The Sociological Investigation Critical sociology uses research to bring about social change.
Asks moral and political questions
Basics of Sociological Investigation
Two basic requirements for sociological investigation are
Know how to apply the sociological perspective.
Be curious and ready to ask questions about the
world around you.
What people accept as truth differs from around the world.
Science a logical system that bases knowledge on
direct, systematic, observation- is one form of truth.
Scientific evidence gained from sociological research
often challenges common sense.
science a logical system that bases knowledge on
direct, systematic observation
empirical evidence information we can verify with
our senses
Research Orientations: Three ways to Do Sociology
Positivist sociology studies society by systematically observing
social behavior.
requires carefully operationalizing variables and
ensuring that measurement is both reliable and valid
observes how variables are related and tries to
establish cause and effect
sees an objective reality out there
favors quantitative data
is well suited to research in a laboratory
demands that researchers be objective and suspend
their personal values and biases as they conduct
research
variable a concept whose value changes from case
to case
measurement a procedure for determining the
value of a variable in a specific case
reliability consistency in measurement
validity actually measuring what you want to
measure
cause and effect a relationship in which change in
one variable causes change in another
independent variable - the variable that causes the
change
dependent variable the variable that changes
control holding constant all variables except one in
order to see clearly the effect of that variable
objectivity personal neutrality in conducting
research
Interpretive sociology focuses on the meanings that people
attach to behavior.
sees reality as constructed by people in the course of
their everyday lives
Favors qualitative data
Is well suited to research in a natural setting
Focusses on inequality
Rejects the principle of objectivity, claiming that all
research is political
Research Orientations and Theory
Positivist sociology - Positivist sociology is loosely linked to the
structural-functional approach
Interpretive sociology - Interpretive sociology is related to the
symbolic-interaction approach
Critical sociology - Critical sociology corresponds to the social-
conflict approach
Methods: Strategies for Doing Research
The experiment allows researchers to study cause and effect
between two or more variables in a controlled setting.
Researchers conduct an experiment to test a
hypothesis, a statement of a possible relationship
between two (or more) variables.
Survey research uses questionnaires or interviews to gather
subjects responses to a series of questions.
Surveