 16.23
Al2O3 21.82 21.50 21.23 21.02 13.51 12.10 13.25 11.65 1.65 1.61 18.42 18.50 18.53 24.19 24.01 0.24 0.09
Cr2O3 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.05 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.02 0.17 0.03
FeO 26.60 26.25 27.48 25.49 12.81 12.40 12.76 13.29 8.58 9.33 0.29 0.31 0.17 0.15 1.89 93.95 73.83
MnO 1.19 1.04 2.40 2.37 0.15 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.19 0.15 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.02 0.06
MgO 5.84 6.14 5.57 5.48 15.85 13.65 12.95 12.45 13.76 13.87 0.00 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.38 0.09 0.27
CaO 6.56 6.62 6.71 6.82 0.04 11.72 11.46 11.58 22.13 22.05 0.11 0.08 0.03 5.41 5.17 0.02 0.03
Na2O 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.03 1.53 1.37 1.35 0.83 0.71 1.00 1.17 1.00 8.84 7.18 0.06 0.00
K2O 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.02 9.63 1.72 1.96 1.89 0.00 0.01 14.99 14.83 15.30 0.13 0.33 0.00 0.00
Totals 99.22 98.89 100.89 98.62 94.74 97.32 96.56 95.59 99.20 100.11 98.55 99.24 98.00 101.18 98.29 101.63 93.87
Oxygens 12 12 12 12 11 23 23 23 6 6 8 8 8 8 8 4 4
Si 2.90 2.92 2.87 2.94 2.78 6.18 6.07 6.24 1.93 1.93 2.98 2.98 2.97 2.74 2.68 0.00 0.00
Ti 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.31 0.20 0.18 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.49
Al 2.03 2.00 1.95 1.97 1.19 2.11 2.34 2.09 0.07 0.07 1.02 1.01 1.03 1.25 1.28 0.01 0.00
Cr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00
3+
Fe 0.17 0.17 0.28 0.15 0.00 0.51 0.60 0.40 0.12 0.12 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.07 1.98 1.01
2+
Fe 1.59 1.56 1.52 1.55 0.80 1.02 1.00 1.29 0.15 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.99 1.47
Mn 0.08 0.07 0.16 0.16 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Mg 0.69 0.72 0.65 0.65 1.76 3.01 2.88 2.82 0.77 0.77 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.02
Ca 0.55 0.56 0.56 0.58 0.00 1.86 1.84 1.88 0.89 0.88 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.26 0.25 0.00 0.00
Na 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.44 0.40 0.40 0.06 0.05 0.09 0.11 0.09 0.75 0.63 0.00 0.00
K 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.92 0.32 0.37 0.37 0.00 0.00 0.90 0.88 0.92 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.00
Sum 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 7.78 15.68 15.68 15.69 4.00 4.00 5.00 5.00 5.02 5.01 4.97 3.00 3.00
Sample 184486 B
Grt Grt Grt Bt Bt Bt Ksp Ksp Pl Pl Mag
core rim core core rim core core rim core rim
SiO2 37.38 37.16 37.21 35.92 36.17 35.72 64.04 63.03 63.11 62.31 0.13
TiO2 0.00 0.02 0.03 5.47 5.60 5.21 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.07
Al2O3 21.69 21.11 21.72 14.42 14.42 14.48 18.58 18.48 23.28 23.13 0.15
Cr2O3 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.02
FeO 27.67 27.29 26.36 14.81 15.11 14.98 0.09 0.23 0.23 0.39 93.05
MnO 1.32 1.20 1.01 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01
MgO 5.30 5.22 4.92 13.62 13.67 14.11 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.01
CaO 6.77 7.33 8.20 0.03 0.02 0.06 0.01 0.04 4.38 4.43 0.03
Na2O 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.00 0.84 0.70 9.10 9.12 0.00
K2O 0.00 0.00 0.03 9.29 9.38 9.02 15.24 15.34 0.15 0.14 0.01
Totals 100.46 99.73 99.77 93.67 94.44 93.60 98.84 97.88 100.34 99.64 100.36
Oxygens 12 12 12 11 11 11 8 8 8 8 4
Si 2.92 2.93 2.92 2.74 2.74 2.72 2.99 2.97 2.78 2.77 0.01
Ti 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.31 0.32 0.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Al 2.00 1.96 2.01 1.30 1.29 1.30 1.02 1.03 1.21 1.21 0.01
Cr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
3+
Fe 0.17 0.20 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 1.98
2+
Fe 1.64 1.60 1.58 0.94 0.96 0.96 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00
Mn 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Mg 0.62 0.61 0.58 1.55 1.54 1.60 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ca 0.57 0.62 0.69 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.21 0.21 0.00
Na 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.08 0.06 0.78 0.79 0.00
K 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.91 0.91 0.88 0.91 0.92 0.01 0.01 0.00
Sum 8.00 8.00 8.00 7.76 7.76 7.77 4.99 5.00 5.00 5.01 3.00
79
Sample 185674
Grt Grt Grt Grt Bt Bt Ksp Ksp Ksp Pl Pl Mag Mag Mag
core rim core rim core rim core rim core core rim
SiO2 37.08 36.57 36.62 36.20 38.31 38.30 62.16 64.08 62.73 62.78 62.97 0.12 0.17 0.04
TiO2 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.02 2.42 2.89 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.07 0.05 0.04
Al2O3 21.39 21.38 21.65 20.85 12.13 12.37 18.04 18.41 18.27 23.05 22.88 0.08 0.10 0.01
Cr2O3 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
FeO 28.44 27.13 27.90 28.14 15.80 15.48 0.05 0.00 0.03 0.13 0.16 92.00 92.97 94.55
MnO 1.44 1.66 1.39 1.57 0.03 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.02 0.05
MgO 4.12 3.94 3.92 3.64 16.08 15.37 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00
CaO 7.19 7.47 7.66 7.65 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.00 3.76 3.56 0.03 0.03 0.02
Na2O 0.09 0.06 0.00 0.03 0.08 0.08 0.97 1.01 0.91 8.55 8.90 0.07 0.06 0.21
K2O 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.04 9.36 9.21 15.28 15.03 15.02 0.13 0.12 0.02 0.06 0.03
Totals 100.04 98.45 99.44 98.53 94.49 93.89 96.55 98.65 96.98 98.40 98.70 99.23 100.35 102.06
Oxygens 12 12 12 12 11 11 8 8 8 8 8 4 4 4
Si 2.93 2.93 2.91 2.91 2.89 2.91 2.98 2.99 2.98 2.81 2.81 0.01 0.01 0.00
Ti 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Al 1.99 2.02 2.03 1.98 1.08 1.11 1.02 1.01 1.02 1.22 1.20 0.00 0.00 0.00
Cr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
3+
Fe 0.17 0.13 0.15 0.20 0.15 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 1.99 1.99 2.01
Fe2+ 1.71 1.69 1.70 1.69 0.85 0.93 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.99 0.99 0.97
Mn 0.10 0.11 0.09 0.11 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Mg 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.44 1.81 1.74 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ca 0.61 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.00
Na 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.74 0.77 0.01 0.00 0.02
K 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.90 0.89 0.93 0.90 0.91 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
Sum 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 7.82 7.80 5.03 5.00 5.00 4.96 4.97 3.00 3.00 3.00
Sample 185679
Grt Grt Grt Grt Bt Bt Bt Ksp Ksp Ksp Pl Pl Mag Spl
core rim rim core core core rim core rim core core rim
SiO2 37.74 37.72 37.42 37.72 40.15 40.58 39.17 64.62 67.39 64.07 64.27 63.88 0.06 0.08
TiO2 0.03 0.00 0.03 0.05 0.27 0.31 1.68 0.04 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.02 14.91
Al2O3 21.50 21.78 21.66 21.48 13.20 13.00 13.51 18.61 16.57 18.54 22.84 22.47 0.24 0.05
Cr2O3 0.03 0.06 0.02 0.08 0.04 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09
FeO 28.49 29.35 29.21 27.78 9.05 8.29 9.09 0.24 0.19 0.60 0.05 0.09 93.92 76.27
MnO 0.70 0.75 0.84 1.08 0.06 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.37
MgO 5.92 5.76 5.19 5.11 22.77 22.85 20.71 0.02 0.02 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.06
CaO 5.49 5.08 4.72 7.02 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.08 3.67 3.41 0.00 0.08
Na2O 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.11 0.93 0.63 1.86 9.75 10.02 0.04 0.00
K2O 0.33 0.00 0.05 0.00 9.63 9.52 9.59 14.85 14.30 14.02 0.15 0.08 0.02 0.02
Totals 100.53 100.71 99.24 100.59 95.39 94.90 94.03 99.35 99.18 99.51 100.73 99.95 101.29 95.63
Oxygens 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 8 8 8 8 8 4 4
Si 2.94 2.94 2.96 2.94 2.90 2.93 2.87 2.99 3.10 2.97 2.82 2.82 0.00 0.00
Ti 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.44
Al 1.97 2.00 2.02 1.98 1.12 1.11 1.17 1.02 0.90 1.01 1.18 1.17 0.01 0.00
Cr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
3+
Fe 0.17 0.12 0.06 0.13 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 1.99 1.10
2+
Fe 1.68 1.80 1.88 1.68 0.46 0.43 0.47 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 1.43
Mn 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01
Mg 0.69 0.67 0.61 0.60 2.45 2.46 2.26 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ca 0.46 0.42 0.40 0.59 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.16 0.00 0.00
Na 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.08 0.06 0.17 0.83 0.86 0.00 0.00
K 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.89 0.88 0.90 0.88 0.84 0.83 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
Sum 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 7.93 7.91 7.87 4.98 4.90 5.01 5.01 5.02 3.00 3.00
80
Sample 187305
Grt Grt Bt Bt Hbl Hbl Ksp Ksp Ksp Pl Pl Mag Ilm
core rim core rim core rim core rim core core rim
SiO2 36.50 36.81 36.20 36.01 39.36 39.36 64.07 63.70 63.66 62.25 62.07 0.09 0.03
TiO2 0.03 0.04 4.12 4.18 1.22 1.49 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.09 51.30
Al2O3 20.40 20.71 13.73 13.36 12.09 12.27 18.70 18.56 18.35 23.71 23.42 0.27 0.00
Cr2O3 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00
FeO 28.50 27.91 21.58 21.58 21.24 21.29 0.18 0.20 0.30 1.41 1.30 95.40 45.12
MnO 2.66 3.67 0.23 0.11 0.25 0.23 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.06 1.29
MgO 1.94 1.73 10.12 10.40 7.37 7.18 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.06
CaO 9.88 9.53 0.02 0.00 11.08 11.14 0.01 0.00 0.02 4.81 4.47 0.01 0.02
Na2O 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.06 1.77 1.71 1.18 1.05 1.02 8.59 8.37 0.00 0.00
K2O 0.00 0.00 9.36 9.31 2.02 1.97 14.95 14.66 15.01 0.13 0.17 0.02 0.00
Totals 100.39 100.82 95.42 95.02 96.80 96.98 99.15 98.22 98.55 99.56 98.62 103.02 97.86
Oxygens 12 12 11 11 23 23 8 8 8 8 8 4 3
Si 2.91 2.93 2.80 2.80 6.15 6.14 2.98 2.98 2.98 2.77 2.78 0.00 0.00
Ti 0.00 0.00 0.24 0.24 0.14 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00
Al 1.92 1.94 1.25 1.22 2.23 2.26 1.02 1.02 1.01 1.24 1.24 0.01 0.00
Cr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
3+
Fe 0.26 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.43 0.38 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 1.98 0.01
Fe2+ 1.64 1.65 1.40 1.40 2.35 2.40 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.97
Mn 0.18 0.25 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03
Mg 0.23 0.21 1.17 1.21 1.72 1.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ca 0.85 0.81 0.00 0.00 1.86 1.86 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.23 0.22 0.00 0.00
Na 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.54 0.52 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.74 0.73 0.00 0.00
K 0.00 0.00 0.93 0.92 0.40 0.39 0.89 0.88 0.90 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
Sum 8.00 8.00 7.80 7.81 15.85 15.82 5.00 4.99 5.00 4.99 4.97 3.00 2.00
Sample 187314
Grt Grt Bt Bt Bt Bt Ksp Ksp Pl Pl Mag Mag
core rim core rim core rim core rim core rim
SiO2 37.14 36.76 35.74 34.89 35.21 34.31 64.69 64.76 62.11 61.77 5.07 1.00
TiO2 0.00 0.00 2.90 3.03 3.60 3.52 0.03 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.07
Al2O3 20.88 21.07 17.23 16.89 16.88 17.03 18.71 18.43 23.91 24.26 0.03 0.56
Cr2O3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.01 0.00 0.00
FeO 28.66 27.87 20.42 19.09 20.26 21.10 0.12 0.14 0.03 0.15 88.30 91.95
MnO 6.43 6.79 0.20 0.19 0.15 0.27 0.01 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.02 0.00
MgO 2.67 2.22 9.86 9.38 9.31 9.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.21
CaO 4.55 5.27 0.01 0.07 0.00 0.13 0.01 0.00 5.35 5.06 0.03 0.00
Na2O 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.53 0.58 8.78 8.58 0.00 0.00
K2O 0.00 0.01 9.46 9.21 9.61 7.83 15.77 15.85 0.08 0.15 0.11 0.39
Totals 100.51 100.19 95.88 92.83 95.06 93.70 99.89 99.83 100.39 100.01 99.25 100.94
Oxygens 12 12 11 11 11 11 8 8 8 8 4 4
Si 2.97 2.95 2.72 2.74 2.71 2.67 2.99 3.00 2.75 2.74 0.19 0.04
Ti 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.18 0.21 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Al 1.97 1.99 1.55 1.56 1.53 1.56 1.02 1.01 1.25 1.27 0.00 0.03
Cr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
3+
Fe 0.10 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 1.62 1.92
2+
Fe 1.82 1.76 1.30 1.25 1.31 1.28 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.18 0.99
Mn 0.44 0.46 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Mg 0.32 0.27 1.12 1.10 1.07 1.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01
Ca 0.39 0.45 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.24 0.00 0.00
Na 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.75 0.74 0.00 0.00
K 0.00 0.00 0.92 0.92 0.95 0.78 0.93 0.94 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02
Sum 8.00 8.00 7.80 7.77 7.79 7.70 4.99 5.00 5.01 5.00 3.00 3.00
81
Sample 187323
Grt Bt Bt Hbl Hbl Hbl Hbl Hbl Hbl Pl Pl Mag Mag
core core rim core rim core rim core rim core rim
SiO2 36.72 34.65 34.64 37.99 37.86 38.52 37.73 37.76 37.73 63.85 63.02 0.05 0.03
TiO2 0.11 2.31 2.34 0.73 0.37 0.67 0.65 0.68 0.58 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.19
Al2O3 20.28 14.63 15.28 12.72 12.83 12.52 12.58 13.08 13.13 23.99 23.07 0.15 0.09
Cr2O3 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06
FeO 20.25 25.14 24.84 26.08 26.56 25.44 25.07 25.64 25.20 0.13 0.15 94.71 93.28
MnO 6.36 0.40 0.52 0.75 0.62 0.76 0.65 0.73 0.61 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.08
MgO 0.68 6.88 6.77 4.32 3.71 4.27 4.25 4.22 4.16 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.02
CaO 14.61 0.04 0.00 10.73 10.81 10.83 10.87 11.07 11.00 5.07 4.56 0.04 0.09
Na2O 0.00 0.06 0.03 1.65 1.44 1.74 1.50 1.63 1.59 4.46 9.06 0.01 0.00
K2O 0.01 9.38 9.40 1.99 2.03 1.93 1.90 1.94 2.00 0.17 0.19 0.02 0.01
Totals 99.33 93.48 93.85 97.72 96.92 97.22 95.75 97.38 96.53 97.69 100.08 102.23 100.77
Oxygens 12 11 11 23 23 23 23 23 23 8 8 4 4
Si 2.95 2.80 2.78 6.01 6.05 6.11 6.07 5.99 6.03 2.84 2.79 0.00 0.00
Ti 0.01 0.14 0.14 0.09 0.04 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01
Al 1.92 1.39 1.45 2.37 2.42 2.34 2.39 2.45 2.47 1.26 1.20 0.01 0.00
Cr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Fe3+ 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.82 0.77 0.61 0.67 0.74 0.63 0.01 0.01 1.99 1.98
Fe2+ 1.18 1.70 1.67 2.63 2.78 2.77 2.70 2.66 2.74 0.00 0.00 0.99 1.00
Mn 0.43 0.03 0.04 0.10 0.08 0.10 0.09 0.10 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00
Mg 0.08 0.83 0.81 1.02 0.88 1.01 1.02 1.00 0.99 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ca 1.26 0.00 0.00 1.82 1.85 1.84 1.88 1.88 1.88 0.24 0.22 0.00 0.00
Na 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.51 0.45 0.54 0.47 0.50 0.49 0.38 0.78 0.00 0.00
K 0.00 0.97 0.96 0.40 0.41 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.41 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
Sum 8.00 7.86 7.84 15.76 15.74 15.79 15.75 15.79 15.80 4.73 5.00 3.00 3.00
Sample 187330 A
Grt Grt Grt Grt Bt Bt Hbl Hbl Hbl Hbl Ksp Ksp Pl Pl Mag Ilm
core rim core rim core rim core rim core rim core rim core rim
SiO2 36.41 36.65 36.25 36.84 37.47 36.41 39.17 40.57 40.51 40.86 63.84 64.26 62.19 61.04 0.07 0.03
TiO2 0.00 0.03 0.08 0.04 3.51 3.41 1.63 1.80 1.75 1.76 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.40 49.71
Al2O3 20.98 20.58 20.39 20.95 14.58 15.27 11.92 11.74 11.67 12.48 18.58 18.71 23.27 23.66 0.99 0.00
Cr2O3 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.00
FeO 26.25 26.37 26.14 26.67 15.74 18.22 19.70 17.97 18.27 17.77 0.02 0.08 0.21 0.49 93.40 46.07
MnO 2.30 2.75 3.95 3.05 0.04 0.08 0.22 0.17 0.14 0.22 0.01 0.03 0.00 0.03 0.10 1.53
MgO 2.05 2.27 1.22 2.38 13.68 12.57 9.02 9.24 9.21 9.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.36
CaO 10.65 10.87 11.13 9.80 0.05 0.08 10.70 11.08 10.85 11.19 0.00 0.01 4.57 5.30 0.03 0.01
Na2O 0.01 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.08 1.62 1.80 1.74 1.64 1.37 1.12 8.84 8.52 0.00 0.03
K2O 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 9.64 8.80 1.85 1.89 1.80 1.89 14.43 14.86 0.27 0.35 0.00 0.00
Totals 98.92 99.98 99.57 100.06 94.75 95.07 96.46 96.53 96.22 97.80 98.30 99.15 99.41 99.47 101.91 98.15
Oxygens 12 12 12 12 11 11 23 23 23 23 8 8 8 8 4 3
Si 2.93 2.92 2.92 2.93 2.83 2.76 6.07 6.25 6.26 6.19 2.98 2.98 2.77 2.73 0.00 0.00
Ti 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.20 0.19 0.19 0.21 0.20 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.96
Al 1.99 1.93 1.94 1.97 1.30 1.36 2.18 2.13 2.13 2.23 1.02 1.02 1.22 1.25 0.04 0.00
Cr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
3+
Fe 0.16 0.23 0.22 0.17 0.00 0.05 0.73 0.23 0.31 0.38 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02 1.93 0.08
Fe2+ 1.60 1.52 1.54 1.60 0.99 1.10 1.82 2.09 2.05 1.87 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.01 0.91
Mn 0.16 0.19 0.27 0.21 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03
Mg 0.25 0.27 0.15 0.28 1.54 1.42 2.08 2.12 2.12 2.18 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01
Ca 0.92 0.93 0.96 0.84 0.00 0.01 1.78 1.83 1.80 1.82 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.25 0.00 0.00
Na 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.49 0.54 0.52 0.48 0.12 0.10 0.76 0.74 0.00 0.00
K 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.93 0.85 0.37 0.37 0.36 0.36 0.86 0.88 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.00
Sum 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 7.79 7.77 15.72 15.81 15.76 15.73 5.00 4.99 5.00 5.01 3.00 2.00
82
CHAPTER 4
Raimondo, T., Clark, C., Hand, M. & Faure, K., 2011. Assessing the geochemical and tectonic impacts
+ > Y ^| ## &
central Australia. Journal of Metamorphic Geology, 29QV&;>!@&Y@'\}'!;![F';@'@@XFF'B'
Assessing the geochemical and tectonic impacts of uidrock
interaction in mid-crustal shear zones: a case study from the
intracontinental Alice Springs Orogen, central Australia
T. RAIMONDO,1 C. CLARK,2 M. HAND1 AND K. FAURE3
1
Centre for Tectonics, Resources and Exploration (TRaX), School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Adelaide,
Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia (tom.raimondo@adelaide.edu.au)
2
Department of Applied Geology, The Institute for Geoscience Research (TIGeR), Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth,
WA 6845, Australia
3
GNS Science, PO Box 31312, Lower Hutt 5040, New Zealand
ABSTRACT The ReynoldsAnmatjira Ranges, central Australia, form part of a high-grade basement terrane
dissected by intensely metasomatized transpressional shear zones active during the Ordovician
Carboniferous Alice Springs Orogeny. Unlike typical retrograde structures associated with discrete uid
ow, the mid-crustal setting and intracontinental nature of these shear systems present signicant
problems for the source and ingress mechanism of the uid involved in their rehydration. To address
these issues, we describe two detailed traverses across deformed and metasomatized basement rocks in
this region, and interrogate their record of uidrock interaction from various perspectives. Both
traverses combine structural and petrological observations with Zr-in-rutile and Ti-in-quartz
thermobarometry, oxygen and hydrogen stable isotope analysis, and major, trace and rare earth
element mobility trends. Each technique is critically evaluated for its utility in this study and its more
widespread applicability to alternative eld areas, providing a strategic framework for the general
investigation of uid-affected shear zones. Ultimately, the integrated data sets specify pressure
temperature conditions of 530 C and 45 kbar, implying average apparent thermal gradients of
2936 C km)1 and depths of 1418 km. Other characteristic features to emerge include strongly
variable element mobilities and pronounced isotopic depletion fronts consistent with the alteration
effects of an externally derived, non-equilibrium uid. This is conrmed by calculated uid compositions
indicative of contributions from a uid of meteoric origin, with estimated d18O and dD values as low as
2.3& and )59.8&, respectively. We propose that these surcial uid signatures are imposed on the mid-
crust by the prograde burial and dehydration of hydrothermally altered fault panels produced during
pre-orogenic basin formation. Progressive uid release with continued subsidence then leads to the
accumulation of increasing uid volumes in the vicinity of the brittleductile transition, promoting
extensive hydration, metasomatism and reaction softening at the locus of stress transmission from plate-
boundary sources. The sustained injection of externally derived uids into refractory crustal material
may thus stimulate a critical reduction in the long-term strength of the lithosphere, providing strong
impetus for the initiation and advancement of intracontinental orogenesis.
Key words: element mobility; uid ow; metasomatism; shear zone; stable isotopes.
et al., 2005, 2006). These locations are typically char-

INTRODUCTION
acterized by intensely metasomatized fault structures
Considerable evidence suggests that deep crustal uid that feature signicant mineralogical and geochemical
ow is an important process by which high-grade changes relative to their bounding wall rocks. Such
metamorphic terranes undergo rehydration and tec- alteration patterns attest to considerable uid ux
tonic reworking. Many workers have investigated the through shear zone networks, a process that is poten-
signicance of hydrous retrograde shear zones that tially instrumental in modifying rock rheology,
cross-cut largely anhydrous basement rocks in areas enhancing strain localization, and ultimately, exhum-
such as Lagoa Real, Brazil (Lobato et al., 1983), the ing orogenic belts (e.g. Wintsch et al., 1995; Stewart
Pyrenees, France (McCaig et al., 1990), the northern et al., 2000; Holdsworth et al., 2001; Miller et al.,
Ruby Mountains, Nevada (Fricke et al., 1992), the 2002; Marsh et al., 2009; Yardley, 2009).
Mann Ranges, central Australia (Buick et al., 2001), Despite the undeniable impact of extensive uid
King Island, Tasmania (Streit & Cox, 1998), and the rock interaction in exhumed shear zones, the
Curnamona Province, southeastern Australia (Clark sources and ingress mechanisms of uids involved in
!
Chapter 4 Investigating metasomatised shear zones
rehydration of the mid-crust have been difcult issues and T2 in Fig. 2) have been completed to extract de-
to address. Devolatilization and the crystallization of tailed information about the style and characteristics
partial melts result in signicant uid expulsion during of alteration. Structural mapping, trace element ther-
the production of high-grade basement rocks, well mobarometry, whole-rock geochemistry and oxygen
before the onset of late retrograde shearing (Walther & and hydrogen stable isotope analysis are employed to
Orville, 1982; Yardley, 1997, 2009). It is thus difcult constrain several parameters fundamental to the
to ascribe large-scale terrane rehydration to internally reconstruction of deep crustal uid ow, including the
derived uid sources. External sources of uid can be pressuretemperature (PT) evolution of metasoma-
equally problematic, particularly within compressional tism, the mechanisms for geochemical enrichment and
intracontinental orogens. Such settings necessarily depletion, and the sources and pathways of inuxing
preclude commonly invoked mechanisms for the ref- uids. Each technique is critically evaluated for its
ertilization of deep crustal volumes, such as exten- viability and usefulness in the investigation of
sional faulting during core complex development (e.g. metasomatized shear zones. We specically assess the
Fricke et al., 1992; Mulch et al., 2007) or the subduc- validity of using geochemical parameters to infer the
tion of extensive serpentinite slabs (e.g. Cartwright & direction of uid ow and the volumes of uid
Barnicoat, 2003; Barnes et al., 2004). This issue is involved in the rehydration process, and consider in
exacerbated where coeval intrusives are absent, and detail the correspondence of observed alteration pat-
isotopic evidence suggests that the uids involved in terns to those predicted by isotopic and major element
rehydration are originally derived from surcial res- equilibrium partitioning models (e.g. Dipple & Ferry,
ervoirs (e.g. Cartwright & Buick, 1999; Clark et al., 1992a,b). Ultimately, this enables the construction of
2006). It is not clearly established whether surcial an integrated and representative overview of uidrock
uids can penetrate beyond the fractured upper-crust interaction across the Alice Springs Orogen, and its
and into the ductile realm. Strong negative buoyancy potential signicance in the development of this
effects, unfavourable temperature and pressure gradi- intracontinental orogenic system. In addition, it
ents, and limited permeability and porosity seem produces a practical set of guidelines for the effective
insurmountable obstacles to their downward migration application of shear zone interrogation techniques to
at volumes sufcient to create a uid-buffered migra- alternative eld areas.
tion pathway (Connolly & Podladchikov, 2004;
Fusseis et al., 2009; Staude et al., 2009).
REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK
With these points in mind, it is apparent that
retrograde transpressional shear zones of the northern The ReynoldsAnmatjira Ranges are situated in the
Arunta Region, central Australia, represent a striking Aileron Province of the Arunta Region (Fig. 1), a
anomaly. First, they contain evidence of unusually low multiply deformed and metamorphosed Palaeoprote-
d18O uid values in ductile structures that formed below rozoicMesoproterozoic terrane in central Australia
the brittleductile transition. Calculated oxygen isotope (Collins & Shaw, 1995; Scrimgeour, 2003; Scrimgeour
compositions are signicantly lower than the mantle et al., 2005). The Arunta Region is one of the largest
value (5.7 0.3&; Taylor, 1980) and contributions exposed basement complexes in Australia, occupying
from meteoric (surface-derived) water have been an area of 200 000 km2. It is encompassed by a sys-
invoked to explain the observed isotopic alteration tem of NeoproterozoicPalaeozoic sedimentary basins
(Cartwright & Buick, 1999; Read & Cartwright, 2000; that contain correlatable sequences with depocentres
Read, 2002). Second, their intense metasomatism is several hundred kilometres from any contemporane-
interpreted to have occurred during a prolonged period ous plate margin (Shaw et al., 1991; Lindsay & Leven,
of intracontinental compression, the Ordovician 1996; Sandiford & Hand, 1998; Collins & Pisarevsky,
Carboniferous Alice Springs Orogeny (Cartwright 2005). These primarily include the Amadeus, Ngalia
et al., 1999). Third, they form crustal-scale fault sys- and Georgina Basins. Together, they comprise the
tems that appear to have facilitated the exhumation of a remnants of an extensive intracratonic sedimentary
regional granulite facies terrane (Collins & Teyssier, basin initiated after the amalgamation of the Austra-
1989; Collins & Shaw, 1995). Hence, detailed investi- lian craton (inset to Fig. 1). This depression probably
gation of the structural, metamorphic and geochemical blanketed much of central Australia and has been
aspects of uidrock interaction in this location holds termed the Centralian Superbasin (Walter et al., 1995;
the key to uncovering the origin of uids involved in Haines et al., 2001; Maidment et al., 2007). It
the rehydration of the mid-crust, and assessing their remained intact until the onset of two major intra-
role in moderating the sensitivity of continental interi- continental orogenies, the EdiacaranCambrian (600
ors to tectonic reactivation and reworking. 530 Ma) Petermann Orogeny (Wade et al., 2005;
In this study, we focus on the record of uidrock Gregory et al., 2009; Raimondo et al., 2009, 2010) and
interaction in mid-crustal intracontinental shear zones the OrdovicianCarboniferous (450300 Ma) Alice
from the ReynoldsAnmatjira Ranges, northern Springs Orogeny (Haines et al., 2001; Buick et al.,
Arunta Region (Fig. 1). Two traverses across 2008; McLaren et al., 2009). The latter was responsible
deformed and metasomatized basement (labelled T1 for the exhumation of the Arunta Region, fragmenting
86
Fig. 1. Regional geological map of the Arunta Region, showing its major tectonic subdivisions, key structural features and
surrounding intracratonic sedimentary basins. Also indicated are the location of the ReynoldsAnmatjira Ranges and other localities
mentioned in the text. Accompanying schematic cross-section (AB) displays the geometric arrangement of basin and basement rock
units and their relationships to deeply penetrative fault structures of the Alice Springs Orogen. Inset: Distribution of major tectonic
elements of central Australia, showing the former extent of the NeoproterozoicPalaeozoic Centralian Superbasin and its current
fragmentation into several smaller sub-basins separated by exhumed PalaeoproterozoicMesoproterozoic basement inliers.
Abbreviations: AB, Amadeus Basin; AR, Arunta Region; ANC, Artlunga Nappe Complex; AN, Anmatjira Range; ASZ, Aileron
Shear Zone; DMSZ, DelnyMt Sainthill Shear Zone; EGC, Entia Gneiss Complex; GB, Georgina Basin; HCSZ, Harry Creek Shear
Zone; MP, Musgrave Province; NB, Ngalia Basin; NT, Napperby Thrust; OB, Ofcer Basin; RBSZ, Redbank Shear Zone; RR,
Reynolds Range; SMC, Strangways Metamorphic Complex; WKSZ, Wallaby Knob Shear Zone. Figure modied from Collins &
Teyssier (1989), Sandiford & Hand (1998), Haines et al. (2001) and Hand & Buick (2001).
the Centralian Superbasin and producing a series of (Collins & Shaw, 1995; Collins & Williams, 1995).
smaller sub-basins preserved today (Collins & Teyssier, Together with early granitic intrusives, these succes-
1989; Hand & Sandiford, 1999). sions form basement to the Reynolds Range Group.
Current exposures throughout the Reynolds This younger stratigraphic package then comprises a
Anmatjira Ranges are dominated by two major stra- series of metamorphosed quartzites, pelites, marls and
tigraphic associations (Fig. 2). The oldest sedimentary marbles that were deposited between 1812 and
sequence is the Lander Rock Beds, a suite of pelitic 1785 Ma (Collins & Williams, 1995; Vry et al., 1996;
and psammitic metasedimentary rocks deposited be- Williams et al., 1996), along with several generations
tween 1840 and 1806 Ma (Vry et al., 1996; Hand & of voluminous megacrystic granites. Further strati-
Buick, 2001). They are equivalent to a package of graphic divisions and their respective depositional or
comparatively higher grade layered metasedimentary emplacement ages are shown in Fig. 2.
rocks known as the Weldon Metamorphics, which The structural and metamorphic history of the
have depositional ages bracketing 18601818 Ma ReynoldsAnmatjira Ranges consists of a series of
87
88
Chapter 4
Fig. 2. Regional geological map of the ReynoldsAnmatjira Ranges, showing the distribution of major rock types and shear structures, the location of Traverses 1 and 2, and
other localities mentioned in the text. Also shown are geochronological and PT estimates from this contribution and previous studies of the area. Age constraints for individual
Palaeoproterozoic rock units (in parentheses) represent either depositional or emplacement (protolith) ages. All Palaeozoic age estimates represent either metamor-
phism deformation or cooling. Displayed PT estimates and metamorphic isograds relate to mineral assemblages from the metasomatized shear zones. Inset: Interpreted SWNE
cross-section through the central ReynoldsAnmatjira Ranges, showing the steeply dipping geometry of shear systems and an overall crustal-scale pop-up structure. Mineral
abbreviations: qtz, quartz; bt, biotite; mu, muscovite. Data sources: 1. This study; 2. Read (2002); 3. Hand & Buick (2001); 4. Read & Cartwright (2000); 5. Cartwright & Buick
(1999); 6. Cartwright et al. (1999); 7. Vry et al. (1996); 8. Williams et al. (1996); 9. Collins & Williams (1995); 10. Hand et al. (1995); 11. Sun et al. (1995); 12. Hand (1993); 13.
Dirks et al. (1991); 14. Dirks & Wilson (1990); 15. Collins & Shaw (1995). Figure adapted from Collins & Teyssier (1989), Hand & Buick (2001) and Liu et al. (2006).
Investigating metasomatised shear zones
superimposed tectonothermal events associated with Teyssier, 1989), as they form part of a tilted crustal-
regional deformation and episodes of extensive mag- scale pop-up structure with deeply exhumed granulites
matism. It is described in detail by several authors, as in the axial zone represented by the Anmatjira Range
summarized by Cartwright et al. (2001) and Hand & (inset to Fig. 2). Overall, the shear zones are domi-
Buick (2001). Key geochronological frameworks for nated by hydrous mineral assemblages containing sig-
this region are presented by Collins & Williams (1995), nicant modal proportions of biotite and muscovite,
Collins & Shaw (1995), Vry et al. (1996), Williams et al. and form broad schist belts that have undergone in-
(1996), Cartwright et al. (1999), Rubatto et al. (2001) tense metasomatism and retrogression from their
and Scrimgeour (2003). Four major tectonothermal granulite and gneiss precursors (Cartwright & Buick,
cycles are distinguished, beginning with the Stafford 1999; Read & Cartwright, 2000; Read, 2002).
Tectonic Event at 18201800 Ma, followed by the The distribution of regional metamorphic grade in
Yambah Event at 17801770 Ma. These periods were the shear zones increases towards the southeast, mir-
associated with regional low-pressurehigh-tempera- roring the pattern expressed by Chewings Orogeny
ture metamorphism and the emplacement of volumi- assemblages. Metamorphic isograds and estimated
nous granitic melts. The former is recorded only in the PT conditions are plotted in Fig. 2. Brittle sub-
Lander Rock Beds, whereas the latter also affects the greenschist facies structures crop out in the northwest
Reynolds Range Group. The subsequent Chewings and central sections of the terrane, whereas ductile mid-
Orogeny (16001560 Ma) is the dominant regional amphibolite facies assemblages containing kyanite,
event, and involved pervasive low-pressure metamor- staurolite, garnet and sillimanite are present in the
phism without coeval magmatism. It generated regional southeastern Reynolds Range, and andalusite- and
shortening along a NESW axis, producing tight to staurolite-bearing assemblages are found in the south-
isoclinal upright folds and a penetrative axial planar eastern Anmatjira Range. This regional eld gradient is
foliation. Chewings metamorphic grade varies interpreted to reect progressively deeper levels of
smoothly from greenschist facies (400 C) in the denudation, which is accompanied by an increase in the
northwest to granulite facies (750800 C) in the number and dimensions of the shear zones, such that
southeast. A protracted period of comparative tectonic individual structures in the southeast reach widths of
quiescence then followed, before signicant terrane up to 300 m (Hand & Buick, 2001). Nevertheless,
reactivation was initiated during the 450300 Ma Alice explicit PT constraints are relatively sparse (Fig. 2).
Springs Orogeny. This nal event is characterized by By comparison with petrogenetic grids, Dirks & Wilson
the development of a crustal-scale ductile shear zone (1990) and Dirks et al. (1991) determined metamorphic
network that strongly dissects the Arunta Region, conditions of 500600 C and 56 kbar for kyanite-
along which substantial basement exhumation and staurolite-bearing assemblages in the southeastern
occurred. A detailed discussion of its expression in the Reynolds Range. Hand (1993) and Hand & Buick
ReynoldsAnmatjira region is presented below. (2001) estimated conditions of 585 20 C and
4.0 0.3 kbar for andalusite- and staurolite-bearing
assemblages in the southeastern Anmatjira Range
SHEAR ZONE CHARACTERISTICS AND AGE
using a similar technique. Cartwright & Buick (1999)
CONSTRAINTS
and Read (2002) provided the only remaining con-
The structural grain of the ReynoldsAnmatjira Ran- straints of 335620 C and 4.06.5 kbar from the same
ges is dominated by kilometre-scale NW SE-trending areas using a combination of stable isotope geother-
shear zones that truncate regional folds and mometry, phengite geobarometry and average PT
metamorphic fabrics attributed to Palaeoproterozoic calculations using THERMOCALC.
Mesoproterozoic tectonothermal activity (Collins & Amphibolite facies shear zones of the southeastern
Teyssier, 1989). These features form part of an anas- Reynolds Range were initially interpreted by Dirks &
tomosing crustal- to lithospheric-scale fault network Wilson (1990) and Dirks et al. (1991) to be Palaeo-
that extends throughout the Aileron Province of the proterozoic in age, representative of regional cooling
Arunta Region. Seismic reection proles indicate that and exhumation during the waning phase of a high-
large-scale thrusts, such as the Aileron Shear Zone grade tectonothermal cycle. These authors attributed
(Figs 1 & 2), extend into the deep crust where they the imprint of much younger Palaeozoic activity to
terminate as low-angle detachments. A principal only minor uplift and retrogression in greenschist
regional structure, the Redbank Shear Zone (Fig. 1), facies structures. However, in light of RbSr, KAr
penetrates into the mantle and preserves signicant and 40Ar39Ar data on biotite, muscovite and horn-
Moho displacement (Goleby et al., 1989; Korsch et al., blende largely from adjacent parts of the Arunta
1998). Region, Collins & Teyssier (1989) and Collins & Shaw
Shear zones of the ReynoldsAnmatjira region are (1995) proposed that all retrograde shear zones of the
characterized by steeply north- and south-dipping ReynoldsAnmatjira region are Palaeozoic in age. This
foliations with dip-slip stretching lineations and a argument is reinforced by additional 40Ar39Ar
reverse sense of movement. Their geometry is (muscovite biotite) and RbSr (muscovite biotite
indicative of transpressional deformation (Collins & apatite feldspar whole-rock) data sets collected by
X
Cartwright et al. (1999) and Read (2002), which return unaltered precursors. The locations of all samples are
age estimates of 358334 and 333294 Ma, respec- plotted in Fig. 3a.
tively. These constraints suggest that mineral growth Traverse 2 is located at the southeastern margin of
and recrystallization in the metasomatized shear zones the Yaningidjara Hills, central Reynolds Range
occurred during the latter stages of the intracontinental (Fig. 2). It intersects a series of parallel shear zones
Alice Springs Orogeny (450300 Ma). The regional that cross-cut a large outcrop of porphyritic granitic
distribution of all existing shear zone geochronology is augen gneiss known as the Yaningidjara Orthogneiss
shown in Fig. 2. (Fig. 3b). The traverse continues for 500 m across
strike, and includes a separate outcrop of undeformed
granitic gneiss at its southern end. An overview of the
TRAVERSE DESCRIPTIONS
outcrop organization is shown in Fig. 4c. Each shear
Two traverses across deformed and metasomatized zone is 80150 m in width, and features a smooth
basement rocks (labelled T1 and T2 in Fig. 2) were strain gradient from moderately to strongly sheared
completed to document the structural, metamorphic schistose granitic gneiss. Thin (35 m) linear quartz
and geochemical characteristics of uidrock interac- veins run sub-parallel to the shear foliation in high-
tion. Together with additional shear zone traverses strain zones, and continue for hundreds of metres
conducted by Cartwright & Buick (1999), Read & along strike (Fig. 4c,d). They are strongly deformed
Cartwright (2000) and Read (2002) from proximal and feature thin layers of intensely metasomatized
areas of the ReynoldsAnmatjira Ranges, they chloriterutilebiotite schist at their margins. All shear
comprise a detailed data array across a range of zones contain steeply north-dipping foliations that
metamorphic grades, levels of exposure and precursor transect a moderate gneissic fabric in the Yaningidjara
rock types. The location of all existing shear zone data Orthogneiss, and display down-dip mineral elongation
sets is shown in Fig. 2. lineations dened by aligned mica. Rotated porphyro-
Traverse 1 is located in the southeastern corner of clasts and SC fabrics give a reverse sense of movement,
the Anmatjira Range (Fig. 2). It extends for 500 m with top-to-the-south tectonic transport. Stereographic
across the Anmatjira Orthogneiss and layered pelitic plots of all orientation data are shown in the inset to
psammitic granulites of the Weldon Metamorphics Fig. 3b. Twelve samples were collected along this
(Fig. 3a). The contact between these rock types is traverse, including undeformed granitic gneisses,
interspersed with a broad (250 m wide) shear zone moderate- and high-strain schistose units, a strongly
containing a symmetrical strain gradient from moder- altered chloriterutilebiotite schist, and deformed
ately to strongly sheared schists. The shear zone trends quartz veins. The locations of all samples are shown in
NW SE and continues for several kilometres along Fig. 3b.
strike. It contains a steeply dipping foliation that The progressive alteration sequence of sheared rocks
strongly dissects irregular layering of the Weldon from Traverse 2 is illustrated in Fig. 5. Undeformed
Metamorphics and cross-cuts a weak gneissic fabric in outcrops of the Yaningidjara Orthogneiss consist of
the Anmatjira Orthogneiss at a shallow angle. homogeneous granitic gneiss with abundant 0.53 cm
NE SW-plunging mineral elongation lineations megacrysts of perthite, plagioclase and quartz
dened by aligned mica are also common, and SC (Fig. 5a). Minor garnet occurs as coarse (25 mm)
fabrics give a reverse sense of movement, with top-to- crystals with abundant sillimanite inclusions, and is
the-southwest tectonic transport. Stereographic rimmed by ne sillimanite needles. Biotite grains are
plots of all orientation data are shown in the inset to conned to the matrix and have no preferred orienta-
Fig. 3a. tion, and minor accessory allanite is also present.
At its northeastern margin, Traverse 1 features a Within moderate-strain zones, the orthogneiss devel-
pristine sillimanitecordieritebiotite layered gneiss ops a protomylonitic fabric dominantly comprised of
that progressively grades into an intensely deformed recrystallized perthite, quartz and biotite (Fig. 5b).
and retrogressed biotitechloritemuscovite schist. Quartz forms larger subgrained clasts and weakly
Towards the core of the shear zone, coarse (0.52 cm) developed ribbons, and perthite megacrysts are
andalusite porphyroblasts become abundant (Fig. 4a), reduced to considerably smaller (12 mm) fractured
before diminishing near the contact with an adjacent augen. Plagioclase is entirely absent, biotite is modally
outcrop of porphyritic granitic gneiss. The granitic minor, and garnet grains are strongly fractured and
gneiss itself is dissected by two smaller (1030 m wide) milled to skeletal porphyroclasts. High-strain zones
parallel shear zones to the southwest, which contain feature well-developed mylonitic fabrics containing
mineral assemblages dominated by biotite and extensive quartz recrystallization and further grain size
muscovite. Minor quartz veins up to 30 cm thick occur reduction of perthite (Fig. 5c). Biotite is signicantly
in patchy areas of the shear zones, and are typically more abundant, and displays a strong preferred
deformed and boudinaged in the shear fabric orientation parallel to the shear fabric, anastomosing
(Fig. 4b). Fifteen samples were collected across the around polycrystalline quartz and perthite augen. The
length of this traverse, including both deformed and proportion of garnet is also reduced. Finally, intensely
metasomatized schists and their undeformed and metasomatized schists adjacent to quartz veins exhibit
X@
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3. Detailed outcrop maps of (a) Traverse 1 (T1) in the southeastern Anmatjira Range; (b) Traverse 2 (T2) in the Yaningidjara
Hills, central Reynolds Range. Sample locations and major rock units are shown with their corresponding strain gradients (US,
unsheared; MS, moderately sheared; SS, strongly sheared; see text for descriptions). Compiled structural measurements from the
metasomatized shear zones are also included as insets. Stereonets summarize shear foliation and elongation lineation data using
equal-angle, lower hemisphere projections. Note: The prex RAN08- is dropped from sample numbers in this gure and some
subsequent gures for clarity.
a strong shear fabric dened by elongate chlorite and

TRACE ELEMENT THERMOBAROMETRY
biotite grains, thin seams of rutile needles, and nely
recrystallized quartz aggregates (Fig. 5d). Perthite and Although the metamorphic architecture of shear zones
plagioclase are entirely absent, and quartz abundance in the ReynoldsAnmatjira Ranges is broadly dened
is signicantly reduced relative to high-strain zones. on the basis of diagnostic mineral assemblages, the
X
(a) (b)
(c)
/ # (d)
25
+#2

/ #
25
+#2

+#2

/ #
Fig. 4. (a) Steeply dipping andalusite-bearing shear zone from Traverse 1, southeastern Anmatjira Range. Location of samples
RAN08-007 and RAN08-008. (b) Tightly folded quartz vein in strong shear fabric, Traverse 1. (c) Overview of Traverse 2,
Yaningidjara Hills, showing eld relationships between undeformed basement rocks, metasomatized shear zones and extensive vein
networks. (d) 5 m wide deformed quartz vein sub-parallel to strike of shear fabric, Traverse 2. Note: Scale bar is 10 cm.
precise PT conditions of their formation have rela- to investigate internal zonation within individual
tively few explicit constraints (Fig. 2). The recently quartz and rutile grains. All images were collected at
formulated Zr-in-rutile and Ti-in-quartz thermoba- the University of Adelaide using a Philips XL20 SEM
rometers are used to provide supplementary PT with attached Gatan CL detector, operating under an
constraints from Traverses 1 and 2. This new approach accelerating voltage of 15 kV. Subsequent to image
facilitates a better understanding of metasomatic acquisition, Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plas-
mineral paragenesis and its associated metamorphic ma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) trace element
regime. It also provides an independent means of analyses were obtained at the University of Adelaide
evaluating the temperature and uid composition using an Agilent 7500cs ICP-MS equipped with a New
information obtained from stable isotope geochemistry Wave 213 nm Nd-YAG laser. Rutile and quartz
(discussed below). crystals were analysed in situ using a 30 lm beam
diameter and a repetition rate of 5 Hz. Measured iso-
topes included 90Zr and 49Ti (to avoid interference
Analytical methods
issues affecting 48Ti), and inclusions were monitored
Polished thin sections of samples RAN08-007 (strongly via simultaneous collection of 23Na, 27Al, 31P, 39K and
57
sheared andalusitebiotitechloritemuscovite schist Fe. The total acquisition time for each analysis was
from Traverse 1) and RAN08-030 (strongly sheared 100 s, and involved 30 s of background measurement,
chloritebiotiterutile schist from Traverse 2) were 10 s for beam and crystal stabilization, and 60 s of
initially examined using cathodoluminescence (CL) sample ablation. External calibration was performed
and backscattered electron (BSE) imaging techniques with reference to the NIST 612 glass standard,
X;
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 5. Transmitted light photomicrographs illustrating the progressive alteration sequence of sheared rocks from Traverse 2,
Yaningidjara Hills. See text for discussion. (a) Sample RAN08-026. (b) Sample RAN08-020. (c) Sample RAN08-024. (d) Sample
RAN08-030. Images (a) and (b) are in cross-polarized light; images (c) and (d) are in plane-polarized light. Mineral abbreviations: qtz,
quartz; per, perthite; pl, plagioclase; gt, garnet; sill, sillimanite; bt, biotite; chl, chlorite; rut, rutile.
employing the coefcients of Pearce et al. (1997), and applied. The following relationships are used to inde-
accuracy was monitored via repeat measurements of pendently constrain pressure and temperature, based on
the NIST 614 glass standard. Finally, data reduction equation 11 of Thomas et al. (2010):
was completed using GLITTER software (Van
Achterbergh et al., 2001), with 49Ti (rutile) and 29Si a bT RT ln aTiO2 RT ln Xqtz
TiO2
(quartz) employed for internal calibration. Ti and Zr P ; 1
c
abundances for all samples are provided in the Sup-
porting Information (Table S1). a bT RT ln aZrO2 RT ln Xrut
ZrO2
P ; 2
c
Thermobarometer calibrations and application procedure
where P is the pressure (kbar); T is the temperature
Recent revisions to established Ti-in-quartz and (K); R is the gas constant (8.314 JK)1); aTiO2 and aZrO2
Zr-in-rutile thermometer calibrations have recognized are the activities of TiO2 and ZrO2; and Xqtz TiO2 and
the signicant pressure and temperature dependence of Xrut
ZrO2 are the mole fractions of TiO2 in quartz and
elemental substitutions in these minerals. New experi- ZrO2 in rutile. For Ti-in-quartz, a = 60 952 3177,
mental studies by Tomkins et al. (2007) and Thomas b = 1.52 0.39 and c = 1741 63, and for Zr-in-
et al. (2010) demonstrate the utility of trace element rutile, a = 85 500 5, b = 29.1 3 and c =
analysis for constraining the PT conditions of crystal- 476 39. All uncertainties are 2r.
lization, principally in circumstances where two com- Metasomatized shear zones from Traverses 1 and 2
plementary thermobarometers can be simultaneously both involve zircon- and rutile-bearing assemblages,
X[
allowing aTiO2 and aZrO2 to be xed at unity. Xqtz

TiO2 and Sample descriptions and PT estimates
Xrut
ZrO2 are calculated using the elemental abundances
measured by LA-ICP-MS and the conversion rela- Quartz grains from samples RAN08-007 and RAN08-
tionships listed by Thomas et al. (2010). The input 030 occur as polycrystalline ribbons enveloped by
values for these parameters are presented in Table S1. anastomosing mica grains in the matrix (Fig. 6a,b).
A 2r weighted average of all measurements from each They are largely equant, with straight grain boundaries
sample is used as the representative Zr and Ti con- that form a polygonal foam texture, and exhibit only
centrations. Equations (1) and (2) are then solved minor undulose extinction, indicating that they are
simultaneously to determine the PT conditions of largely free from internal strain. No zonation was
crystallization. For each estimate generated using this observed under CL, with both samples exhibiting at,
procedure, we propagate errors associated with the featureless patterns of low luminescence. Rutile grains
analytical data (i.e. the 2r weighted average uncer- from sample RAN08-007 occur as anhedral blebs and
tainties given in Table S1), along with those inherent in irregular aggregates situated in the matrix (Fig. 6c)
the thermobarometer calibrations (i.e. the 2r uncer- and included in porphyroblastic andalusite (Fig. 6d).
tainties on the a, b and c terms listed previously). The In contrast, sample RAN08-030 contains acicular
combined uncertainties give a temperature resolution needles dominantly arranged in thin seams parallel to
of 30 C and a pressure resolution of 3 kbar at the the shear foliation (Fig. 6e). No internal zonation was
2r level. discernible under BSE for either sample.
(a) (b)
(c) (e)
(d)
Fig. 6. Textural positions of quartz and rutile grains used for Ti-in-quartz and Zr-in-rutile thermobarometry. See text for discussion.
Images (a), (c) and (d) represent sample RAN08-007 from Traverse 1, southeastern Anmatjira Range; images (b) and (e) represent
sample RAN08-030 from Traverse 2, Yaningidjara Hills. All images are in plane-polarized light. Mineral abbreviations: qtz, quartz; bt,
biotite; chl, chlorite; rut, rutile; and, andalusite.
XF
Ten quartz analyses from sample RAN08-007 yield (<12 ppm), while above the detection limit of LA-
a 2r weighted average of 9.37 0.96 ppm Ti, and an ICP-MS analysis, are nevertheless associated with
equal number of rutile analyses return a value of large percentage uncertainties at such low concentra-
72.90 7.00 ppm Zr (Table S1). Solving equations tions. This issue is compounded by interference issues
(1) and (2) simultaneously, with both analytical and affecting the higher abundance 48Ti isotope, necessi-
thermobarometer calibration errors taken into ac- tating that its lower abundance 49Ti counterpart
count, these estimates indicate PT conditions of (5.5%) is used (Flem et al., 2002). Second, the relative
554 34 C and 10.6 3.2 kbar (2r). For sample imprecision of the Ti-in-quartz thermobarometer at
RAN08-030, 20 quartz analyses yield a 2r weighted the lower limit of its calibration means that little
average of 9.20 1.10 ppm Ti, and 16 rutile analyses condence can be assigned to calculated crystallization
return a value of 62.60 2.10 ppm Zr (Table S1). conditions where such signicant analytical errors are
Calculated crystallization conditions in this instance involved. Due to the similarity in isopleth slopes for
are 548 32 C and 10.3 3.1 kbar (2r), overlap- Ti-in-quartz and Zr-in-rutile in this region (Fig. 7),
ping with estimates from sample RAN08-007. Both differences as small as 1 ppm Ti result in pressure
samples are plotted on isopleth diagrams in Fig. 7. uctuations of 1 kbar, even without calibration
Despite their good internal consistency, the calcu- uncertainties considered. Ultimately, this produces
lated PT conditions of both samples are very different greatly amplied errors associated with each pressure
to all existing constraints from shear zones of the estimate (3.0 kbar at the 2r level with all uncer-
ReynoldsAnmatjira region. This primarily concerns tainties propagated), which are clearly disproportion-
the pressure estimates, which are considerably elevated ate to any realistic sample variability.
compared to the established peak conditions of 5.0 As a result of the precision issues surrounding the
6.5 kbar (Dirks & Wilson, 1990; Dirks et al., 1991; Ti-in-quartz thermobarometer, it is necessary to
Cartwright & Buick, 1999). Furthermore, they are reconsider how its Zr-in-rutile counterpart may be
irreconcilable with the stability of andalusite in sample validly applied. Fortunately, its lower sensitivity to
RAN08-007 (e.g. Pattison, 1992). These discrepancies concentration variations and the much larger extent of
may be explained by two main issues associated with Zr substitution in rutile means that analytical and
the Ti-in-quartz thermobarometer, which is largely calibration uncertainties do not have a critical impact
responsible for constraining pressure given the on the usefulness of calculated crystallization condi-
comparatively moderate pressure dependence of Zr tions. Nevertheless, in the absence of complementary
substitution in rutile (Tomkins et al., 2007; Thomas information supplied by Ti-in-quartz solubility, addi-
et al., 2010). First, low PT applications are evidently tional pressure or temperature constraints are required
limited by the sensitivity of the analytical appara- to utilize the Zr concentration data. Due to the very
tus employed. Measured Ti values in this study steep gradient of Zr-in-rutile isopleths, calculated
(a) (b)
Fig. 7. PT diagrams showing the simultaneous application of Ti-in-quartz and Zr-in-rutile solubility as a thermobarometer. (a)
Elemental concentration data for sample RAN08-007 from Traverse 1. (b) Elemental concentration data for sample RAN08-030 from
Traverse 2. In both plots, isopleths are drawn with 2r calibration uncertainties taken into account, and maximum and minimum values
for Ti and Zr concentrations are used to indicate sample variability. Shaded polygons at the intersection of isopleth lines indicate PT
conditions calculated using the 2r weighted average values listed (see Table S1). Also shown are crystallization estimates generated
using the independent pressure constrains discussed in the text (cross-hatched boxes). Preferred PT estimates for each sample are
shown in bold. Aluminosilicate phase relationships are after Pattison (1992).
X!
pressure estimates are likely to be extremely imprecise, a tungsten carbide mill. A 0.1 g portion of ne powder
making independent pressure constraints preferable to was then fused with lithium metaborate and dissolved
obtain reliable temperature estimates. For sample in nitric acid, and the total solution was analysed by
RAN08-007, an estimate of 4.0 0.3 kbar was pro- Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spec-
vided by Hand (1993) and Hand & Buick (2001) from troscopy (ICP-OES) for the major elements plus Cr, V
proximal andalusite-bearing shear zones in the south- and Sc. Using the same total solution, Ba, Ce, La, Zr,
eastern Anmatjira Range. Substituting this value into Hf, Mo, Nb, Rb, Sn, Sr, Ta, Th, U and Y were
equation (2) produces a calculated temperature value determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass
of 526 23 C (2r). Similarly, sample RAN08-030 is Spectrometry (ICP-MS). A separate 0.5 g subsample
situated in close proximity to the kyanitebiotite of the powder was then prepared using a hydrou-
staurolitein isograd (Fig. 2), allowing pressure to be oric multi-acid digest, and the solution was analysed
conservatively constrained at 5.0 1.5 kbar. This by ICP-MS for quantication of the remaining trace
generates a temperature value of 525 26 C (2r). elements and REE. ICP-OES and ICP-MS analyses
For both samples, the assumed pressure values remain were performed using a Perkin Elmer 5300 V and a
broadly consistent with the Ti-in-quartz data, given Perkin Elmer ELAN 9000, respectively. Calibration
that at the measured concentration range of standards were prepared in-house from pure metals
5486 ppm Zr (Table S1), Ti values >35 ppm are and salts or elemental stock solutions with certied
required for calculated pressures to be <4 kbar. Even concentrations. All analyses have a 5% relative error
accounting for the analytical uncertainties discussed at levels >100 times the detection limit (95% con-
above, such concentrations are unrealistically enriched, dence interval). Rock densities were calculated by
particularly given the low luminescence of quartz measuring each sample in both air and water. Mass
grains from both samples (e.g. Rusk et al., 2006; Spear errors are 0.05 g, and precision was within 2%
& Wark, 2009). More signicantly, however, the re- over multiple repetitions. All whole-rock geochemical
vised PT estimates are consistent with the observed data and density values are presented in Table S2.
transition from andalusite-bearing shear zones in
Traverse 1 to kyanitestaurolite-bearing shear zones
Mass balance calculation procedure
adjacent to Traverse 2, following the regional pattern
of increasing levels of exhumation towards the south- To determine the elemental enrichment or depletion
east. If the Ti-in-quartz data are reprocessed using the trends accompanying metasomatism, we employ the
same independent pressure constraints listed above, isocon technique of Grant (1986, 2005), which is
the calculated temperatures (435 37 C for sample based on the compositionvolume relationships orig-
RAN08-007 and 452 45 C for sample RAN08-030; inally presented by Gresens (1967). This method
all errors 2r) place Traverse 1 outside the andalusite quantitatively estimates changes in mass or volume by
stability eld and Traverse 2 outside the kyanite graphically comparing the concentrations of individ-
staurolite stability eld (Fig. 7), which disagrees with ual components in altered rocks relative to their
the metamorphic eld evidence. original unaltered values. Gains or losses in each
component are assessed with reference to elements
that are assumed to be immobile. Typical examples
W H O L E - RO C K M A J O R , T RA C E A N D R A R E E A R T H
include Al, Ti, Y, Nb, Zr, Hf, P and REE, which
ELEMENT GEOCHEMISTRY
exhibit immobile behaviour under certain conditions
The signicant mineralogical alteration exhibited by (e.g. OHara, 1988; Selverstone et al., 1991; Hippertt,
shear zones of the ReynoldsAnmatjira region is 1998; Streit & Cox, 1998; Steyrer & Sturm, 2002;
indicative of large changes in whole-rock geochemis- Kwon et al., 2009). Together, these species should
try that may be linked to the metasomatic effects of dene a straight line that intersects the origin, dened
an inuxing uid. To determine the geochemical by the following equation:
characteristics of metasomatism, the elemental com-
positions of deformed samples and their adjacent CA MO =MA CO ; 3
undeformed protoliths were measured using solution
O A
techniques. Mass balance calculations were then per- where C and C are the element concentrations in
formed to quantify the enrichment or depletion of the original and altered rocks, respectively, and MA is
individual components using the procedure outlined the mass of the altered rock relative to the reference
below. mass (MO) of the undeformed protolith. Elements
that plot above the isocon line indicate relative mass
gains, whereas those conned to the eld below the
Analytical methods
line represent relative losses. These changes can be
Major, trace and rare earth element (REE) composi- quantied using the slope of the isocon line
tions of altered and unaltered samples from Traverses (MO MA) and the variation in absolute concentra-
1 and 2 were obtained at Amdel Ltd, Adelaide. Fresh tions of each element between altered and unaltered
rock (35 kg) was initially crushed and homogenized in samples:
X?
O O terparts. To avoid this issue, mass balance calculations

i M =M
CA Ci DCi ; 4
A
were performed only on shear zones dissecting rocks
where Ci is the concentration of an individual species that are homogeneous at the centimetre scale. Traverse
i . Rearranging for DCi, this gives: 1 partly contains a sequence of layered pelitic psam-
mitic gneisses that are unsuitable for comparison due
1
DCi C A
CO
i : 5 to their strongly heterogeneous nature. Samples were
MO =MA i thus selected from outcrops of homogeneous granitic
The isocon slope can also be used to determine any gneiss at the far southwestern extent of the traverse.
relative volume change (fv, equivalent to VA VO): Likewise, samples from Traverse 2 are wholly
restricted to outcrops of homogeneous granitic gneiss.
1 To further limit uncertainties in protolith composition,
fv qO =qA ; 6 undeformed samples were in all cases collected imme-
MO =MA
diately adjacent to shear zone locations. This strategy
where qA and qO are the densities of the altered and eliminates the possibility of larger-scale heterogeneities
unaltered samples, respectively. A line of constant being introduced by the use of regional geochemical
volume will have a slope of one. Thus, isocon lines with averages.
gradients less than one indicate relative volume in-
creases, whereas those with slopes greater than one Geochemical enrichment and depletion patterns
indicate relative volume decreases. Finally, relative
mass gains or losses for mobile elements (Xm, in g per Isocon diagrams of one comparison from Traverse 1
100 g rock) can be calculated using the following (RAN08-017 v. RAN08-018) and three comparisons
equation: from Traverse 2 (RAN08-026 v. RAN08-024, RAN08-
026 v. RAN08-030 & RAN08-032 v. RAN08-030) are
Xm fv qA =qO CA m Cm 100:
O
7 shown in Fig. 8. In each case, relative elemental
abundances for the protolith sample are plotted on the
Element mobility considerations and sampling strategy x-axis, and those for the metasomatized sample are
shown on the y-axis. For clarity, major elements and
The central tenet of the isocon method is that certain REE are plotted on the same diagram, whereas trace
elements remain immobile during metasomatism due to elements are included in a separate graph. Linear
their low solubility in uid phases. If these species can be correlation coefcients (R2 values) for immobile ele-
identied, then a realistic isocon line can be dened, and ments and REE follow the method of Rolland et al.
changes in mass and or volume can be accurately (2003). To aid the comparison of REE mobility trends,
quantied. Growing evidence suggests, however, that a REE data are also plotted as multi-element variation
number of commonly used species have enhanced diagrams (Fig. 9), with each sheared sample normal-
mobilities under a range of pressure, temperature and ized to the composition of its unsheared protolith.
uid composition conditions. Both empirical eld Best-t isocon lines were applied to samples from
studies and experimental investigations have demon- Traverse 1 using Ti, P and Y, which show excellent
strated the potential for substantial mobility of Al, Ti linear correlation (R2 = 0.97; Fig. 8ab). Other
and REE, as well as high eld strength elements such as potentially immobile elements such as Al, Zr and Hf
Zr, Hf and Ta (e.g. Glazner & Bartley, 1991; Rolland were not used because of their large concentration
et al., 2003; Jiang et al., 2005; Bucholz & Ague, 2009; differences between protolith and deformed samples.
Hovelmann et al., 2009; Rapp et al., 2010). The selec- This may be explained by the absence of zircon (a key
tion of geochemical reference frames should therefore reservoir for Zr and Hf) and the appearance of abun-
avoid ad hoc assumptions and involve careful consid- dant muscovite (Al) in the latter. Using this reference
eration of mineralogical evidence for elemental mobility frame, a volume change (DV) of +20% is indicated,
(e.g. Rolland et al., 2003; Masters & Ague, 2005). Pet- which is consistent with estimates from other shear
rological observations are used to identify the precipi- zones of the ReynoldsAnmatjira region (Cartwright
tation and dissolution of key elemental reservoirs, & Buick, 1999). It is achieved by substantial mass gains
thereby monitoring whether nominally immobile in Si, Al, Mg, Fe and K (Table S3). These changes
elements are conserved. directly correspond with the mineralogical alteration
Along with the cautious selection of immobile exhibited by the moderately sheared sample. Mg, Fe
elements for normalization, valid application of the and K are added via abundant mica growth and minor
isocon method also requires the accurate determina- retention of microcline, and Al increases due to
tion of protolith geochemistry. Rock units with well- muscovite substitution. Despite wholesale plagioclase
developed layering or banding are likely to have dissolution indicated by large Ca and Na losses,
strongly heterogeneous compositions that cannot be Si actually increases due to feldspar replacement
assimilated at the scale of individual hand samples. by similarly Si-undersaturated phases (muscovite
This leads to the identication of spurious chemical or and biotite) and the accompanying aggregation of
mineralogical changes relative to their altered coun- Si-saturated minerals (recrystallized quartz ribbons).
X
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
(g) (h)
X
that their primary reservoirs (zircon and apatite) are

conserved across all samples, suggesting that these
elements exhibit immobile behaviour. Alternatives
such as Al, Ti, Nb, Ta and Y are not used due to either
large concentration variations or very low abundances
that approach the analytical detection limits. Similar to
Traverse 1, all three comparisons from Traverse 2
indicate volume increases (+1537%). This is again
achieved by substantial mass gains, although the ele-
mental enrichment patterns are not uniform. In each
case, however, the observed geochemical variations
may be related to progressive changes in the mineral-
ogy of deformed samples (Fig. 5).
Strongly sheared sample RAN08-024 (Fig. 8c,d) is
generally analogous to RAN08-018 from Traverse 1. It
shows similar enrichments in Si, Al, Mg, Fe and K, but
Fig. 9. Rare earth element patterns for sheared samples from preferential depletion of Ca relative to Na (Table S3).
Traverses 1 and 2, showing highly variable element mobilities This may be explained by an increase in the modal
that may be related to the growth or dissolution of key proportions of biotite and chlorite (Al, Mg, Fe and K
mineral reservoirs (see text for discussion). The numerical pairs
displayed in the top right-hand corner indicate the protolith gains), complete plagioclase breakdown and partial
compositions used to normalize each sample: the former perthite preservation (Ca depletion without equivalent
number represents the undeformed precursor, and the latter K or Na loss), and extensive quartz aggregation (Si
represents its sheared equivalent. increase). REE linear correlations are again strong
(R2 0.93), with a slight decrease in HREE relative to
LREE consistent with limited garnet breakdown
Along with substantial major element mobility, (Figs 8c & 9). Most trace elements are largely con-
other notable trends include slight enrichments and served, except for signicant Sr loss accompanying
strong linear correlations for both light rare earth feldspar reduction.
elements (LREE) and heavy rare earth elements These trends are substantially different to those
(HREE), with R2 values of 1.00 and 0.94, respec- exhibited by intensely metasomatized sample RAN08-
tively. The only exception is Eu, which shows strong 030. Relative to protolith samples RAN08-026
depletion relative to the remaining HREE (Figs 8a & (Fig. 8e,f) and RAN08-032 (Fig. 8g,h), it shows strong
9). These patterns are consistent with the appearance depletions in Si, Na and Ca, and equally marked
of minor monazite, resulting in the preferential enrichments in Fe, Mg, Al, Ti and K (Table S3). The
enrichment of LREE over HREE, and the complete former may be explained by a signicant reduction in
absence of plagioclase, an important Eu reservoir. quartz content and the total loss of both plagioclase
Gains in large-ion lithophile elements (LILE) such as and perthite, and the latter are consistent with abun-
Rb, Cs and Ba are concomitant with increases in K, dant chlorite, biotite and rutile growth (Fig. 5). Ba and
and most likely related to mica growth (Rolland Sr losses are associated with feldspar dissolution,
et al., 2003). Minor Nb, Ta, Ni and Zn increases may HREE depletion matches the complete absence of
also be due to their limited substitutions in biotite garnet, and LREE, Y, Th, U and Pb decreases corre-
(Tischendorf et al., 2001). Sr loss is explained by spond with the disappearance of allanite. Poor HREE
feldspar removal, and depletions in Zr, Hf, Th, U and correlations (R2 0.62) are largely the result of Eu
Pb are the result of zircon absence. Finally, an anomalies inherited from protolith feldspar composi-
increase in the volatile component (LOI; loss on tions, as LREE display strong linear correspondence
ignition) may be related to the greater proportion of (R2 0.91). Notable gains in Cr, V, Sc, Ga, Ni and Zn
hydrous minerals such as biotite and muscovite in the may be indicative of extensive metasomatic rutile
sheared sample. precipitation (Meinhold, 2010), and LILE enrichment
Consistent and linearly correlated isocon lines for matches mica growth. Finally, large increases in LOI
Traverse 2 were obtained using Zr, Hf and P may be related to a dramatic rise in the proportion of
(R2 0.99; Fig. 8ch). Petrological evidence indicates hydrous minerals such as chlorite and biotite.
Fig. 8. Isocon diagrams showing variations in major and rare earth elements (left-hand boxes) and trace elements (right-hand boxes)
between sheared and unsheared samples from (a and b) Traverse 1 and (ch) Traverse 2. Major elements are plotted as wt%
oxide, and trace and rare earth elements as ppm. Continuous lines represent probable isocon lines, selected on the basis of immobile
elements, with slope and R2 t values as indicated. Thin dashed lines and accompanying R2 values indicate the linear correlations
for light rare earth element (LREE) and heavy rare earth element (HREE), respectively (see key). Also shown are volume changes (DV)
associated with shearing. Scaling factors used for clarity are listed in Table S2, and sample locations are shown in Fig. 3.
XX
normalized to a calibration curve based on values

STABLE ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY
obtained from the international standards IAEA-CH-7
To further characterize the uids involved in metaso- ()100.33&), NBS-22 ()120.0&) and NBS-30 ()65&).
matic alteration of the ReynoldsAnmatjira shear All samples were analysed in triplicate, and 1r stan-
zones, oxygen and hydrogen isotope measurements dard deviation uncertainties are typically better than
were obtained from a range of minerals contained in 1.0&. All hydrogen isotope ratios are reported in dD
both deformed and protolith samples from Traverses 1 notation relative to V-SMOW.
and 2. This isotopic ngerprinting enables the identi-
cation of uid sources involved in the rehydration
Oxygen and hydrogen isotope compositions
process (e.g. Taylor, 1974; Sheppard, 1986; Hoefs,
2009), and may also provide independent constraints All d18O and dD values from shear zone and protolith
on the conditions of equilibration (Valley, 2001 and samples in Traverses 1 and 2 are presented in Table S4,
references therein). Coupled with the thermobaromet- with sample locations and rock types indicated in
ric estimates and element mobility trends documented Fig. 3. The lateral variation in isotopic values and their
above, this information forms the geochemical and correspondence with the intensity of shearing is also
metamorphic framework for assessing uidrock shown in Fig. 10. Overall, there is a distinct shift to
interaction in the mid-crust. lower d18O and dD values with increasing strain and
metasomatism. Protolith metasedimentary and granitic
gneisses from Traverse 1 have biotite and quartz d18O
Analytical methods
values up to 5.3& and 3.4& higher than their most
The same crushed rock fractions prepared for whole- intensely sheared equivalents. Feldspar values are also
rock geochemical analysis were sieved between 0.5 and reduced by up to 2.8& in moderately sheared samples
3 mm, washed with water and dried at 110 C, before before complete dissolution occurs in high-strain areas,
mineral separates for each sample were hand picked and muscovite values decrease by 2.7& between
using a binocular microscope. Oxygen (d18O) and moderately and strongly sheared samples. dD values
hydrogen (dD) isotope values were then determined at show abrupt and extensive lowering in high-strain
GNS Science, Lower Hutt, New Zealand. zones, with biotite and muscovite values reduced by up
Oxygen was extracted from all minerals using a to 30& across adjacent samples.
CO2-laser and BrF5 reagent (Sharp, 1990). Samples Traverse 2 exhibits similar isotopic depletion pat-
and standards were heated overnight in a mufe fur- terns to Traverse 1, although the alteration fronts are
nace to 170 C, prior to loading into a vacuum not as sharp for oxygen as they are for hydrogen, nor
extraction line to remove any adsorbed water. The do they correlate as strongly with the apparent strain
samples were then evacuated for 6 h and left over- gradients. d18O values are also quite variable between
night in a BrF5 vapour. Blank BrF5 runs were per- different protolith samples, particularly for quartz and
formed until the yield was <0.1 lmol oxygen. Except feldspar analyses. Unlike Traverse 1, this discrepancy
for quartz, feldspar and muscovite, oxygen from all cannot be attributed to differences in protolith rock
minerals was passed through a uorine-getter (in-line type (i.e. metasedimentary v. granitic gneisses), because
Hg diffusion pump), before being converted to CO2 by all undeformed samples are from nominally identical
a graphite furnace. Yields were recorded and CO2 granitic units. Nor can it be explained by diffuse uid
analysed on a Europa Geo 20-20 mass spectrometer. ow proximal to the primary shear zone conduits,
Quartz, feldspar and muscovite samples are normal- producing a propagated isotopic reaction front within
ized to the international quartz standard NBS-28, wall rock units, because protolith dD values are quite
using a value of 9.6& (Hut, 1987). All other minerals consistent ()49& to )54&) despite their greater sen-
are normalized to the garnet standard UWG-2, using a sitivity to re-equilibration (Bickle & McKenzie, 1987;
value of 5.8& (Valley et al., 1995). At least three Dipple & Ferry, 1992a). Nevertheless, there remain
standards were run per 15 unknowns, and their large shifts to lower d18O values recorded by different
reproducibility was typically better than 0.1& (1r). coexisting minerals in high-strain areas, particularly in
Repeated sample analyses also agreed to within 0.1& locations directly adjacent to the metre-scale quartz
(1r). All oxygen isotope ratios are reported in d18O veins that run sub-parallel to the shear fabric (Figs 3 &
notation relative to V-SMOW. 4). Biotite and quartz values are reduced by up to 5.4&
Hydrogen was extracted from biotite, muscovite and and 4.0& in these areas, and feldspar and chlorite
chlorite for dD value measurements. Mineral separates show decreases of 3.3& and 1.9&. In contrast to the
were initially heated in a mufe furnace at 150 C early boudinaged veins in Traverse 1, quartz from the
overnight, prior to pyrolysis at 1400 C in silver cap- vein arrays in Traverse 2 is signicantly more 18O-poor
sules. 2H 1H isotopic ratios were then determined than typical values for protolith grains, and is com-
using a HEKAtech high-temperature elemental ana- parable to quartz analyses from the most intensely
lyser coupled with a GV Instruments IsoPrime mass metasomatized samples. This suggests that dilatant
spectrometer, with zero blank sample holders used to veins were important conduits for uid ow, ultimately
minimize adsorbed moisture. The measured ratios are producing the intense alteration recorded by their
100
(a) (c)
(b) (d)
Fig. 10. Oxygen and hydrogen isotope variations across deformed and metasomatized basement rocks in (a and b) Traverse 1 (T1),
southeastern Anmatjira Range; (c and d) Traverse 2 (T2), Yaningidjara Hills. Sample numbers at the beginning and end of each
traverse are given in the lower left- and right-hand corners of each plot (refer to Fig. 3). Multiple coexisting minerals in both traverses
show a marked shift to lower d18O and dD values in areas of the highest strain (as indicated by shading; see key). Error bars
approximate the size of the symbols shown.
adjacent selvages. Finally, biotite analyses indicate a where i and j denote the mineral phases of interest, Di)j
pronounced lowering of dD values by up to 20& that is the equilibrium fractionation between i and j, Ai)j is
is strongly correlated with increases in the intensity of the equilibrium 18O 16O fractionation coefcient for j
deformation. relative to i, and T is temperature (K). On a bivariate
plot of Di)j v. Ai)j, coexisting minerals have equilibrium
relationships given by linear isotherms of the form:
Mineral isotopic fractionations and temperature estimates
The temperature dependence of oxygen isotope d18 Oj a0 a1 Aij ; 9
exchange between mineral pairs enables isotopic
fractionation relationships to be used for thermometry where a0 is the y-intercept and a1 is the slope of the
(e.g. Valley, 2001 and references therein). However, for line. By combining equations (8) and (9), it follows that
calculated temperatures to be meaningful, the condi- p of equilibration can be estimated using
the temperature
tion of isotopic equilibrium must be met. To test this T 106 =ja1 j. Equilibrium fractionation factors rel-
assumption, the isotherm method of Javoy et al. evant to the minerals analysed in this study are pre-
(1970), as summarized by van Haren et al. (1996) was sented by van Haren et al. (1996). They calculated A
used. It utilizes the following fractionation expression: coefcients for feldspar (1.10), muscovite (1.78), garnet
(2.90) and biotite (3.27) based on an extensive compi-
Aij 106 lation of empirical, numerical and experimental cali-
Dij ; 8
T2 brations. In each case, the fractionation values are
101
Fig. 11. Isotherm plots indicating the extent of isotopic disequilibrium between coexisting quartz, feldspar, muscovite, garnet and
biotite from Traverses 1 and 2. All minerals are derived from moderately or strongly sheared samples, as indicated. Isotherm lines for
525 100 C (corresponding to approximate temperatures calculated from Ti-in-quartz and Zr-in-rutile thermobarometry) are shown
for reference.
given with respect to quartz, due to its saturation in all the inltrating uid. In contrast, garnet from Traverse
samples. 2 is clearly a refractory mineral derived from the
Isotherm plots for moderately and strongly sheared protolith granitic gneiss (Fig. 5), and maintains the
samples from Traverses 1 and 2 are presented in isotopically heavy composition of its parent due to
Fig. 11. Both locations show signicant disparity extremely slow oxygen diffusivity (Coghlan, 1990;
amongst individual minerals. Feldspar shows the Wright et al., 1995). The calculated temperature
greatest internal consistency, most likely due to its high estimates are broadly consistent with independent
oxygen diffusivity (Brady, 1995), whereas the remain- constraints provided by Ti-in-quartz and Zr-in-rutile
ing minerals exhibit varying amounts of dispersion. In thermobarometry (Fig. 7), but remain poorly repre-
most cases, however, analyses from strongly sheared sentative of a system clearly dominated by extensive
samples show reasonable consistency, particularly for disequilibrium.
Traverse 1. This is perhaps the result of enhanced iso-
topic exchange with increasing strain and recrystalli-
Fluid composition calculations
zation (Cartwright et al., 1993; Cartwright & Buick,
1999; Baumgartner & Valley, 2001), indicating that We calculate the isotopic composition of an aqueous
most moderately sheared samples from both traverses uid in equilibrium with the analysed minerals using
incorporate a large proportion of relict or variably reset the following relationships:
minerals. The greater discrepancies exhibited by Tra-
verse 2 may be indicative of protolith heterogeneities d18 Ofluid d18 Oi Difluid ; 10
(discussed previously) that are not eradicated by com-
plete re-equilibration during uidrock interaction. dDfluid dDi Difluid ; 11
The signicant scatter in the data makes the con-
struction of valid isotherm lines extremely problematic. where Di)uid represents the equilibrium fractionation
Certainly, there are no smooth linear trends made between mineral phase i and the uid. This term varies
obvious by visual inspection. This alone highlights the according to the temperature of equilibration, which
large extent of isotopic disequilibrium amongst shear we constrain using the independent estimates provided
zone samples from both traverses. The issue is exac- by Ti-in-quartz and Zr-in-rutile thermobarometry
erbated by a large spread of quartz compositions, (Fig. 7). It is also dependent on laboratory calibrations
making the selection of a fractionation reference frame of mineraluid fractionation; the relevant studies are
largely arbitrary. However, if the average quartz d18O listed in Table S4. To ensure a close approach to iso-
value from strongly sheared samples is employed for topic equilibrium, uid values are calculated only for
each mineral pair, isotherm lines that intersect the strongly sheared samples. Their greater recrystalliza-
lowest muscovite and biotite d18O values encompass a tion reduces the preservation of relict or partially reset
temperature range of 525 100 C. These hydrous minerals (Cartwright et al., 1993; Cartwright & Buick,
minerals are likely to be the primary products of 1999; Baumgartner & Valley, 2001). However, given
metasomatism and hence closest to equilibrium with that isotherm analysis still indicates variable resetting
102
for such samples (Fig. 11), the estimated uid values Range (Figs 2 & 7). These adjusted estimates are
are necessarily inconsistent. The lowest values are consistent with the stability of diagnostic minerals in
generally obtained from hydrous minerals such as the shear zone assemblages (primarily andalusite,
biotite, muscovite and chlorite. As the primary prod- kyanite & staurolite) and the established metamorphic
ucts of metasomatism, these phases provide minimum architecture of the terrane (Dirks & Wilson, 1990;
estimates on the extent of isotopic depletion of the Dirks et al., 1991; Cartwright & Buick, 1999).
inuxing uid. Together, they indicate average apparent thermal
For Traverse 1, an equilibration temperature of gradients of 2936 C km)1 and depths of 1418 km
526 C produces mineraluid d18O fractionation val- (assuming a pressure gradient of 0.275 kbar km)1).
ues of 2.52& for quartz, 1.21& for feldspar, )2.47& The relatively high average apparent thermal gradi-
for biotite, )0.13& for muscovite, )0.94& for chlorite, ent calculated from the southeastern Anmatjira Range
)0.06& for andalusite and )1.66& for garnet, using (36 C km)1) is conrmed by the presence of shear-
the calibrations listed in Table S4. Corresponding dD related andalusitestaurolite assemblages in this region
fractionation values are )36.15& for biotite, )15.50& (Figs 2 & 4a). Oxygen self-diffusion rates in andalusite
for muscovite, and )29.79& for chlorite. When are extremely sluggish, allowing it to retain the isotopic
applied to mineral compositions from strongly sheared composition of crystallization (Larson & Sharp, 2005).
samples RAN08-007 to RAN08-010 inclusive, these Comparatively low d18Ouid values for andalusite
indicate d18Ouid and dDuid values as low as 2.3& and (Table S4) thus indicate that it is a primary product of
)59.8&, respectively (Table S4). For Traverse 2, uidrock interaction, and representative of the pre-
approximately identical mineraluid fractionation vailing thermal conditions during metasomatism at
values at 525 C return d18Ouid and dDuid values as mid-crustal levels. In adjacent parts of the terrane,
low as 4.0& and )32.1& for strongly sheared samples deeper levels of exposure are characterized by kyanite
RAN08-024, RAN08-029 and RAN08-030. sillimanite assemblages (Fig. 2), and feature corre-
spondingly lower thermal gradients. The value of
29 C km)1 from the central Reynolds Range is
DISCUSSION
matched by an estimate of 25 C km)1 from the
In the following sections, we integrate the thermo- highest-grade shear zones further southeast (Cart-
barometric and geochemical data sets presented above wright & Buick, 1999).
to address several key aspects of deep crustal uid Nevertheless, it must be admitted that the thermo-
rock interaction. Our conclusions are outlined with barometric estimates we obtain are relatively loosely
reference to the ReynoldsAnmatjira shear zones and constrained, and further investigation of the meta-
their regional context, and consideration is ultimately morphic conditions during deformation and metaso-
given to the role of uid inltration in the evolution of matism would benet from a more precise application
the intracontinental Alice Springs Orogen. In more of PT calculation techniques. In particular, our
general terms, however, the utility of each methodol- results highlight the following considerations. The
ogy for dening the extent and characteristics of large uncertainties associated with the Ti-in-quartz
metasomatism is discussed, and comparisons are made thermobarometer at the low PT end of its calibration,
to other localities involving similar alteration features. coupled with the very steep gradient of Zr-in-rutile
This critical assessment of shear zone interrogation isopleths, suggests that Zr and Ti trace element data
techniques provides useful strategies for their applica- are unlikely to produce reliable pressure estimates
tion to alternative eld areas. from recrystallized assemblages in greenschist to
amphibolite facies shear zones. Temperature estimates
are more robust for such applications, especially where
PT conditions of deformation and metasomatism
independent pressure constraints are available. How-
The interpreted mid-crustal setting of deformation and ever, the limited extent of Ti substitution in quartz
metasomatism in the ReynoldsAnmatjira shear zones requires that analytical precision exceeds the calibra-
(Cartwright & Buick, 1999; Read & Cartwright, 2000; tion uncertainty. Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry
Read, 2002) is broadly supported by PT constraints (SIMS) analysis is thus preferable to LA-ICP-MS
from this study. Combined Ti-in-quartz and Zr- measurements, particularly considering the potential
in-rutile thermobarometry indicates crystallization interference issues affecting the higher abundance 48Ti
conditions in excess of 550 C and 10 kbar, which are isotope in the latter and the poor ablation of quartz at
rejected on the basis of poor analytical and calibration ne grain sizes (Flem et al., 2002). The high spatial
sensitivities for Ti-in-quartz. However, if the Zr- resolution of SIMS analysis has the added advantage
in-rutile estimates are revised using pressure values of linking Ti variations to distinctive CL domains, even
derived from existing studies (i.e. Hand, 1993; Hand & in strongly recrystallized samples, enabling the
Buick, 2001), calculated conditions become 526 extraction of detailed thermal and deformational
23 C and 4.0 0.3 kbar for Traverse 1 in the histories (e.g. Kohn & Northrup, 2009; Spear & Wark,
southeastern Anmatjira Range, and 525 26 C and 2009). In contrast, the lower analytical precision and
5.0 1.5 kbar for Traverse 2 in the central Reynolds higher detection limit of electron microprobe analysis
@[
makes it unsuitable for low PT applications (e.g. dynamics of uid ow (e.g. McCaig, 1997; Miller
Muller et al., 2003). In such cases, Zr-in-rutile ther- et al., 2002 and references therein). These models rely
mometry is likely to remain useful, given the much on the temperature dependency of uidrock parti-
larger extent of Zr substitution and hence greater range tion coefcients to quantitatively determine both the
of concentration variations able to be measured within direction of uid ow and the volume of uid in-
adequate analytical uncertainty. volved in metasomatism. Under this framework, iso-
While calibration and analytical uncertainties have topic and major element changes are interpreted as
less impact on the utility of stable isotope geother- the inevitable products of equilibrium uid ow along
mometry, this technique is nevertheless limited by the normal crustal temperature gradients. There is no
critical assumption of isotopic equilibrium. Isotherm necessity to invoke the inltration of externally
analysis indicates signicant disequilibrium amongst derived, chemically exotic uids to explain the
coexisting minerals from the alteration assemblages of observed alteration patterns.
Traverses 1 and 2 (Fig. 11), despite their strong While the above method may offer an elegant solution
recrystallization. This characteristic is mirrored in for compositional changes driven by local uid
other studies of metasomatized shear zones (e.g. Streit production and transport, as evidently occurs in many
& Cox, 1998; Cartwright & Buick, 1999; Clark et al., regional and contact metamorphic terranes, its universal
2005, 2006). In large open systems such as fault applicability to discrete uid ow in shear zones is
structures, particularly those subject to prolonged questionable. This realization is highlighted by several
cooling histories and potential exchange with exter- key results from this study. In particular, the observed
nally derived uids, grain-scale disequilibrium is likely isotopic trends from Traverses 1 and 2 are irreconcilable
to occur (Streit & Cox, 1998; Baumgartner & Valley, with the fundamental requirements and expected out-
2001; Cartwright & Barnicoat, 2003). This is exacer- comes of the stable isotope alteration model proposed
bated in circumstances where both primary and relict by Dipple & Ferry (1992a). First, oxygen isotope anal-
minerals coexist in aggregated domains (Cartwright ysis of deformed samples clearly indicates signicant
et al., 1993; McCaig, 1997). For isotopic data sets disequilibrium between different mineral pairs (Fig. 11),
collected using bulk mineral aggregates, textural even for strongly sheared samples where intense
information cannot be easily assessed to enable the recrystallization should promote isotopic exchange and
distinction of different mineral generations, and addi- resetting (Cartwright et al., 1993; Cartwright & Buick,
tional factors such as isotopic zonation and complex 1999; Baumgartner & Valley, 2001). If local uidrock
intergrowths may contribute to any potential disequi- equilibrium is not obtained, then fractionation models
librium. Ultimately, this means that the condition of based on this central assumption are inappropriate to
isotopic equilibrium will rarely be realized, and explain the observed alteration patterns. Second, mod-
meaningful temperature estimates based on stable erately and strongly sheared samples from both loca-
isotope geothermometry will be extremely difcult to tions exhibit simultaneous lowering of d18O and dD
obtain. Fortunately, however, high-resolution SIMS values for all analysed minerals (Fig. 10; Table S4).
analysis again offers signicant potential to avoid these Under temperature-controlled equilibrium mass
issues with targeted in situ measurements at the sub- fractionation, several phases should show converse
grain scale. In minerals such as garnet, this informa- increases and decreases. At temperatures relevant to
tion can be combined with age constraints and this study, Dquartzuid and Dbiotiteuid are approximately
elemental zonation patterns to extract coupled ther- equal and opposite for oxygen isotopes, as are Dfeldspar
mal, temporal and uid ow histories from individual uid and Dchloriteuid (Bottinga & Javoy, 1973; Cole &
samples (e.g. Lancaster et al., 2009; Martin et al., Ripley, 1999; Hu & Clayton, 2003). Furthermore, D
2011). For better insights into the complexity of uid fractionation in biotite and muscovite should be oppo-
rock interaction in metasomatized shear zones, this site to 18O fractionation in quartz and feldspar, because
powerful technique should be preferentially applied in dD dT is positive for the former and negative for the
future studies. latter (Dipple & Ferry, 1992a). These predicted results
evidently disagree with the observed isotopic trends,
further suggesting that isotopic shifts were predomi-
Mechanisms for isotopic alteration and major element
nantly dictated by the 18O- and D-poor composition of a
metasomatism
non-equilibrium uid. Finally, both traverses are
Geochemical changes in metasomatized shear zones characterized by sharp alteration fronts coinciding with
are the primary records of uidrock interaction. As the margins of the sheared rocks (Fig. 10), a feature
such, they play a pivotal role in the reconstruction of strongly indicative of mass transport driven by the inux
ancient uid ow regimes. Valid interpretation of of an externally derived uid (Bickle & McKenzie, 1987;
these records, however, must involve careful consid- Bickle & Baker, 1990). Local equilibrium exchange is
eration of the mechanism for alteration. Many expected to produce signicantly more diffuse isotopic
workers have utilized the predictive models of Dipple gradients that vary smoothly with gradual temperature
& Ferry (1992a,b) to constrain several parameters increases along the ow path of the inltrating uid
fundamental to our understanding of the crustal (Dipple & Ferry, 1992a).
@F
Along with obvious discrepancies in the isotopic re- inux of externally derived, low-18O and -D uids.
cord of uidrock interaction, the changes in whole- Somewhat confusingly, therefore, the corresponding
rock geochemistry exhibited by samples from Traverses major element mobility trends are explained with
1 and 2 are also clearly different to those predicted by reference to temperature-controlled equilibrium uid
uidrock partition coefcients for the major elements. ow, a process specically contradicted by the exis-
Several lines of evidence question the relevance of the tence of such non-equilibrium uids (Dipple & Ferry,
elemental solubility model proposed by Dipple & Ferry 1992a,b). Clearly, if isotopic evidence establishes the
(1992b) to explain the observed alteration patterns. existence of chemically exotic, remotely sourced uids,
First, petrological observations and stable isotope data then geochemical changes must be controlled by more
indicate that sheared samples incorporate a signicant complex mechanisms than temperature gradients alone
proportion of relict minerals derived from protolith (Miller et al., 2002; Yardley, 2009). We illustrate this
rock units. Quartz, feldspar and garnet porphyroclasts point with reference to the element mobility trends
are preserved in many instances, and extensive ribbons described earlier. Detailed petrological observations
of unaltered material persist even in intensely metaso- indicate that the enrichment and depletion of various
matized samples (Figs 5 & 6), resulting in highly vari- components may be linked to the growth, dissolution
able mineral compositions. The critical assumption of and spatial reorganization of key minerals. In partic-
local chemical equilibrium is therefore invalid. Second, ular, Si, Na and Ca losses are strongly inuenced by
isocon analysis reveals no consistent enrichment or the progress of quartz and feldspar breakdown, and K
depletion patterns for metasomatized samples. Com- gains are dictated by the extent of mica replacement.
plementary comparisons from two adjacent shear zones Such changes are further complicated by preferential
in Traverse 2 indicate contradictory behaviours of dissolution and alteration of different mineral end-
several signicant components, including major ele- member populations (e.g. perthite v. plagioclase) and
ments and REE (Figs 8 & 9; Table S3). Furthermore, the extensive aggregation and redistribution of relict
the elemental mobility patterns identied in Traverse 2 grains (Fig. 5). Insofar as mineral stability and
do not necessarily agree with those of Traverse 1, preservation can be controlled by an array of factors
despite all shear zones being located in nominally beyond simply temperature gradients, therefore,
similar wall rocks. The expectation of paired increases whole-rock geochemical changes during metasomatism
or decreases in Si and K relative to Na and Ca is clearly should likewise be attributed to more complex pro-
not realized, indicating that element mobility was cesses than equilibrium uid ow alone, particularly
moderated by more complex factors than temperature where major element alteration patterns are inconsis-
gradients alone. Finally, the concentration changes tent and contradictory.
exhibited by Si are considerably greater than those of K In general terms, then, geochemical analysis of
and Na (Table S3), and do not coincide with the sys- shear zone metasomatism deserves cautious inter-
tematic variability predicted by temperature-controlled pretation. This predominantly applies where evidence
elemental solubility. Any estimates of the time-inte- for external uid ingress is compelling, by virtue of
grated uid ux during metasomatism will therefore be either isotopic data or diagnostic eld relationships
extremely inconsistent, with those calculated on the indicating a lack of plausible internal uid sources
basis of Si changes up to two orders of magnitude (see following section, Fluid source and ingress
different to those employing K and Na changes. mechanism). In such cases, alteration assemblages
Disagreement between observed geochemical alter- are shaped rstly by the interaction of protolith and
ation patterns and those predicted by equilibrium uid exotic uid chemistries, and secondly by the dynamic
ow along temperature gradients is not restricted to interplay of contributing factors such as pressure,
new data sets presented in this study, nor merely to temperature, strain-rate, ow velocity, uid ux,
shear zones of the ReynoldsAnmatjira region. reaction progress, exchange kinetics, advection, dif-
Cartwright & Buick (1999) and Read & Cartwright fusion and dispersion (Phillips, 1990; Bickle, 1992;
(2000) demonstrated similar geochemical changes from Wintsch et al., 1995; Skelton et al., 1997; Baum-
various shear zones of the central and southeastern gartner & Valley, 2001; Rolland et al., 2003; Marsh
Reynolds Range. In these cases, 18O and D alteration et al., 2009). Even under intense recrystallization, we
fronts are again sharp, minerals with opposite signs for demonstrate that these processes can involve signi-
dD dT show simultaneous lowering of isotopic ratios, cant local disequilibrium, and the mobility of indi-
and isotherm analysis indicates signicant uidrock vidual components can be non-uniform. Many shear
disequilibrium. Outside of the Alice Springs Orogen, zones thus represent complex amalgams that cannot
these characteristics are mirrored in the studies be unravelled through the application of simplistic
of Streit & Cox (1998) from mid-crustal mylonites of geochemical models ascribing all mass fractionation
King Island, Tasmania, and Clark et al. (2006) from and elemental behaviour to equilibrium temperature
exhumed shear zones of the Curnamona Province, effects. These issues are compounded by the strong
southeastern Australia. possibility of inconspicuous compositional domains
All these authors attributed observed isotopic in protolith and deformed rock units that mask
depletion patterns in mid-crustal shear zones to the apparent enrichment and depletion trends, and a
@!
growing recognition of signicant uid mobility for impervious to diffusive resetting at all crustal condi-
nominally inert elements, making the selection of tions (Coghlan, 1990; Wright et al., 1995), and retains
reference frames for isocon diagrams subject to the isotopic composition of its precursor. Despite this
considerable uncertainty. Ultimately, this suggests disequilibrium, calculated d18Ouid and dDuid values
that the utility of whole-rock geochemical data is from more sensitive minerals clearly show some evi-
generally limited for shear zone studies without de- dence of discrimination against the isotopically heavy
tailed petrological context and integrated isotopic signatures of local uid reservoirs, suggesting similar
analysis. In any case, the involvement of non-equi- interaction with a 18O- and D-poor uid originating
librium uids implies that the local equilibrium from remote sources.
assumption cannot be used to extract any meaningful The unusual isotopic character of uids involved in
information regarding the uid ow direction or metasomatism of the ReynoldsAnmatjira shear zones
time-integrated uid ux. Advective-diffusive models is further illuminated by the following eld relation-
incorporating a disequilibrium steady state may be ships. First, Alice Springs-aged igneous intrusions are
more appropriate to constrain these parameters (e.g. entirely absent from this region (Collins & Shaw, 1995;
Bickle, 1992; Lasaga & Rye, 1993; Skelton et al., Hand et al., 1995; Sun et al., 1995; Vry et al., 1996),
1997; Skelton, 2011), but they have limited usefulness suggesting that the uid signatures were not imposed
where propagated reaction fronts are difcult to by abnormally low-18O magmas or their contamina-
identify and alteration margins are accompanied by tion by 18O- and D-poor crust. Second, there is
signicant deformation. Major challenges therefore no evidence of proximal underthrust sedimentary
remain to fully specify the uid ow regimes in large- sequences potentially containing isotopically light
scale shear systems such as those of the Reynolds source rocks (Korsch et al., 1998; Hand & Sandiford,
Anmatjira Ranges. 1999). Even if such sequences exist, thick-skinned
shortening accompanying the Alice Springs Orogeny
(<50 km; Flottmann & Hand, 1999; Flottmann et al.,
Fluid source and ingress mechanism
2004) appears too modest to generate the extensive
The previous section establishes that isotopic alteration thrust stacks necessary to promote their dewatering
and major element metasomatism in the Reynolds (Lobato et al., 1983; Cartwright & Buick, 1999).
Anmatjira shear zones were driven by the inux of a Finally, the basement rocks hosting the Reynolds
non-equilibrium uid derived from remote sources. Anmatjira shear zones have experienced a prolonged
Determining the precise origin of this uid requires an history of high-grade metamorphism, anatexis and
evaluation of both its geochemical characteristics and melt extraction long prior to Palaeozoic deformation
the geological setting of uid inux. Mineraluid and metasomatism (Cartwright et al., 2001; Hand &
fractionation relationships documented above indicate Buick, 2001). As such, they are extremely unlikely to
d18Ouid and dDuid values as low as 2.3& and )59.8& constitute fertile source rocks for further dehydration
for Traverse 1, and 4.0& and )32.1& for Traverse 2 and uid production. This limitation also applies to
(Table S4). All d18Ouid values from Traverse 1 are more deeply exhumed basement terranes in adjacent
below the mantle value (5.7 0.3&; Taylor, 1980), and parts of the Arunta Region, such as the Strangways
fall within the compositional range of surface-derived Metamorphic Complex and the Entia Gneiss Complex
uids (Taylor, 1974; Sheppard, 1986). dDuid values are (Buick et al., 2008; see Fig. 1), ruling out the possi-
more ambiguous, spanning the breadth of meteoric, bility of signicant uid liberation by higher temper-
magmatic and metamorphic uids (Taylor, 1974; Hoefs, ature conditions at deeper crustal levels.
2009). Importantly, however, all calculated uid values In the absence of plausible source rocks for the
remain substantially lower than that of their direct generation of isotopically light uids, it appears likely
protoliths, other basement units of the Reynolds that they were originally derived from surcial reser-
Anmatjira region (Cartwright & Buick, 1999; voirs (Taylor, 1974; Sheppard, 1986; Hoefs, 2009). This
Cartwright et al., 2001), and typical granitic and meta- interpretation is consistent with additional uid com-
morphic rocks (Taylor, 1978; Taylor & Sheppard, 1986). position estimates determined by Cartwright & Buick
This precludes the involvement of a uid liberated by (1999), Read & Cartwright (2000) and Read (2002)
local basement dehydration reactions in the metaso- from proximal shear zones of the ReynoldsAnmatjira
matic process, and further conrms that the observed region. These authors documented d18Ouid and dDuid
pattern of isotopic depletion was imprinted by the in- values as low as )3& and )50& from the Sandy Creek,
gress of an externally derived 18O- and D-poor uid. Anna Reservoir, Bluebush Swamp and Yalbadjandi
For Traverse 2, the majority of d18Ouid values again Shear Zone localities (Fig. 2). As for the values we
fall below the mantle signature, particularly for the present in this study, the overall modest depletion of
most intensely metasomatized samples adjacent to these existing estimates relative to the mantle signature,
quartz veins (e.g. RAN08-030). Higher values are coupled with their large separation from the meteoric
probably caused by a combination of partial resetting water line, suggest that signicant rock-buffering has
and protolith heterogeneity, as discussed previously. occurred from pristine surface water compositions.
This is particularly true of garnet, which is virtually This agrees with the general pattern of decreasing
106
isotopic alteration with increasing depth of exposure eradication of low-d18O and -dD values to occur. This
towards the southeast of the terrane. In the highest- directly contradicts the lack of uidrock interaction in
grade areas, sillimanite- and kyanite-bearing shear low-grade shear zones, which constitute the upper-
zones at Peaked Hill and Mt Boothby (Fig. 2) show crustal extensions of deeper, more remote structures
little evidence of isotopic resetting (Cartwright & exhibiting progressively more intense metasomatism.
Buick, 1999). This is despite the fact that they are The unfavourable conditions for the deep penetra-
indistinguishable in age from shear zones at higher tion of large uid volumes and the preservation of their
crustal levels (Fig. 2), and exhibit comparable alter- original isotopic signatures thus argue against the
ation features and structural organizations. In addi- direct downward propagation of uids from the sur-
tion, the extent of isotopic resetting we document in the face to the mid-crust. An alternative proposition by
southeastern Anmatjira Range (Traverse 1) is evidently Clark et al. (2006) suggests that they are initially
more pronounced than that expressed in higher grade established at shallow crustal levels following the
structures of the Yaningidjara Hills (Traverse 2). burial and recrystallization of hydrothermally altered
The gradational change in uid signatures with fault panels. These panels represent pre-existing
deeper levels of exhumation is matched by concomi- structures that are exposed at the surface by exhuma-
tant variations in the degree of rehydration. Brittle tion and erosion, making them accessible to circulating
cataclastic shear zones in the northwestern Reynolds meteoric uids. This promotes the development of
Anmatjira Ranges are largely anhydrous structures, hydrous mineral assemblages in equilibrium with sur-
with little mica growth or associated alteration face waters. Subsequent fault burial under a thick
(Cartwright & Buick, 1999; Cartwright et al., 1999). sedimentary blanket then subjects the alteration
Strike-parallel shear zones in the central and south- assemblages to prograde metamorphism, allowing an
18
eastern parts of the terrane, however, exhibit moderate O- and D-poor uid to be liberated by in situ
to intense metasomatism. Greenschist to lower dehydration reactions. The released uid is channelled
amphibolite facies domains typically contain relatively through permeable conduits such as fracture networks
thin (<50 m) bands of mica-bearing felsic mylonites and shear zones, resulting in the imposition of surcial
and phyllonites. In contrast, higher grade areas prox- uid signatures on mid-crustal structures at the
imal to Mt Boothby and Peaked Hill are dominated by attainment of peak burial conditions.
broad, ubiquitous schist belts up to 300 m in width There are several advantages to an explanation
(Hand & Buick, 2001). involving the passive transport of stable isotopes in
At the terrane scale, the apparent links between the minerals rather than their active migration in a mobile
structural and metamorphic architecture of the uid phase. First, it avoids the problem of limited
ReynoldsAnmatjira shear zones and their degree of uidrock interaction at low metamorphic grades.
metasomatism and isotopic resetting presents a sig- Dehydration reactions will initiate at depth during
nicant dilemma for potential uid ingress mecha- prograde burial and metamorphism of the fault panels
nisms. Cartwright & Buick (1999) favour an (Walther & Orville, 1982; Yardley, 1997, 2009). Fluid
explanation involving temporal downward displace- migration will thus not be continuous from the surface
ment of the brittleductile transition by synorogenic to the deep crust, but rather limited to those areas
seismic activity, with subsequent uid drawdown and proximal to the zone of uid production. In addition,
upward expulsion along rupture networks driven by there is no necessity that metasomatized shear zones
the production of transient hydraulic gradients. This must represent the original sites of the hydrous alter-
seismic pumping mechanism (Sibson, 1986; McCaig ation assemblages: once liberated, the uid may
et al., 1990) provides a plausible means to overcome transfer to other domains that are accessible via local
the issues of negative buoyancy and limited perme- permeability networks. Second, burial and devolatil-
ability, allowing surface-derived uids to be effectively ization provides a logical explanation for the preser-
transported into the mid-crust. However, as demon- vation of surcial uid signatures in the mid-crust,
strated by Connolly & Podladchikov (2004), the because signicant rock-buffering does not occur until
volumes of uid capable of being affected by hydraulic the uid is released at depth. There is thus a much
forcing are limited by the magnitude of dilational greater likelihood of retaining 18O- and D-poor com-
deformation, which must approach zero in the ductile positions originally derived from an extremely remote
realm. This mechanism thus applies only to relatively reservoir. Finally, substantial uid volumes may be
minor and localized uid uxes, not the pervasive style involved if there are sufcient fault panels containing
of uid ow exhibited by the ReynoldsAnmatjira alteration assemblages. Given the prolonged tectono-
shear zones. Such low uid volumes also preclude the metamorphic history of the ReynoldsAnmatjira
possibility of strong uid channelling that is necessary Ranges (Hand & Buick, 2001), the identication of
to avoid continuous exchange with host rocks during multiple generations of shear activity in this region
downward inltration. Rather, the episodic nature of (Dirks & Wilson, 1990; Dirks et al., 1991) and the
seismic rupture and hydraulic pumping should pro- recognized importance of inherited Proterozoic struc-
duce prolonged host rock residence times, allowing tural fabrics in the localization of Palaeozoic intra-
ample opportunity for uidrock exchange and the continental deformation (Sandiford & Hand, 1998;
107
Hand & Sandiford, 1999), it is highly likely that an 2000; Miller et al., 2002; Niemeijer & Spiers, 2005;
extensive network of fault structures existed prior to Yardley, 2009). As such, their role in modulating the
reactivation and reburial during the Alice Springs mechanical stability of the lithosphere and its suscep-
Orogeny. tibility to reactivation deserves some consideration.
Of course, the burial and devolatilization mecha- We rst address the potential signicance of uid ow
nism of Clark et al. (2006) does not inherently solve on the initiation of intracontinental deformation, and
the issue of uid penetration to mid-crustal depths. then evaluate its inuence on the subsequent orogenic
Dehydration reactions will be initiated prior to peak evolution.
burial conditions, resulting in a free uid phase at In the previous section, it was argued that the uid
relatively shallow crustal levels, and the hydro- rock interaction features of metasomatized shear zones
mechanical limitations to further downward transport in the ReynoldsAnmatjira Ranges are best explained
will still apply. However, if this process occurs under a by the burial and devolatilization of pre-existing fault
compressional tectonic regime, an inverted pressure panels that have undergone extensive hydrothermal
gradient may develop below the brittleductile transi- alteration. Following Clark et al. (2006), we envisage
tion (Petrini & Podladchikov, 2000). This limits that these panels formed integral structures of an
upward uid expulsion and allows downward uid evolving intracontinental sedimentary basin, in this
migration to extend to a depth of tectonically induced case the NeoproterozoicPalaeozoic Centralian
neutral buoyancy, which may reside in the mid- to Superbasin that blanketed 2 000 000 km2 of central
lower-crust if dynamic displacement of the brittle Australia (Shaw et al., 1991; Lindsay & Leven, 1996;
ductile transition occurs, as is expected during Hand & Sandiford, 1999). Reconstructions of subsi-
increases in the intensity of crustal deformation dence patterns in its preserved remnants, the Amadeus,
(Connolly & Podladchikov, 2004). Fluids liberated at Georgina and Ngalia Basins (Fig. 1), indicate that they
shallow levels are therefore preferentially transported accumulated up to 8 km of sediment before the earliest
downwards within pre-existing structural features such record of uplift associated with the Palaeozoic Alice
as ductile shear zones. This mechanism neatly explains Springs Orogeny (Sandiford & Hand, 1998; Hand &
the correspondence between the structural and meta- Sandiford, 1999; Haines et al., 2001). Basin depth
morphic architecture of the ReynoldsAnmatjira shear appears to have increased towards the eastern margin
zones and their degree of rehydration and isotopic of the now exhumed Arunta Region, such that a
alteration. An increase in the intensity and distribution regional depocentre was located between the present-
of metasomatism at higher metamorphic grades is day Georgina and Amadeus Basins (Hand & Sandi-
expected due to uid accumulation (and resisted ford, 1999; Buick et al., 2005; Maidment et al., 2007).
expulsion) at the depth of neutral buoyancy. Further- An extensive package of detritus was thus uncon-
more, uid signatures should also evolve to progres- formably deposited on exhumed basement rocks of the
sively more enriched values with increasing depths of Arunta Region, encompassing its entire aerial extent
exhumation, because the extent of isotopic resetting and accumulating in greatest proportions in the area
is gradually diminished as uids are projected down- represented by the Harts Range Metamorphic
wards and become increasingly rock-buffered. Complex (Fig. 1).
The pre-orogenic basin architecture thus potentially
facilitated deep burial of pre-existing fault structures
Impact of uid ow on intracontinental reactivation and
inherited from PalaeoproterozoicMesoproterozoic
reworking
tectonism, to the point that prograde dehydration of
The mechanisms responsible for large-scale reactiva- their alteration assemblages could commence. If such
tion of continental interiors have been addressed in a pre-orogenic burial did not occur, it is unlikely that
number of studies (e.g. Shaw et al., 1991; Neil & surface-exposed faults could be effectively translated
Houseman, 1999; Braun & Shaw, 2001; Roberts & to mid-crustal depths by convergent deformation
Houseman, 2001; Pysklywec & Beaumont, 2004). alone, especially given the relatively modest amount
While the sources of stress that drive intracontinental of synorogenic shortening (Flottmann & Hand, 1999;
orogenesis are still subject to some controversy, it is Flottmann et al., 2004). Furthermore, it is likely that
generally agreed that spatial and temporal variations regional variations in basin architecture facilitated
in the mechanical strength of the lithosphere are the signicant differences in the extent of deep crustal
most likely cause for the localization of deformation rehydration. This is highlighted by the fact that the
(Tommasi & Vauchez, 1997; Sandiford & Hand, 1998; pattern of increasing sediment accumulation from
Hand & Sandiford, 1999; Holdsworth et al., 2001; west to east across the Centralian Superbasin mirrors
Neves et al., 2008; Stephenson et al., 2009). Fluids can the regional expression of increases in the size and
be instrumental in modifying crustal rheology through pervasiveness of uid-affected structural domains.
reaction-induced strain hardening and weakening, and Discrete metasomatized shear zones up to 300 m wide
are signicant contributors to the transfer of heat and that characterize the ReynoldsAnmatjira Ranges are
thermal energy that drives metamorphism (e.g. Bickle succeeded by kilometre-scale schist belts transecting
& McKenzie, 1987; Wintsch et al., 1995; Stewart et al., Palaeoproterozoic granulites in the Strangways
108
Metamorphic Complex (Bendall et al., 1998; Ballevre vicinity of the brittleductile transition, and hence the
et al., 2000), followed by a 7500 km2 zone of degree of lithospheric weakening, is dependent upon
Palaeozoic amphibolite facies retrogression and the rate of uid production and supply to this loca-
voluminous partial melting represented by the Harts tion. In the early stages of devolatilization, both of
Range and Entia Gneiss Complex further east (Hand these parameters are likely to be relatively restricted
et al., 1999; Mawby et al., 1999; see Fig. 1). Strongly due to slow subsidence rates and the temporal delay
deformed outcrops of the basal sedimentary unit of in uid percolation to peak crustal depths. It is
the Amadeus Basin (Heavitree Quartzite) are pre- therefore likely that uid ingress initially acted in
served in these areas (Shaw et al., 1984; Ballevre concert with other factors such as regionally elevated
et al., 2000), and isotopic studies indicate that shear heat production to prime the lithosphere for reacti-
zones of the Strangways Metamorphic Complex vation (Sandiford & Hand, 1998; Hand & Sandiford,
contain uids sourced from its prograde dewatering 1999), a link supported by high thermal gradient
(Bendall, 2000). These associations suggest a potential metamorphism in metasomatized shear zones of the
link between the regional distribution of sediment southeastern Anmatjira Range. This association
thickness prior to the Alice Springs Orogeny and the should not be surprising, because fault burial and
subsequent degree of rehydration and reworking in its thermal insulation are both greatly assisted by the
underlying basement, with the widespread dewatering deposition of a thick sedimentary blanket. Ultimately,
of buried sedimentary rocks becoming increasingly this implies that the mechanical, thermal and uidal
important at the highest metamorphic grades of the impacts of basin formation exert fundamental con-
eastern Arunta Region, where repeated anatexis trols on the initiation and distribution of intraplate
occurred in otherwise infertile granulite facies crust orogenesis (Hand & Sandiford, 1999; Sandiford,
(Buick et al., 2008). 1999).
Extensive sedimentary sequence accumulation and Once lithospheric strength has been sufciently
concomitant heating in the underlying basement rocks degraded to permit large-scale deformation, tectonic
thus provide a plausible mechanism to initiate devol- feedback can ensure that uid ow plays an increas-
atilization and uid production in the mid- to upper- ingly signicant role in the spatial and temporal evo-
crust prior to the onset of intracontinental orogenesis. lution of orogenesis. Limited viscous relaxation will be
Downward migration beyond the relatively shallow supplanted by dynamic crustal compression to sustain
depth of initial uid liberation is also possible in the the inverted pressure gradients necessary for down-
absence of active convergent deformation. Near- ward uid migration. Basin inversion and crustal
critical compressive stresses can be maintained to shortening will also promote faster and deeper burial
12 km depth in continental shields as a consequence of the hydrated fault panels, thus accelerating the
of plate-boundary forces (Zoback & Townend, 2001). release of uid and decreasing its displacement from
Viscous relaxation of these stresses may induce the depth of neutral buoyancy. We therefore suggest
dynamic displacement of the brittleductile transition, that the partitioning of greater uid volumes into the
enabling the downward propagation of a neutral crustal domains most susceptible to strain accommo-
buoyancy domain (Connolly & Podladchikov, 2004). dation may be responsible for dramatic peaks in the
Such conditions would favour substantial uid accu- intensity of deformation during the Alice Springs
mulation in the mid- to lower-crust during basin Orogeny. Sedimentological and isotopic records indi-
subsidence, promoting extensive hydration, metaso- cate that bulk convergence rates were greatest during
matism and reaction softening of deep fault networks. the terminal phases of this event (Haines et al., 2001).
If the brittleductile transition acts as an effective This period is epitomized by the pervasively rehydrated
stress guide, as is expected for a jelly sandwich model shear zones of the ReynoldsAnmatjira Ranges, which
of crustal rheology (Handy & Brun, 2004; Burov & were active from 360 to 300 Ma (Fig. 2). These ubiq-
Watts, 2006), such weak structural domains are ideally uitous shear systems attest to substantial uid input
positioned to accommodate large strains associated into the mid-crust at this time, a process that poten-
with the transmission of far-eld stresses (Stewart tially contributed to severe lithospheric weakening and
et al., 2000; Holdsworth et al., 2001; Marsh et al., rapid exhumation.
2009). This is consistent with the observed stress cou-
pling across upper-crustal fault zones bordering the
CONCLUSIONS
Alice Springs Orogen, demonstrating that shallow
rheological heterogeneities did not exert a primary The intracontinental Alice Springs Orogen comprises
control on the distribution of intraplate deformation exhumed high-grade crust that has undergone dis-
(Lindsay & Leven, 1996; Korsch et al., 1998; Hand & crete rehydration in the form of intensely metaso-
Sandiford, 1999). matized transpressional shear zones. Throughout the
The considerable long-term strength of continental ReynoldsAnmatjira Ranges, ubiquitous structural
interiors can thus be critically moderated by the networks are continuously exposed from brittle
installation of externally derived uids into the mid- upper-crustal faults to ductile mid-crustal shear
crust. However, the extent of uid stagnation in the systems along a tilted crustal wedge, allowing the
@X
complex relationships between deformation, meta- in the vicinity of the brittleductile transition then
morphism and uid ow to be systematically studied. facilitates extensive hydration, metasomatism and
Heterogeneous geochemical changes and pronounced reaction softening in this domain, accelerating litho-
isotopic depletion patterns in individual shear zones spheric weakening and the localization of deforma-
indicate that element mobility and isotopic resetting tion. Ultimately, this suggests that the installation of
were moderated by more complex factors than externally derived uids into deep crustal volumes
temperature gradients alone. The geochemical inter- may alter crustal rheology to the extent that the
rogation of alteration assemblages should therefore large-scale reactivation of previously stable conti-
avoid the unqualied application of predictive uid nental interiors can occur.
rock partitioning models to infer such information as
the direction of uid ow and the time-integrated
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
uid ux, because this practice may involve ad hoc
assumptions about the attainment of local chemical B. Wade and A. Netting are thanked for their help
equilibrium, neglect critical eld and isotopic evi- with LA-ICP-MS analysis, K. Evans for her assistance
dence for plausible uid sources, improperly account with thermobarometry calculations, and P. Kinny and
for compositional variations in precursor rock units, D. Healy for their support in the eld. We are grateful
and be subject to considerable uncertainty over the to A. Skelton and an anonymous reviewer for
behaviour of reference elements used to infer insightful feedback that helped to improve this paper.
enrichment and depletion trends. In addition, the Funding for this work was provided by ARC
acquisition of representative pressure and tempera- Discovery Grant DP0879330, and CC was supported
ture estimates from trace element thermobarometry by a Curtin University Research Fellowship. This
should involve careful consideration of precision publication is TRaX record 143.
issues specic to lower metamorphic grades, where
elemental substitution is typically restricted and cal-
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F
Table S1. & '
Mole fraction Mole fraction
| Ti (ppm) 1 1 | Zr (ppm) 1 1
2a 2a
Sample RAN08-007
007Q_01 X';! '[X '?;B@! ;'X@!B@? 007R_01 F' ['?X '[[B@! '!@B@!
007Q_02 X'!X ';X ';@FB@! ;'?X?B@? 007R_02 ?['[ 8.77 !'!!@B@! @'X?;B@!
@@@[ '! 'F@ 'F!FB@! ;'X;?B@? @@@[ ['@ 11.71 ';B@! ';FB@!
@@@F X'?F '![ ';B@! ['XB@? @@@F F'F 12.12 '[X[B@! '[;XB@!
@@@! X'@! '! '[B@! ['?!B@? @@@! 60.02 X'F; !';!B@! '@[[B@!
007Q_06 7.02 'F@ @';B@! ;'X;?B@? 007R_06 ?@'@[ 8.77 !';!B@! @'X?;B@!
007Q_07 X'F; 'F '[B@! ['F?B@? 007R_07 ['!@ 'F ?'F[B@! ';B@!
007Q_08 '[ '?F '@FFB@! ['F;B@? 007R_08 F'; 12.62 'F;XB@! '[FB@!
@@@X X'F '?X ';;[B@! ['![;B@? @@@X 86.07 ['@F '![XB@! 'F[@B@!
007Q_10 X'X! 1.61 ';!@B@! ['[?!B@? 007R_10 F'@ ;'X? '[?[B@! 'F;B@!
`B '! 'F!FB@! `B 86.07 '![XB@!
Minimum 7.02 @';B@! Minimum 60.02 !';!B@!
Wtd ave.b X'[ @'X? '?B@! ;'@@B@? Wtd ave.b ;'X@ 7.00 ?'[!B@! @'@B@!
Sample RAN08-030
@[@@ 'X ;'F 'XB@! !';B@? @[@@ !X'FX ;'F !';B@! @';?FB@!
@[@@; X'F! ;'F 'B@! !'@[B@? @[@@; ?;'!! ;'?F !'FXB@! @';X@B@!
@[@@[ 10.10 ['!F ';?XB@! '[XXB@? @[@@[ ?@'X 2.60 !'[[[B@! @';!B@!
@[@@F @'?! [' '[[B@! 'X@B@? @[@@F ?F'!? 2.82 !'?!!B@! @'[@XB@!
@[@@! 8.27 ;'[; '@[XB@! F'FXB@? @[@@! ?!'@X ['@ !'@B@! @'[[B@!
@[@@? '! ;'[ '@;FB@! F'X!B@? @[@@? ?!'@? ;'X !'?XB@! @'[;B@!
@[@@ 'F ;'@! @'X[B@! F';!B@? @[@@ ['! 10.77 ?'F@B@! 'B@!
@[@@ 8.11 ;'F '@XB@! !'?[B@? @[@@ ;'X X';? ?'[X;B@! '@?B@!
@[@@X 8.07 ['?[ '@FB@! '!B@? @[@@X ;'!; X'X ?'[!;B@! '@@B@!
@[@@ 8.17 2.21 '@;?B@! F'?XB@? @[@@ !X'@! 'F !';B@! @';@B@!
@[@ 'F; 2.26 '@!B@! F';FB@? @[@ ??'!! '! !';XB@! @'X?@B@!
@[@; @'[! F'[X '[@@B@! X'?B@? @[@; !'! '[ !'F?B@! @'FB@!
@[@[ X'X; 'X; ';F?B@! F'@[B@? @[@[ @';[ X'F; ?'!B@! '@[[B@!
@[@F X' 2.26 ';;B@! F';FB@? @[@F !F'[F 'F[ F'?@B@! @'!B@!
@[@! 10.67 2.68 '[F@B@! !'?@;B@? @[@! !!'X 7.81 F'X@[B@! @'!B@!
@[@? X'F 2.76 'B@! !'?XB@? @[@? !'[ 'F !'@;!B@! @'X[B@!
@[@ @'[ 2.28 ';X!B@! F'??B@? `B ['! ?'F@B@!
@[@ @'! 'X ';!B@! ['FB@? Minimum !F'[F F'?@B@!
@[@X X'! ;'X 'XFB@! F'!B@? Wtd ave.b 62.60 2.10 !'F;B@! @';[@B@!
@[@;@ 8.77 F'@[ '@;B@! 'F;FB@?
`B 10.67 '[F@B@!
Minimum 'F @'X[B@!
Wtd ave.b X';@ 1.10 '![B@! ;';XXB@?
a
_ # % #%
'Q;@@V'
b
2 weighted average of all measured concentrations from each sample.
!
Table S2. # % ;'

| ^@@ ^@@ T1 scaling ^@@;F ^@@;? ^@@[@ ^@@[; T2 scaling
| a | `| factorb || | || | factorc
Major elements (wt% oxide)
|2 77.00 !'?@ 0.7 ['@ ['!@ F;'F@ '[@ 1
2 @'[X @';X !@ @';! @';X 1.82 @'[F F@
Al2[ ;'!@ 12.20 ! ;'!@ ;'F@ 17.80 ['?@ ;'!
Fe2[ @'[[ @'X[ !@ ;'!! ;';X 11.70 ;'!; !
` 0.00 0.00 100 0.01 @'@[ @'@[ 0.02 100
`# 0.61 ['F 10 '![ @'! 16.20 0.62 ;'!
_ @'X? 0.06 F@ @'[F ';X @'F 'FF F@
2 F'F @'X 10 2.16 2.16 0.26 'X 10
K2 ;'?! F'[! 10 ['X! F' F'@ !'?; 10
2! 0.08 0.06 100 @'@! @'@X @'@X 0.11 100
"d @'! 2.21 10 1.77 @'?! !'? @'XF 10
Total XX'! XX'@[ X'; X'XX @@'X@ X'F
Light rare earth elements (ppm)
F X'! 1 [?'! [! 11 !@ '!
Ce 26 F; @';! ?! ?! ;@'! X@ @'!
F' !'! 7 @'! @'! ['! ['! 2
17 ;@'! [ [?'! [?'! F F 1
| ['X F' 10 '! '! ['[ X'! 2
Heavy rare earth elements (ppm)
Eu @'[; 0.2 !@ 0.78 @'F @'F 1.2 !@
Gd ;'! [' ! 6 ?'! 2.6 '! 10
Tb @'F? @'!? !@ @'X; 1.1 @'[? 1.2 !@
/ 2.7 ['; 7 F'? !'! '[! 6 !
Ho @'F @'! 100 0.78 1 0.18 '@! !@
Er 'F! 'F! 20 2.2 2.8 @'F ;'X 20
Tm 0.2 0.2 !@ @';! @'[! @'@! @'F ;!
Yb '[! '[! ;! '!! ;'[ @'[! ;'[ 20
0.18 0.18 200 @';F @'[; 0.06 @'[F 200
Trace elements (ppm)
Cr < 20 < 20 n/a < 20 < 20 [! < 20 1
V < 20 < 20 n/a < 20 < 20 ;F@ ;! @'[
| ! ! n/a ! ! ;! ! 1
Ba [! [! 0.1 [@@ [X! !@ !!@ 0.1
Hf 6 [ 10 F ! F 6 ;'!
Mo @'X 0.8 80 0.7 @'X 0.2 0.6 !@

[ X'! ! 7 8 2 X '!
Rb 110 ;! 0.2 [! 260 F! ;?! 0.1
| ! 20 1 < 10 < 10 < 10 < 10 n/a
| F 2.2 1 ;!'! ?! '! 70 1
Ta [ [ 10 <2 <2 <2 <2 n/a
Th FX'! [? 1 ;X'! [! [ ['! 1
U @'! ?'! ;'! F'F [' 1.6 ['F 10
Y F'! ;'! 2 21 ;?'! [' 28 ;'!
Zr F@@ X@ 0.1 @! [@ @X !! @'!
As @'! @'! n/a 2 @'! F'! @'! 10
Bi < 0.1 < 0.1 n/a < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 n/a
Cd < 0.1 < 0.1 n/a < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 n/a
Cs @'X F'; ! 0.8 [ @'! F' !
Ga ;'! 21 2 18 17 ;X 18 2
<2 [ 10 7 ! F@ 7 @'!

;'! ['! 1 22 ['! 11 [X'! @'!
|
@'! @'! n/a @'! @'! @'! @'! n/a
| @'! @'! n/a @'! @'! @'! @'! n/a
Te < 0.2 < 0.2 n/a < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2 n/a
Tl @'F 1.1 !@ 1.2 '! 1.8 '! !@
Zn @'! '! ;! '! [@'! [X'! ['! 1
/ Q#[) 2.61 ;'?! ;'?! 2.62 2.71 ;'?[
a
| `||| #'|B #'[ '
b
Traverse 1 isocons; see Fig. 8ab.
c
Traverse 2 isocons; see Fig. 8ch.
d
" # '
116
Table S3. Major element gains and losses, and calculated mass and
% #
'
|
017018a 026024 026030 032030
(unshearedsheared)
Change in concentration of oxide (g per 100g rock)
|2 !';@ 17.88 ;['@; '!
2 @'@F 0.02 1.88 2.22
Al2[ ;'[ [';[ 'X 'F
Fe2[ 0.80 @'X@ '?F ['X?
` 0.00 @'@; 0.01 0.02
`# [';; 'F@ 18.78 22.20
_ @'X @' '; ';F
2 F';F @'!F '! '?@
K2 ;'?! 0.16 0.82 1.00
2! @'@ @'@[ 0.02 0.02
"b 2.12 '!? 6.21 7.17
" 0.82 0.80 @'F 0.71

Mass change (g/100g) ;'X! ;!';[ X'@! F@'!
Volume change (%) 20.00 ;['! !'@! [?'
a
B^@
% '
b
" # '
Table S4.B# #

'
| 18O (, V-SMOW) D (, V-SMOW) 18fluid () Dfluid ()
a b d e
| fsp bt mu crd and chl gt bt mu chl fsp bte mue andf chlg gth bti mui chlj
Traverse 1
^@@@F | 'F 7.2 F' 6.6 61.2
^@@@! | 8.2 !'F 63.4
^@@@? `| 8.8 F'; ?'F 54.5 50.0
^@@@ || F' 2.6 [' ;'X 69.8 79.2 ;'[ !' ['X [' 33.6 34.5 49.4
^@@@ || ?'X 2.1 F' F'@ 72.4 68.8 F'F F'? !'@ F' 36.3
^@@@X || ?'! 0.1 F'@ 78.8 75.3 F'@ ;'! F' 42.6 53.3
^@@@ || 7.2 2.0 73.4 F' F'! 37.3 59.8
^@@ `| F' 1.8 72.9
^@@; `| X'[ !'@ 6.7 56.5 47.1
^@@[c '!
^@@F | X'@ 7.6 F' 48.5
^@@! `| '[ !' 2.8 69.9
^@@? | 'X ?'F [' 51.6
^@@ | '! 6.7 [' 50.1
^@@ `| 'X !'; 42.8
Traverse 2
^@@;@ `| ?'X 7.1 !'; 56.9
^@@; | 7.1 'F F' 49.2
^@@;; `| 'F 7.7 !'[ 49.9
^@@;[c 'F
^@@;F || '! 'F F' 6.6 62.2 !'@ 6.2 '[ 8.2 26.0
^@@;! `| X'; 7.6 7.7 '! 48.6
^@@;? | 'X 7.2 6.1 7.7 49.6
^@@; `| X'[ 7.1 2.8 !'[ 59.8
^@@;c 7.0
^@@;X || ?'! 6.2 ;'[ !'F F' 65.3 F'@ !'@ F' !'! !' 29.0
^@@[@ || 6.8 ;'F 2.8 68.4 F'; F'X [' 32.1
^@@[ `| 8.1 ?'[ 6.1 7.2 51.7
^@@[; | @'! X'! 6.7 8.1 53.7
a
| `||| #'|B #'[ '
b
`
% Y

% ## '
c
% '
Fluid 18 /% #$ #
YQV* q_ Q;@@[VQV #q~%QX[VQV #QXX[V
Q#V_qQXXVQV q* QXX;VQV| qN QX?VQ}V]'QXFV'
117
REFERENCES
#& ' q ~%& `'& X[' _ B#
#' Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 20(2),
;!@;?!'
_& /' ' q & N' `'& XXX' B#

$ $ @ [!@ _Y

B # + \B '
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 63Q[FV&FFXF!'
]& _' `'& ^ & ~' q * & ' |'& XF' *#
$' NERC 6th
* ' '
@QY@@QY[! \='; *]

#^!\ _<`&[X'
* &]'q_ &''&;@@['B# #
#
B#
isotope geothermometers. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,
67QV&[;;[;F?'
&'q* &|'&XX;'B#

$ # # $Y B
investigation. European Journal of Mineralogy, 4Q;V&;[X;FX'
| & ' q N & |'& X?' *#

$ *
# $' Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta, 40Q@V&;;X;F@'
& ~'& & N''& |& '& |& '& & |' q
&^'&;@@' Y

'Contributions to
Mineralogy and Petrology, 160Q!V&F[!X'
#& ' '& XX[' _ B#
'Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,
`{Q!V&@X@X'
118
CHAPTER 5
This chapter is accepted as:
Raimondo, T., Clark, C., Hand, M., Cliff, J. & Harris, C., 2011. High-resolution geochemical record of
+ > Y% }
B# # 'Journal of Metamorphic Geology.
A
Raimondo, T., Clark, C., Hand, M., Cliff, J. & Harris, C. (2011). High-resolution geochemical
record of fluid -rock interaction in a mid-crustal shear zone: a comparative study of major
element and oxygen isotope transport in garnet.
Journal of Metamorphic Geology, v. 30 (3), pp. 255-280
A
NOTE:
This publication is included on pages 121-149 in the print copy
of the thesis held in the University of Adelaide Library.
A
It is also available online to authorised users at:
A
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1314.2011.00966.x
A
121
CHAPTER 6
This chapter is submitted as:
Raimondo, T., Clark, C., Hand, M. & Cliff, J., 2011.
*$ %+ Geology.
# $ ( ) $ *+
T. RAIMONDO1, C. CLARK2, M. HAND1 AND J. CLIFF3

1
Centre for Tectonics, Resources and Exploration (TRaX), School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Adelaide,
Adelaide SA 5005, Australia (tom.raimondo@adelaide.edu.au)
2
The Institute for Geoscience Research (TIGeR), Department of Applied Geology, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth WA 6845, Australia
3
Centre for Microscopy, Characterisation and Analysis (CMCA), University of Western Australia, Crawley WA 6009, Australia
ABSTRACT
High precision and high spatial resolution ion microprobe analysis provides unparalleled access to the geochemical
+ %
B# # B '
investigate low %18% Q[<V #

& _ % & | ^ &
%

#
\|# #'
integrated approach reveals that low %18+ % Q:F<V% B
/ Q'!@@`V %& #

# ##
'_
&
+ # $
#+ B$ $ #+ &

B
and hydrothermal alteration of rock volumes that were subsequently buried and reactivated as ductile fault structures.
INTRODUCTION Fortunately, the metamorphic and geochemical

% + +$
$ %

/ % % } & #
low %18 + % minerals such as garnet. Assessing the correspondence
'NB #&Q
between these records, and their links to the
'& X[V& & Q`_# '& XX@V& deformational processes accompanying ductile shear
the northern Ruby Mountains, Nevada (Fricke et al., % & #
1992), the Reynolds and Mann Ranges, central Australia +
Q_$# & XXX '& ;@@ '
| "
'& ;@V _ % & ` | Q|"`|V&

|N ^ Q_ '& ;@@?V' accessed via high precision and high spatial resolution

$ #%18O values in situ &
#
by up to 10 between rehydrated fault rocks and their elemental and isotopic variations over minute length
adjacent undeformed and largely anhydrous equivalents. Q'#'& '&;@@! '&;@@X
|
Martin et al., 2011). This affords the most sophisticated
B + # # means to shed light on how, when and where surface-
enhanced permeability, or rather the inevitable product of % + ' " & $

+ +$ # #
|"`| B#
deep crust (e.g., Dipple and Ferry, 1992a,b). If isotopic
QN`^V # # $
%
B %+ & B # # # QP
necessary to evaluate their origins and ingress mechanisms. T) estimates to investigate the record of low %18+
$ + % &

$ # Q!'@'[< | ^ ' $ #
Taylor, 1980) and contributions from meteoric water are %#

%B
% Y B $18O metasomatism in ductile shear
% # % &% # B
+

# %+ '
negative buoyancy effects and limited permeability and
Q'#'&_ %&;@@F
GEOLOGIC BACKGROUND
'&;@@X| '&;@@XV'" &
alteration is primarily moderated by temperature gradients, Q|V
then such studies need to be reconsidered in terms of in & _ % &|
situ mass fractionation processes rather than the deep- ^ Q#'V'"`

+ ' #
153
;} #

~
Figure 1.& %/ #/

!# 0
# %
#3$/#2

%
%
# /0 ##' / 2 %

?
# 0
#/G/
%#
?
/ %
4%#!
!
#/
* /5%
%*?!
+/$"Q3
%
"5"!
| # & #

% ^ ' `}
anastomosing network of interconnected schists and $ %# # _
' B | :@ |!
^ `&
# @@>F@@$& University of Adelaide. Detailed descriptions of
[>F $
'^ analytical procedures and data reduction are outlined in
# &

the supporting information.
overlain by 700550 Ma Adelaidean sedimentary units
Q&;@@@V& #%

RESULTS
?@>!@ ` # Q_
'& X?V' *$%& % %18% Q|`V

% | 07 show negligible variation between core and rim
#!F>FX@`/ # Q/ domains of the garnet porphyroblast (Fig. 2 and Table
'&;@@!_'&;@@?V # |V' $#%#;'[
and overprinting of the Adelaidean sequences at its @';;<&$$ Q;'?F
margins, and the development of multiple hydrous 0.30). The pooled data yield a weighted average
$
' ;'F? @'<& # + %
B F'[ @';?< # # B
#
# #
# $B#
+ chlorite + muscovite + magnetite, located at the fractionation. All above errors are quoted at the 95%
intersection of line T1 in Fig. 1. It sharply dissects %' | #
` # $ % for a full compilation of analytical data and estimated
$B@& %
%18 + % Q
|V& # $
+ +$ +
metasomatism associated with low %18+ % correction scheme for instrumental mass fractionation
Q:VQ/ '&;@@!_
'&;@@?V'^ #;#
Q#'|
|;V'
@ Q#' ;V $ B# N`^
B
isotope and major element compositions using high #
|"`| B#
spatial resolution in situ|"`| N`^ ' analysis (Fig. 3) indicate a major element distribution
B# $ # ##$ #Q'#'&_
_ "`| ;@
_ '&;@@V'
Microscopy, Characterisation and Analysis (CMCA), across the garnet grain show concentric core-to-rim
!F
;} #

~
increases in the molar proportions of pyrope, almandine

and grossular, and a decrease in the molar proportion of
spessartine. There is no evidence for Mn enrichment in
rim areas indicative of garnet resorption via retrograde
Q{ |& ;@@@V&
any pronounced spikes suggestive of intracrystalline
diffusional fronts.
<?@JQWZ[ J\]W]JZ\ #J/]ZW^ Z<

THE WALTER-OUTALPA SHEAR ZONE
# # # #

$ |
+ &
% $
+

this shear system (Fig. 1).
1. Pressuretemperature record.
$ / |
reactivation have been constrained at 530 12 C
!'@ @'
QX! %V #
THERMOCALC # & %#
pressure and temperature calculations, and PT
Q/ '&;@@!_'&;@@?V'
" & # $
Fig. 3 indicates a prograde reaction history consistent
with garnet growth during burial of its host rock mass.
# $ % #
/ ' Q;@@!V _ ' Q;@@?V

| / #
_ % '
2. Temporal record.N`^
# Figure 2. !Q@% # #
/ /#? *
# B /$"Q3# 0
#/

% / *
?
$#%##!@?&!@? *%% %!
# %
#%
% / *

FXX`QX! %V| / G! /?

? %/ 2 // 1 ?
*! U 13% % $ 5 % # %

Q/ '&;@@!_'&;@@?V'
2
#
?2
# 0

*
%*0

# $
#0
X *+X
0 #5
#Q!@>FX`V |# #Q!>!@@ *
?* 1!# 0
#%

%
5
`V
#
} _ %
713 for their adjacent undeformed and unaltered
(Dutch et al., 2005), indicating widespread Delamerian
'N
+
deformation and metasomatism. The Delamerian-aged
# $ #%
garnets show equivalent prograde thermal histories to
%18 + % $ ;<& $
@& $ +
% # Q!'@'[<
# ` Q'
&X@V' +
%/+ % &
!! `V #

$>F< $
Q_ * &;@@V'
>F@< % Q_ '&
In all cases, platy chlorite and muscovite grains that
;@@?V'%&B ##$

$ #
in situ|"`|B#
magnetite porphyroblasts, creating common strain caps
(Fig. 2b), which indicate garnet %18% ;'F?
and pressure shadows.
@'<& #+ % :F<Q

3. Fluid record. Detailed stable isotope traverses |V&#
$ # '
|
_ ' Q;@@?V
consistently show a marked shift towards low %18O
DISCUSSION
and %D values within sheared metasomatic rock units.
] %# | # %
Q
>[ #' V B
records documented above relies on direct coupling
whole-rock %18O values as low as 1, compared with between the various geochemical systems sensitive
155
;} #

~
Mol. % almandine, spessartine
Mol. % pyrope, grossular

500 m
Distance (m)
Figure 3.X%
% / *3?/ #
/ /#? * in situ
% / * 1?
/
? # 0

#/ 2

U
U
K % ? 0

!/
# #50#% % *

//!/
05 # 0

%% /
?

/
#5

/ /

/? /

/
"5 %

%*?
G
#U/
+ +$ ' # # #$ #

$ # ' & ##
# % B# # # $ #

B$%$ # gradients, but rather dictated by the chemistry of an
Q'#'& # '& XX! '& ;@@!V' ^ B + B # + Q'#'& '& ;@V'
the peak temperature of Delamerian metamorphism B $ #
%18O
Q:![@ _V& % ;'?[ and %/% Q_'&;@@?V&
B @;! cm2\ Q_# & XX@V' | ## $ $ % \
# B# under temperature-controlled equilibrium mass
composition of their host rock immediately prior fractionation (Dipple and Ferry, 1992b).
to growth, and prevents their subsequent resetting. " |
| & # # $ B %&
;# :?@@_&$ B + & %
above peak Delamerian conditions (e.g., Caddick et al., + %%' / # %
2010). This allows the preservation of major element
Q_
+ #%% ## # '&X?V& ## #+ # $
porphyroblast growth. Third, this information can be not imposed by abnormally low-18O magmas or their
directly linked to absolute timing constraints provided contamination by 18O-poor crust. The Adelaidean
by radiogenic isotope systems with closure temperatures Q@@>!!@ `V
|
B ' ] | %Q:!>;;<_'&
Nd ages constrain the timing of porphyroblast growth, ;@@?V

+ &
$
# # %
# # + # #'
+

'
% N% B
$
+ %
% B & # #
|&
# # / # Q ;
address critical questions about the origin of low %18O '& ;@@@V $

+ % ' B %
mechanism for isotopic depletion in the deformed $ # Q
'& X[
%
#$' _$# & XXXV' _

interpret this alteration pattern to be the result of mass meteoric reservoir thus appear the most likely cause of
fractionation driven by temperature increases along the the low %18+ % '%
+$ %
+ Q'#'& relative to the mantle signature, coupled with a large
Dipple and Ferry, 1992a,b). There is no evidence for separation from the meteoric water line, suggest that
a decrease in %18O values from core to rim in sample #
#
@ # # surface water compositions.
temperature preserved by its prograde major element %& B # #
' B # %18O values + |
!?
;} #

~
their low %18O values to deep crustal levels. It is therefore following conditions: (1) deformed lithologies delimit
necessary to determine whether the observed isotopic

signal was directly imprinted on the mid-crust by lowering of %18O and %/% Q;V %18+

% %
$ #
$ $ + # (3) low-%18O value metasomatic minerals with prograde
synorogenic seismic events (e.g., McCaig et al., 1990), \
% QFV

# $ B & $ #
$ #
B B # + & $

fault panels containing hydrous mineral assemblages in burial and reactivation. Given that the last criterion

$ $Q'#'&_'&;@@?V' $

#
& #% of variably preserved stratigraphic and structural
$%# & Q[V

that metasomatic garnet growth was initiated before that low %18+ % $
the attainment of peak burial conditions. Furthermore, burial, thus indicating that isotopic alteration occurred
this process must have occurred in an isotopically light at near-surface conditions, or at the very least above the
rock volume, as evidenced by the persistence of low
'"#
%18O values throughout core and rim regions of the $ B &
garnet porphyroblast. Isotopic homogeneity, without
+ + & with preserved metamorphic histories, the enigma of
that metasomatic mineral production was not driven by %+

bulk compositional changes imposed by a progressively illuminated.
+ B #+ '&
in
situ dehydration reactions triggered by temperature
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
increases during burial of the host rock to mid-crustal
' $ # _ ' Q;@@?V& & $ $#
|% assistance of the Australian Microscopy and
# B Microanalysis Research Facility at the Centre for
!F>FX@`/ # ' Microscopy, Characterisation and Analysis, University
$
:; ^ &
%&
Q@@>!!@`V^ | _ $ ]% ' #
units, coupled with subsequent basin inversion standards used in this study were kindly provided by
and crustal thickening accompanying Delamerian ~ &/ {% ' #
orogenesis, was then instrumental in transporting it to for this work was provided by ARC Discovery Grant
:& # /@X[[@'
and the imposition of low %18+ %
crust.
REFERENCES CITED
& "'|'& _& /'& |# & "''& N#& _'& `& ~'^'&
CONCLUSION
Harris, C., and Cartwright, I., 2001, High-pressure melting and
+ +$ # # & ^ & in
Garnet is an ideal analytical target to investigate the _ & '& '& " & @&
+ +$ #

#* &&'???@'
combines several important records of metasomatism: _& `'~'& { & ~'& & ^''& ;@@&
$ B# % $ % % ] ]$ # /
# `Y ~ #& %' !& '
+ & ;[;;[F&Y@'@X[\#\#@!X'
documents changes in PT & _$#&"'& &"'|'&XXX&`+ +$$ ^
\| # # %

# | # # & #& ^ Y
' & & ~ ` ]#& %' & ' [XFF& Y
@'@F?\}'!;![F'XXX'@@;@!'B'
+ _&_'&* &`'& &{'& |` &^'&;@@?&
can be directly linked to their simultaneous thermal +$ %+ Y
% ' role of pre-orogenic burial of hydrated fault rocks: Journal of
| &$# $%18O values in ` ]#& %' ;F& ' [?[& Y @'\}'!;!
[F';@@?'@@?F['B'
mid-crustal shear structures can be attributed to the _& _'& * & `'& ;@@& / # `
burial and metamorphic dehydration of fault panels _
% _B
that have undergone near-surface meteoric alteration, # | # # #
rather than the downward penetration of a mobile PT pseudosection analysis: Gondwana Research, v. 17, p.
!XF&Y@'@?\}'#';@@X'@X'@@;'
+ #
' _&]''& #&~''& &_'~''&X?&|#
B

low-18 & | ^ Y
& %' [F& '
157
;} #

~
@[&Y@'@?\@[@X;?Q?VX@@![' & *''& X@&

_# & '^''& XX@& | Y ] magmas on 18\?O and 87|\?| # Y

B# & NN N | & %' F& ' ;F[;!F& Y
in garnet, and thermal histories of granitic intrusions in south- @'@?\@@;;Q@VX@@F@@'
` #B# Y% &" & &/'&
&`'& &'&;@@!&B#
$ %&/' #
_ & ~'^'/'& %& ''& ;@@F& +$ ## Y^ ` #&%'
compressive tectonic settings: Implications for midcrustal seismic X@&'F?[F;&Y@';[\';@@!'!?'
+ $ $+ # Y~ ] #& {'& & '& _$& _''^'& XX!& B#
&%'@X&'@F;@&Y@'@;X\;@@[~@@;;;' in grossular and some geological implications: American
/&]'`'& &~'`'&XX;&` + +$ ` #&%'@&'@;@@;!'
Y_
` # #&
%';&'FX?F&Y@'@@\@@[@F!'
&XX;
& +$
% SUPPORTING INFORMATION
temperatures with applications to metamorphism: Geochimica et
_ ^& %' !?& ' [![X[!!@& Y @'@?\@@?
7037(92)90397-2. The following pages contain detailed descriptions of
Dutch, R.A., Hand, M., and Clark, C., 2005, Cambrian reworking analytical procedures and data reduction, garnet cation
^ _ % Y & +
# Y ~ calculations. A full compilation of analytical data is
]# |& %' ?;& ' ?[!& Y @'FF\@@?
?FX@F@;' also included.
{ & `'~'& |& '& ;@@@& #
Y ]#& %' ;&
' ;[@& Y @'[@\@@X?[Q;@@@V;;Y ;'
@';'
& *'_'&& |'`'& & ~''& XX;& B#
# % $ #

` N*

#B&%Y_
` #
#&%'&';@[;;&Y@'@@\@@[FX!;'
Fusseis, F., Regenauer-Lieb, K., Liu, J., Hough, R.M., and De Carlo,
'&;@@X&_%
# +
Y & %' F!X& ' XFX& Y
@'@[\ @@!'
& '~'& & '& #& ''& {& ''& & `'N'& *&
'`'& ` & ~'`'& & ~''& ;@@X& ]
metapelitic migmatites in the Adirondack Mountains, New
Y ~ ` ]#& %' ;& ' F!F& Y
@'\}'!;![F';@@'@@@;'B'

&'`'& &~'`'^'&&'|'&{&'& &
R.L., 1983, Uranium enrichment in Archaean crustal basement
$ % #Y & %' [@[& ' ;[!;[& Y
@'@[\[@[;[!@'
` & '^'~'& %& `'& %& '& * & ^'&
#& '& / & |'& / & N'& ;@& ]
re-equilibration by coupled dissolutionreprecipitation: evidence
B & } B# #
# Y ~ ` ]#& %' ;X& '
;[;[&Y@'\}'!;![F';@@'@@X;'B'
`_#&^'`'&& |'`'& & *''& XX@& / +
& & Y
B# Y _
` #
#&%'@?&'F?@&Y@'@@\@@[@?F@'
&N'&| &`'& &'&;@@@&| #

Y
^ & | ^ Y^ ~
N | & %' F& ' ;;X& Y @'@F?\}'FF@
@X!;';@@@'@@X'B'
&''&;@@@&^] | ^
# Y

& %' @@& ' ;?[& Y @'@?\|@[@
X;?QXXV@@@??'
Raimondo, T., Clark, C., Hand, M., and Faure, K., 2011,
^ # # +
Y
^| ## & ^ Y~
of Metamorphic Geology, v. 29, p. 821850, dY@'\}'!;!
[F';@'@@XFF'B'
| & |'& & '/'& `& ]'& ;@@X& * %

B % $ # Y
^ B | ] Y N |
&%';?&'[[X!&Y@'@?\}'';@@X'@'@;'
158
;} #

~
SAMPLE PREPARATION Q|`V'" Q"`V$

# ]; Q!'@< '& XX!
To obtain the garnet porphyroblast selected for analysis, '&;@@!#'&;@@V
several slices were made through a slab of fresh schist # `] Q!'[< * #& ;@@V'
Q@V& FBFB;
$ ?> $
$
from the central section of one of the slices. The cube 37 standard analyses, and IMF was calculated using a
$ ;!B&$% linear correction scheme outlined below, similar to that
# ]; Q

{'Q;@@XV #'Q;@@V'
'&XX! '&;@@!#'&;@@V
QB V
`]Q`&X?*'&;@@@* $ @'F< Q; |/ n ;;V ];'
#& ;@@V } '
&
the sample and standards were located within 5 mm of bias due to cation composition was corrected using the
the center. #'Q;@@V&
$# $| `/;@@ following sections. The corrected value obtained for the
+ #
X>m, `] $!'F@'!<Q;|/n =
3 >m and 1 >m cloths (magnetic discs). At each stage of 7).
the polishing process, the mount was visually inspected
# # + #
monitor scratches, uneven polish and rounding of the q 0
grain edges. Once polishing was complete, the mount Garnet major element concentrations were obtained
$ # # + #& # _ |!
$
$[@ # #' four wavelength dispersive spectrometers, located
at Adelaide Microscopy, University of Adelaide.
% $
\?^]J? kWZQ@W
performed at 5 >m steps using an accelerating voltage
of 15 kV and a beam current of 20 nA. All peaks were
J q 0
measured on K, and counting times were as follows:
B# Q18\?O) were determined using @ !
# Q_&_V;@
_ "`| ;@
@
# Q|&^&&`#&` &&_&{&V'
located at the Centre for Microscopy, Characterisation ^
^|"`N
^ Q_`_^V& % ^ ' B $
#
Analytical conditions were similar to those outlined peak and background intensities: almandine garnet
in detail by Kita et al. (2009). A static 3 nA Cs+ beam Q|& ^& & `#V& $ Q_V& Q` V&
with an impact energy of 20 kV was focused to a 20 rutile (Ti), Cr2O3 metal (Cr), sanidine (K), albite (Na)
>m spot on the sample surface. Instrument parameters # Q_V' ^
Y# [[
$ $ & B %
&F@@> &F@@@>m $Q;|/V'/ $
&@>m entrance slit, 500 >B& # |^`B $& $ B#
F@

#$! recalculated by stoichiometric criteria (Droop, 1987).
#'| - ions were accelerated to 10 kV and N
$ #
$% #$B GTcalc (Locock, 2008), a spreadsheet calculator that
;F@@Q@B#V # _ assigns molar percentages from chemical analyses
detectors. A normal incidence electron gun was used for based on the consideration of 29 garnet endmembers.
charge compensation. _ $% # %
N $ @ were acquired for Fe K, Mg K, Ca K and Mn K
# "& ^& N " & %' ^
apertures was performed. Analyses consisted of 20 four accelerating voltage of 15 kV and a beam current of 100
second cycles, which gave an average internal precision ^$ 'N$ #
@'[<Q;|NV'^
# $ @;FB@;FB[>m step
# Q:<V '$ $@&#% #
that was drift-corrected using bracketing standards. B;F '$
Raw and drift-corrected 18\?O ratios are presented in ?
$ # |"|

|&$ #%18O notation in per mil # #$
#
variations relative to Vienna standard mean ocean water up table (LUT).
159
;} #

~
DATA REDUCTION
where i is the internal precision (standard error of the
Q ( mean of the 20 cycles for a single analysis i) and reg

# 18\?O raw ratios is the standard error of the estimate of the regression,
(Rraw) were drift-corrected using a linear regression: given by:
Rdrift Rraw mx , (1) reg x 2 m2 c2 2 xV m c , (7)
where m is the slope of the regression and x is the where m and c are the standard errors associated with
analysis number for the session, scaled to ensure that the estimation of m and c respectively, and is the
the intercept (c) crosses the xBx = 0. The raw and
$

|' Rraw. The uncertainty of %18Odrift is given by:
$ B $ % 2
1000
Q|`V #Y drift Rdrift . (8)
0.0020052
Rdrift The uncertainty of individual i estimates is given by:
18 O drift 1000 1 . (2)
0.0020052 2
18 O drift
The instrumental mass fractionation () was then 2 1

1000
drift std
1
i , (9)
calculated as the drift; (see below) weighted average of
1000 18 O 2

1000 O std
18
std

all estimates i of the %18Odrift values for the bracketing

standards using:
where std is the uncertainty of the reference value for the
18 O drift
1

]; Q@'<V'
1000 with () is the weighted mean standard error of the
i , (3)
O std
18
1 individual estimates i obtained from the drift-corrected
1000 ]; '#
where %18Ostd is the %18O value of the standard material %18O value of each sample spot is given by:
% |` Q!'@< '& XX! 2
'&;@@!#'&;@@V'%18O value 1000 18 O sample
2
1
sample drift
%|`$
2 2 . (10)

by adjusting for instrumental mass fractionation using:
Finally, the uncertainty associated with the cation
18 O drift
1 Q#'|
|;V
1000
18 O sample
1000 1
'QFV was calculated using:

corr sample
2

X 2 A X
2
B
2
C2 ...
Finally, %18Osample values were corrected for cation
$ ##'Q;@@V' ... 2U >X 3 A B XV B C X 2 A C @ . (11)
"
% ]; $
in three separate analytical sessions under similar In this commun $ B$
# ' # | $
% |/ $
changes in bias for a range of standards with variable individual analyses (the spot-to-spot reproducibility, or
cation composition. These data (presented in Table B V& |N %

|;V$ of mean values (such as the variability of mean values
correction based on the mole fraction of grossular + of the 20 cycles for each analytical point [internal
uvarovite (Xgrs + uvarV'^B%18O value was precision], or the variability of the mean values of
then calculated using: standards analyses replicated in multiple analytical
sessions).
18 O corr
18 O sample AX 2 BX C , (5)

where A>!'@'[F&BX'X@'[F C = 1.33
^
' Q;@@!V #
0.03. This correction scheme is discussed further below.
et al. (2010), instrumental mass fractionation due
B #

analysis of garnet is strongly correlated with cation
The propagated error to include the uncertainty composition. To quantify the effect of cation chemistry
associated with drift correction is given by: "`&$ %# $

# Q``&
R d rift
i2 reg
2
& Q?V /`& ^{& ^^&^_`]&^|N& ]|N&
?@
;} #

~
4.00
3.00 This study

y = 5.81x2 + 9.97x 1.33
R2 = 0.96
Bias relative to UWG-2 ()

2.00
Calibration curve of
Page et al. (2010)
1.00
0.00
-1.00
-2.00
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Xgrs + uvar
Figure S1.F

*

?2
#/
? %

#
5 ?

% / * /
%
#
* / /

% # % %
*

%

+ #? [!*
?% 0 # 5 5 %

#Y %*3%5# 0
XY
!4 "*+
*+X
;[&F !@XV B $
# ' N each analysis (see above section on error propagation).
$ ];

The corrected %18Osample%
|
from cation composition was considered, in order to under the heading %18Ocorr.
correct for any instrumental instability and to allow $B
$ scheme have negligible impact on the interpretation of
@' our data, considering that an additional bias of 1.5
The measured instrumental bias for each standard +
%]; #'|
|;' away from unequivocally sub-mantle values, and an
|
#'Q;@@V&"` additional bias of 3 is necessary to make them
strongly correlated with grossular + uvarovite content, indistinguishable from the lowest whole-rock %18O
and is described by the following relationship: %
@' $ B
%];Q<VQ;V
low-Ca garnets based on our calibration and that of
Q>!'@'[FVQXgrs + uvar)2] # ' Q;@@V& $ B
QX'X@'[FVQXgrs + uvar)] (1.33 0.03). grossular variation of only 3.3 mol. %. Furthermore, it

$
This correction scheme accounts for potential variability isotopic homogeneity: its minor grossular heterogeneity
in bias (particularly for low-Ca garnets) by including does not produce any analytical outliers, nor correspond

# '" to any systematic variability in %18O values.
accurately reproduces the %18O value of the MON-GT
$ @'<+ <
value (5.38), and shows close correspondence to the

#'Q;@@V |% % B B#
composition range. fractionations between garnet and water, including
`B $ QXV& *
@ # Xgrs + uvar @'@F (1978), Kieffer (1982), Lichtenstein and Hoernes (1992),
for rim compositions and Xgrs + uvar = 0.02 for core # QXX[V `$ QXXFV' &
compositions. These values match the average cation the application and comparison of these calibrations
#
N`^Q#'[V& is complicated by their poor correspondence with

% Q%] one another. At temperatures relevant to this study
;V >@'XF< >'[<& %'
Q:![@ _
$V& %

the former value from %18Osample compositions for rim 1000 ln # $ %
$ >['[< >'?<&
analyses, and the latter from %18Osample compositions for #
Q'#'& #' F
core analyses, in order to fully account for any potential Lichtenstein and Hoernes, 1992). As demonstrated

B ' by Kohn and Valley (1998), Chacko et al. (2001) and
The uncertainty on the calibration regression is also Valley et al. (2003), however, this discrepancy can
?
TABLE S1. ION MICROPROBE GARNET OXYGEN ISOTOPE DATA AND CALCULATED FLUID COMPOSITIONS
?;
18 18 18 18 #
O/16O O/16O 18Odrift Osample 18Ocorr O fluid
Spot name Location 2 SE 2 SE 2 SE 2 SE X grs + uvar 2 SE 2 SE
(R raw)* (R drift) ( VSMOW) ( VSMOW) ( VSMOW) ( VSMOW)
;}
WOTR-07@1 Rim 0.00201379 7.22 x 10-7 0.00201409 7.33 x 10-7 4.43 0.37 1.18 0.37 0.04 2.12 0.40 3.80 1.16
WOTR-07@2 Rim 0.00201374 5.48 x 10-7 0.00201399 5.65 x 10-7 4.39 0.28 1.13 0.29 0.04 2.07 0.33 3.75 1.09

WOTR-07@3 Rim 0.00201574 6.76 x 10-7 0.00201595 6.92 x 10-7 5.36 0.35 2.10 0.35 0.04 3.04 0.39 4.72 1.15
WOTR-07@4 Rim 0.00201414 6.23 x 10-7 0.00201430 6.42 x 10-7 4.54 0.32 1.28 0.33 0.04 2.22 0.36 3.90 1.12
WOTR-07@5 Rim 0.00201363 7.06 x 10-7 0.00201375 7.25 x 10-7 4.26 0.36 1.01 0.37 0.04 1.94 0.40 3.62 1.16

-7 -7
WOTR-07@6 Rim 0.00201381 7.78 x 10 0.00201388 7.97 x 10 4.33 0.40 1.07 0.40 0.04 2.01 0.43 3.69 1.19
WOTR-07@7 Core 0.00201432 7.80 x 10-7 0.00201420 8.09 x 10-7 4.49 0.40 1.23 0.41 0.02 2.36 0.42 4.04 1.18

WOTR-07@8 Core 0.00201480 6.24 x 10-7 0.00201463 6.63 x 10-7 4.70 0.33 1.45 0.34 0.02 2.58 0.36 4.26 1.12
-7 -7
WOTR-07@9 Core 0.00201505 4.78 x 10 0.00201484 5.32 x 10 4.81 0.27 1.55 0.27 0.02 2.68 0.30 4.36 1.06
WOTR-07@10 Core 0.00201553 7.24 x 10-7 0.00201527 7.64 x 10-7 5.02 0.38 1.77 0.39 0.02 2.90 0.40 4.58 1.16

WOTR-07@11 Core 0.00201524 6.09 x 10-7 0.00201494 6.61 x 10-7 4.85 0.33 1.60 0.34 0.02 2.73 0.36 4.41 1.12
-7 -7
WOTR-07@12 Core 0.00201490 6.57 x 10 0.00201455 7.09 x 10 4.66 0.35 1.41 0.36 0.02 2.54 0.38 4.22 1.14

WOTR-07@13 Rim 0.00201524 7.62 x 10-7 0.00201470 8.24 x 10-7 4.74 0.41 1.48 0.41 0.04 2.42 0.44 4.10 1.20
WOTR-07@14 Rim 0.00201471 6.03 x 10-7 0.00201413 6.85 x 10-7 4.45 0.34 1.20 0.35 0.04 2.13 0.38 3.81 1.14
-7 -7
WOTR-07@15 Rim 0.00201514 6.79 x 10 0.00201451 7.57 x 10 4.64 0.38 1.39 0.38 0.04 2.32 0.41 4.00 1.17
WOTR-07@16 Rim 0.00201585 7.04 x 10-7 0.00201517 7.84 x 10-7 4.97 0.39 1.72 0.40 0.04 2.65 0.43 4.33 1.19
WOTR-07@17 Rim 0.00201659 5.08 x 10-7 0.00201587 6.20 x 10-7 5.32 0.31 2.06 0.32 0.04 3.00 0.35 4.68 1.11
-7 -7
WOTR-07@18 Rim 0.00201502 6.80 x 10 0.00201425 7.73 x 10 4.51 0.39 1.26 0.39 0.04 2.19 0.42 3.87 1.18
WOTR-07@19 Rim 0.00201600 7.54 x 10-7 0.00201519 8.43 x 10-7 4.98 0.42 1.72 0.42 0.04 2.66 0.45 4.34 1.21
18 18 18 18 #
Odrift Osample Ocorr O fluid
Weighted averages (95% confidence)
( VSMOW) ( VSMOW) ( VSMOW) ( VSMOW)
Cores 4.77 0.27 1.51 0.28 2.64 0.30 4.31 0.45
Rims 4.69 0.20 1.43 0.20 2.37 0.22 4.05 0.32
All analyses 4.71 0.16 1.46 0.16 2.46 0.18 4.13 0.26
*See supporting information text for a full description of data reduction procedures and an explanation of all terms.

Standard error of the mean of the 20 cycles for each individual analysis (internal precision).

Molar proportion of garnet endmembers grossular + uvarovite; values calculated following Locock (2008). See Fig. 3.
#
2O oxygen isotope fractionation calibrations of Hoernes and Friedrichsen (1978) and Lichtenstein et al.
!"##$%&'&'2O coefficients of Valley et al. (2003) and Hu and Clayton (2003). See supporting information text for for a description of the
calculation procedure.
#

~
;} #

~
TABLE S2. STANDARDS DATA FOR ION MICROPROBE

MATRIX EFFECTS CORRECTION
Actual 18O* Measured 18O Average bias

Standard X grs + uvar 2 SE
( VSMOW) ( VSMOW) rel. to UWG-2 ()
PypAK 0.11 5.50 5.26 -0.24 0.05

PypAA 0.12 5.50 5.34 -0.16 0.11
AlmCMG 0.03 7.50 6.40 -1.10 0.06
AlmSE 0.01 8.30 6.77 -1.53 0.20
GrsSE 0.94 3.80 6.71 2.91 0.06
2B3 0.24 6.90 7.52 0.62 0.19
Beta114 0.06 9.30 8.43 -0.87 0.16
Bal509 0.03 12.30 11.51 -0.79 0.07
UWG-2 0.14 5.80 5.80 0.00 0.23
PypMM 0.11 5.30 5.03 -0.27 0.03
PypDM 0.00 5.60 4.44 -1.16 0.11
*Measured by laser fluorination and gass-source mass spectrometry (see

Vielzeuf et al., 2005 and Page et al., 2010).

Average value measured across three separate ion probe analytical sessions,
corrected to UWG-2.

Molar proportion of garnet endmembers grossular + uvarovite; values from Page
et al. (2010).
be largely attributed to isotope partitioning effects >'@'?<Q* &XV
induced by calcium and ferric iron substitutions. Ca- >'?@'?<Q * &XX;V'
and Fe3+-poor pyralspite garnets common in pelitic estimates are in good agreement with a value of 1.72
rocks are observed to incorporate greater 18O than @';@<
#

near-endmember grossular and andradite compositions $
found in marbles and skarns, whereas variations in Fe2+, 'Q;@@[V * _ Q;@@[V'" & #
Mg and Mn endmembers have little effect. Accurate (1993) reports considerably different values of 2.88
+ & & @'@< >;'X?@'@< \
spessartine-rich compositions, respectively, which are
sample. virtually equivalent to his values for grossular (3.02
|@ 2+- and Mn-rich, 0.07) and andradite (2.92 0.07). His calculated
with molar proportions of almandine and spessartine #
% #
$ ?>[X !;>;X& %
B# #
(Fig. 3). Ca and Fe3+ substitutions are minimal, with garnet. This is not consistent with the large partitioning
grossular and andradite components never greater than B _ 3+-rich compositions.
'Q;@@[V #
F'F ' '
*
and Friedrichsen (1978), Lichtenstein and Hoernes B# % @'< ![@
_& ## # #

QXX;V # QXX[V

%# $ '"
& #% B % %%
# $ $ &
contrast, the strong agreement between the empirical
+ ^ B *
# ' (1978), Lichtenstein and Hoernes (1992), Valley et
" &
al. (2003) and Hu and Clayton (2003) suggests that a
:'< ![@ _

$ ' Q;@@[V
Hu and Clayton (2003) are considered for comparison robust.
$# $
'
+
%18% +
for each analytical point primarily using the calibration
$ # #$ # Y of Lichtenstein and Hoernes (1992). Its larger associated
18 18 + $
% O+ = % Ocorr 1000 ln . (13)
values, making our estimates suitably conservative. The
1000 ln varies according to the calibration used and the resultant%18O + % Q
|V
temperature of equilibration. The latter was estimated not only this calibration variability, but also analytical
using a weighted average of the temperature data errors and uncertainties associated with the temperature

/ 'Q;@@!V _'Q;@@?V of equilibration. A weighted average of all individual
|Q![@;_\@[;{X! %18O + % #
%V' %
+
?[
;} #

~
QF'[@';?<X! %V' isotope geothermometers: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v.

?&'[;;[;F?&Y@'@?\|@@?@[Q@;V@[XF'
All estimates are consistently below the mantle
{& |''& X;&

# Q!'@'[<&X@V& # ` Y !' ^ N
& "
lower than the isotopic composition of the undeformed & *# Y
@Q>[< %$ ]& %' ;@& ' ;FX& Y @'@;X\
]@;@@@F@@;'
_'&;@@?V' {& ''&
& '& & '& & ~''& ;@@X& *#
Nevertheless, all calculations quoted above assume |"`|B#
#
B # #Y_]#&%';?F&'F[!&Y@'@?\}'
with pure water, rather than a solution containing chemgeo.2009.02.012.
{ &`'~'& &~''&XX&N

dissolved minerals or salts such as NaCl and CaCl2. As # B
B# Y

* _ Q;@@[V& B# ~ ` ]#& %' ?& ' ?;!?[X& Y
+ @'\}'!;![F'XX'@@?;'B'
&'& * &|'&XX;&B#
$#PT conditions, causing

$ # # $Y B
further inaccuracies in the calculated compositions of %# YN ~ ` #&%'F&';[X;FX'
+ '^ % &^'~'&;@@&^ NB #
Q:![@_V&$%&% into end-member components, and a synopsis of the crystal
chemistry of natural silicate garnets: Computers & Geosciences,
caused by increasing salt concentrations are negligible, %'[F&'?X@&Y@'@?\}'#';@@';'@['
and become negative with increasing temperature. This `$& ^'& XXF& B# #
is similar to the isotope effect of dissolved minerals, metamorphic rocks: Journal of Metamorphic Geology, v. 12, p.
which result in overestimated %18O + % ;;X&Y@'\}'!;![F'XXF'
@@@'B'
`&''&X?&^
&
order of +1 to +2 at temperatures as low as 300 ` ` &| ^Y_
C. Consequently, if impure aqueous solutions were $ & %_$ &/'
%%
B # $ #&''&{&''& &~''&;@@&"

B# # B Y _
garnet, the mineralwater fractionation relationship
]#&%';@&'XX&Y@'@?\}'#';@@X''@@'
we employ above would need to be corrected by at & 'N'& & ~''& X& |

least 1 to 2, pushing the calculated composition _^|
to lower values and hence only increasing the potential and igneous rocks, Osgood Mountains, Nevada: Contributions
` # #& %' ?[& ' FX& Y @'@@\
contribution of meteoric sources to the observed @@[?F'
isotopic signature. & *''& X@&

magmas on 18\?O and 87|\?| # Y
N | & %' F& ' ;F[;!F& Y
REFERENCES CITED @'@?\@@;;Q@VX@@F@@'
&~''&{ &'&{ &`'~'& &_''& | &
Chacko, T., Cole, D.R., and Horit& ~'& ;@@& N
B# & `'~'&XX!&];&# B# Y
Hydrogen and Carbon Isotope Fractionation Factors Applicable to |# # $ #Y
]#|Y%$ ` # ]&%' ] _ ^& %' !X& ' !;;[!;[& Y
F[&'&Y@';[\##'F[''' @'@?\@@?@[QX!V@@[?'
_& _'& * & `'& & {'& |` &^'& ;@@?& & ~''& & "''& & '*'& ;@@[& N
+$ % + Y
B# Y]
role of pre-orogenic burial of hydrated fault rocks: Journal of _^&%'?&'[;![;??&Y@'@?\|@@?
` ]#& %' ;F& ' [?[& Y @'\}'!;! 7037(03)00090-5.
[F';@@?'@@?F['B' &/'&_ &`'&&~''& &'& /%&
Dutch, R.A., Hand, M., and Clark, C., 2005, Cambrian reworking of the ~''&;@@!&|"`| B# Y`B
^ _ % Y `#_# Y_]#&%';;[&';@;;?&Y
# Y ~ ]# @'@?\}'#';@@!'@'@@'
|&%'?;&'?[!&Y@'FF\@@??FX@F@;' #& ''& XX[& _ B#
Droop, G.T.R., 1987, A general equation for estimating Fe3+ anhydrous silicate minerals: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,
# B %'!&'@X@X&Y@'@?\@@?@[QX[VX@@F;'
microprobe analysis, using stoichiometric criteria: Mineralogical
`# &%'!&'F[F[!'
*& _'& |& *'|'& B& ^''& ;@@@& B#
composition of phenocrysts from Tristan da Cunha and Gough
" %Y% $ %
Y _
` # #& %'
[&'?F!&Y@'@@\@@F@@@!@@!'
*&_'& #&~'&;@@&B# #
] & _ ] | & | ^Y
# Y |
^ ~ ]#& %' [& ' F@F;& Y @';[\
#}#'['F'F@'
* &|'& &*'&X&B# #
|

^QVY_
` # #&%'?&'
[@![!&Y@'@@\@@[F!'
* &]'& _ &''&;@@[&B# #
#
B#
?F
CHAPTER 7
Summary of key outcomes and future research directions
This thesis endeavours to develop an integrated thickening. The basic anatomy of intracontinental
framework that characterises the architecture and orogens thus appears to be analogous to that of typical
evolution of intracontinental orogens. In the preceding collisional belts. Furthermore, as outlined in Chapter
chapters, the structural, metamorphic and geochemical 1, this resemblance does not apply to the Petermann
records of large-scale reworking in continental interiors Orogen alone, but also pertains to several key aspects
$ %# % of the Tien Shan, Altai and Alice Springs Orogens. It
presented in the introduction. The following discussion can therefore be broadly inferred that the deformational
highlights the key outcomes of this study in the context response of continental lithosphere is controlled
of these aims, providing a concise summary of the by fundamental properties such as its thermal and
current state of knowledge regarding intracontinental rheological structure, rather than circumstantial features
orogens and the various processes that contribute to such as its tectonic setting. Regardless of the enigmatic
their geodynamic development. It also outlines the sources of compressive stress in continental interiors,
potential directions that future research could pursue both ancient and modern orogenic belts produced in
to address pertinent questions that remain unanswered. these settings maintain the familiar guise of their plate-
margin counterparts.
Nevertheless, the nature and extent of similarities
1. Construct an orogenic model that explains the
between intracontinental and collisional orogens could
macroscopic structural, kinematic and metamorphic
undoubtedly be better illuminated by further study.
architecture of the Petermann Orogen, and compare it
B&
+$
to the basic anatomy of collisional belts.
hypothesis to the Petermann Orogen currently rests on
Despite its unusual intracontinental setting, the limited geochronological data and sporadic kinematic
macroscopic structural, kinematic and metamorphic observations. Detailed mapping of the regional shift in
architecture of the Petermann Orogen appears to satisfy shear sense orientations between the Mann Ranges and
the diagnostic criteria outlined by recently advanced the Bates region would place important constraints on the
+$&
Chapters 2 and 3. kinematic framework for pervasive mylonitic reworking
Firstly, the orogenic core between the Woodroffe Thrust ' " & %
and the Mann Fault is bounded by regional-scale low- of a temporal overlap between opposing shear vectors
angle shear fabrics with opposing shear senses, and $

$ #
currently available geochronological constraints suggest of high closure temperature minerals (such as zircon and
that the inverted kinematics developed synchronously. titanite) from samples with well-constrained structural
Secondly, this domain is marked by a discrete shift contexts. This undertaking also has the potential to
in strain gradient and metamorphic grade relative to advance our understanding of the Petermann Orogenys
+ #
' # #$ metamorphic evolution, by linking synkinematic ages
the Woodroffe Thrust is characterised by pervasive with crystallisation temperatures determined via trace
mylonitic deformation, high-grade metamorphism and element thermometry, as demonstrated in Chapter 3.
widespread partial melting. In contrast, its footwall # &
and the area south of the Mann Fault contain discrete, character of intracontinental orogenesis achieved by
low-grade shear zones. This segmented structural and these means, the relative universality of geodynamic
metamorphic architecture preserves an unambiguous processes that shape the lithospheric architecture of
record of the north-directed emplacement of a deep

crustal wedge along the Woodroffe Thrust, which assessed.
fundamentally disagrees with the widespread existence
of SW-directed kinematics in its hanging wall. Finally,
2. Determine explicit geochronological and
# %
metamorphic constraints on the timing of shear
between the foreland and hinterland of the Petermann
zone activity, rate of cooling, pressuretemperature
# &
conditions and geothermal gradients in the deeply-
# % +$'
exhumed axial zone of this orogenic system.
Taken together, the attributes listed above are
# *
# & As presented in Chapters 2 and 3, SHRIMP and LA-
suggesting that both systems are dominantly shaped by ICP-MS dating of zircon and titanite indicate that peak
#% % +$ ' metamorphism in the axial zone of the Petermann
This similarity extends to other architectural and Orogen occurred at c. 570 Ma, followed by cooling
evolutionary features, such as their spatial and temporal to 600660 C at c. 540 Ma. Integrated Zr and Ti
scales, overall cooling histories, average geothermal thermometry and THERMOCALC average *calculations
gradients, levels of exhumation and extents of crustal
@F
@@>@@ _
167
Chapter 7 Key outcomes and future research
in this domain, corresponding to average geothermal substitution is typically restricted and calibration
# ;? _ . An average cooling rate # ' " &
;>? _ ` is also estimated using the thermal Ti-in-quartz thermobarometer is largely ineffective
at the lower limit of its calibration, as a result of
and temporal separation between titanite crystallisation
and subsequent Pb closure. These constraints suggest disproportionate analytical uncertainties and widely-
that the exhumation history of the Petermann Orogeny '%&#
was characterised by slow convergence and deep be assigned to calculated crystallisation conditions
denudation, ultimately allowing the exposure of a broadwhere SIMS analysis is employed, because it avoids
lower-crustal wedge between the Mann Fault and the interference and ablation issues affecting LA-ICP-
Woodroffe Thrust. MS measurements, has superior detection limits to
However, it should be noted that the cooling rate EMPA, and permits precisely targeted analyses at the
quoted above is merely an average value estimated usingsub-grain scale. This technique is therefore highly
approximate closure temperatures and comparatively #
sparse age estimates. As such, its relevance to the grain sizes of recrystallised shear zone assemblages.
Petermann Orogen as a whole is questionable. The Where Ti variations can be linked to distinctive
cathodoluminescence patterns and textural settings,
relatively poor resolution of the available geochronology
does not permit detailed regional comparisons to be it may be possible to extract detailed microstructural
made, and thus the extent of disparity between the information from individual samples, greatly improving
thermal evolution of its western and eastern margins our understanding of the thermal and deformational
remains an open question. Furthermore, as shown in + +$% '
Chapter 1, time-integrated values may obscure the % # % +
existence of episodic tectonic pulses during which interaction is also greatly enhanced through the use
exhumation and cooling were accelerated. While the of high precision and high spatial resolution SIMS
apparent simplicity of the metamorphic petrogenesis analysis. As demonstrated in Chapter 4, the utility of
suggests that this is unlikely, it is equally true thatconventional bulk analytical techniques is limited for
the reaction histories of deformed rocks are not large open systems such as fault structures, particularly
those subject to prolonged cooling histories and

%
orogenic system. In this regard, the intensive study of B #$B %+ '
% #
#
& #$&
shear zones offers the best opportunity to critically and the incorporation of primary and relict grains in
test competing models for the thermo-mechanical aggregated ribbons are likely to contribute to substantial
development of the deep crust. Coupled with integrated isotopic disequilibrium. Such complexity can only be
geochronology and trace element thermometry, this has properly considered with the aid of textural information
the potential to dramatically improve the spatial and provided by in situ analysis. Chapters 5 and 6 illustrate
temporal resolution of apparent geothermal gradients this point by presenting sub-grain oxygen isotope
and cooling histories, thus eliminating the current analyses of a variety of garnet grains with well-
equivocation regarding the duration and thermal constrained petrological contexts. This information is
characteristics of intracontinental reworking. supplemented by detailed major element compositional
|# \
# #
to provide a coupled thermal and temporal framework
3. Develop in situ techniques for the metamorphic
+ ' #

!
of these in situ techniques provides new insights into
including laser-ablation trace element thermobarometry
+ % # #$&
and ion microprobe garnet oxygen isotope analysis.
re-equilibration and dissolution, ultimately allowing
The zircon and titanite trace element thermometry the reconstruction of lithospheric weakening processes
techniques initially employed in Chapter 3 are leading to the large-scale reactivation of continental
expanded in Chapter 4 to include the thermobarometric interiors.
investigation of quartz and rutile. Their application However, SIMS analysis is not without its own
complications. Firstly, sample preparation (particularly
^ } # > polishing) must be to a very high standard, to allow
conditions of ~530 C and 45 kbar, implying average even potential across the mount surface and eliminate
# # ;X>[? _ and depths the analytical artefacts induced by sample topography.
F> ' in situ techniques have many Secondly, instrumental mass fractionation due to
advantages over alternative methods such as average chemical matrix effects is a major issue for minerals
* calculations and stable isotope geothermometry, with complex solid solutions. As shown in Chapters
particularly for high-variance or disequilibrated 5 and 6, bias corrections for garnet must involve the
metamorphic assemblages. However, their success analysis of multiple standards with varying cation
depends on careful consideration of precision issues compositions, and the resultant calibration regressions
$#&$ are only valid for the same instrument operating under
?
equivalent operating conditions. Thirdly, the relatively B + # $
recent advent of high precision and high spatial ##& #+ >
resolution isotopic analysis means that the geochemical B # # $ $ + # ' "
characteristics of several minerals have not yet been both central and southeastern Australia, therefore, large
B' ^ & # $% B % + $ #
remaining to be done in determining the diffusive to mid-crustal depths during the reactivation of
behaviour of isotopic components and their relationship penetrative intracontinental shear zones, allowing the
to coupled cation mobility. Chapter 6 demonstrates pervasive rehydration of refractory crustal material.

B# %& +
partially resorbed garnet grains at comparatively broader domains of the Arunta Region and Curnamona
low * conditions (~550 C; 5.06.5 kbar) and fast Province remains unclear. For example, Chapter 6
cooling rates (> 50 C Myr1). The extent to which such concerns only a minor splay of the main Walter-Outalpa
resetting is a common feature of resorbed minerals can shear zone, and its arguments would be strengthened
only be assessed with the more widespread application by a demonstration of reproducibility throughout more
of SIMS techniques. Furthermore, its dependence widely-spread fault structures of this region. This has
+ % & been done by previous studies using bulk isotopic
implications for the preservation and interpretation of analytical techniques, but the lack of textural context
elemental zoning patterns, remain important issues that or integrated geochronology from these datasets means
deserve further attention. that they are somewhat equivocal. More importantly,
$%&B %+
exhumed parts of the Alice Springs Orogen demands
4. Obtain detailed geochemical constraints on the
in-depth investigation. As discussed in Chapter 4,

preliminary isotopic studies of kilometre-scale shear
crustal volumes in continental interiors, and the
zones from the Strangways Metamorphic Complex
mechanisms for isotopic alteration and major element
%% + #
metasomatism.
dehydration of Amadeus Basin sediments. The extent to
The whole-rock geochemical data presented in which the widespread dewatering of buried sedimentary
Chapter 4 show heterogeneous major, trace and rare rocks facilitated voluminous deep crustal rehydration in
earth element mobility trends indicative of complex this region is a critical question that requires attention in
+ ' '" #
# # architecture of the Centralian Superbasin, along with
scale disequilibrium, despite intense recrystallisation its relationship to extremely prolonged anatexis in the
that should promote extensive isotopic exchange. N ] _B&
% + > #
# the dynamics of intracontinental reworking.
all mass fractionation and elemental behaviour to
equilibrium temperature effects are thus inappropriate to
`_ ;
]
+ +$ #
ingress into the deep crust, and investigate the
+ + B ' &

observed patterns of isotopic alteration and major
lithospheric processes that moderate the sensitivity of
element metasomatism, coupled with the thermal and

_
% +

Chapters 5 and 6, are more consistent with the ingress As summarised in Chapters 4 and 6, the existence of
B %&
+ '
% % +
As outlined in Chapter 4, oxygen and hydrogen crustal shear zones of the Alice Springs and Delamerian
isotope analysis of metasomatised mid-crustal shear # #
zones from the ReynoldsAnmatjira Ranges indicate + # ' & %
%O and %/ + % $ :;< >?@<& hydromechanical restrictions that limit downward
respectively. Similarly, Chapter 6 establishes that garnet + # & # #
porphyroblasts from the Walter-Outalpa shear zone, negative buoyancy effects, unfavourable temperature
southern Curnamona Province, exhibit equilibrium %O and pressure gradients, and limited permeability and
+ % :F<' ]%

porosity. Secondly, transient hydraulic gradients are not
% + %& % $ %#+ B
+
% %
+
$
& #
of meteoric origin, which has subsequently undergone
#+ #
#
# $ to avoid continuous exchange with host rocks during
compositions. As illustrated in Chapter 5, completely ' & #
rock-buffered values are observed throughout growth- of both orogenic systems place inherent restrictions on
zoned garnet porphyroblasts from the Peaked Hill shear %+ Y
&% %
zone, southeastern Reynolds Range. This implies that are entirely absent, there is no evidence of proximal
?X
underthrust sedimentary sequences or extensive thrust deep crustal domains of the Petermann Orogen deserves
stacks necessary to promote their dewatering, and further investigation, particularly in light of the
crustal fertility has been eradicated by a prolonged extremely limited isotopic datasets currently available.
history of high-grade metamorphism, anatexis and Constraining the primary controls on the distribution of
melt extraction prior to the onset of deformation and + % # & #$
metasomatism. their potential impact on widespread partial melting and
Overcoming these issues requires a new approach strain localisation, would form a strong framework with
B + #'Chapters 4, 5 and 6 present which to assess the susceptibility of the lithosphere to
# % # +$'
+ #

burial and dehydration of hydrothermally-altered fault
panels. The panels are produced during pre-orogenic
basin formation, and represent inherited structures that
are exposed at the surface before subsequent burial
under a thick sedimentary succession. With continued
subsidence, prograde dehydration reactions trigger
#% + &
# # +
volumes and the promotion of extensive hydration,
metasomatism and reaction softening in the vicinity
of the brittleductile transition. Thick sedimentary
blanketing thus provides a plausible means of
# B #
depths in the absence of convergent deformation, a
process that simultaneously ensures the preservation
and remote imposition of O- and D-poor compositions
derived from meteoric reservoirs.
As discussed in Chapters 1 and 4, the existence
of large-scale rehydrated fault networks that intersect
the load-bearing regions of the lithosphere must have a
+
reworking. Such weak structural domains are ideally
positioned to accommodate large strains associated
$ & $ #
# #
+
interaction to exert a primary control on the distribution
of deformation. Furthermore, this weakening process is
concomitant with regional thermal effects such as the
insulation of strongly heat-producing crust, due to their
common association with the patterns and extent of pre-
orogenic basin subsidence. It is therefore inferred that
+ # $#
elevated heat production to prime the lithosphere for
reworking.
Overall, a key outcome from this thesis is that the
# & +
basin formation profoundly affect the initiation and
localisation of intraplate deformation. As mentioned
previously, their complex interrelationships could
be revealed in considerably more detail by intensive
%%+
Arunta Region, particularly those of the Strangways
`_B N ] _B'
suggestion of direct links to the Centralian Superbasin
# # %
become a research priority. Furthermore, this association
should also be explored in broader areas of the central
Australian intracontinental terranes. For example, the
% B % +
170

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The architecture and evolution of intracontinental orogens:

a structural, metamorphic and geochemical characterisation

Geology and Geophysics

Publications arising from this thesis vii

Statement of authorship viii

Motivation and aims of this thesis xiii

Chapter outlines xiv

Chapter 1: An introduction to the formation and characteristics of intracontinental orogens 1

Chapter 3: The anatomy of a deep intracontinental orogen 41

             !

 . /0  0      &'"

"     #    

THOMAS RAIMONDO DATE

Raimondo, T.&_&_'&* &`'&_&~'q*&_'&;@'*#  #  + >

Raimondo, T.&_ &^'|'q* &`'&;@@'/     +$Y    

Raimondo, T.&_&_'&* &`'& &{'&q_ &^'|'&;@@X'/  + +$ ^

HAND, M., CLARK, C. and COLLINS, A. S. (Supervisors)

SMITHIES, R. H., EVINS, P. M., and HOWARD, H. M.

  # '_   &    

1. INTRODUCTION the widespread terranes of central Asia (Fig. 1a &

Figure 2. ! $55 0  # *

NEFB the Palaeozoic can be accounted for solely in terms of

331 Ma Whether created by a large-scale collisional event

Figure 5. ! U/  & * [ 

thickening due to a reduction in lithospheric loading

(Haines et al., 2001; Buick et al., 2008; McLaren et

  $ $ #     Q @[@ `V' "

3.1. Structural heterogeneities

3.2. Thermal effects

The application of the thermal blanketing +$  

reactions (e.g. Cartwright & Barnicoat, 2003; Barnes et

Figure 12. +%# %   

Figure 13. U/ # 0

    

4. ARCHITECTURAL AND EVOLUTIONARY

   #   [@@!@@   $  Q#' V' "   CB Mt Isa

mean altitude of ~2500 m and summits extending to > Paterson GB

7000 m (Omuralieva et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2011). AB

^|  `          

Figure 15. ! "  /# %   # % 

    

ABSTRACT kinematics. The shear zones crosscut ca. 820 Ma

GEOCHRONOLOGY that the proportion of very low abundance isotopes

TABLE DR1. SUMMARY OF EXISTING GEOCHRONOLOGICAL DATA FROM NW MUSGRAVE BLOCK

TABLE DR2. SUMMARY OF TITANITE SIZE AND ISOTOPIC CHEMISTRY

`V  + #  

* Displayed ratios are uncorrected for common Pb

TABLE DR3 (cont.) SHRIMP U

5.1. Zircon Descriptions 5.2. Age Estimates

Table 2. Summary of Zircon Characteristics

Table 3. SHRIMP Zircon UThPb Age Data for Sample 155735

Spot Conc Eff

Isotopic Ratiosa Age Estimatesa

Spot Concc Eff

Isotopic Ratiosa Age Estimatesa c

ages from analyses with >90% concordance yields an esti-

Table 7. Comparison of Alternative Temperature Estimates Versus Geochronology

TEXT S1 University of Adelaide. An operating voltage of 20 keV

TEXT S2 S2.3. LA-ICPMS operating procedures and data

orogen, Geology, 26(3), 243246, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1998)

DATA SET S1*

et al., 2005, 2006). These locations are typically char-

a strong shear fabric dened by elongate chlorite and

allowing aTiO2 and aZrO2 to be xed at unity. Xqtz

!

. /0 0 &'"

" #

Raimondo, T.&_&_'& &`'&_&~'q&_'&;@'*# #+ >

Raimondo, T.&_ &^'|'q* &`'&;@@'/ +$Y

Raimondo, T.&_&_'&* &`'& &{'&q_ &^'|'&;@@X'/ + +$ ^

# '_ &

Figure 2. !$55 0 #*

Figure 5. !U/ & *[

$ $ # Q @[@ `V' "

The application of the thermal blanketing +$

Figure 12. +%# %

Figure 13. U/# 0

# [@@!@@ $ Q#' V' " CB Mt Isa

^| `

Figure 15. ! " /# % # %

`V + #

TABLE DR3 (cont.) SHRIMP U

Table S2. # % ;'

" 0.82 0.80 @'F 0.71

Table S4.B# #

% Y

Figure 1.& %/ #/

| # & #

<?@JQWZ[ J\]W]JZ\ #J/]ZW^ Z<

# # # #

/ ' Q;@@!V _ ' Q;@@?V

\| # # %

SAMPLE PREPARATION Q|`V'" Q"`V$

Rdrift Rraw mx , (1) reg x 2 m2 c2 2 xV m c , (7)

QF'[@';?<X! %V' isotope geothermometers: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v.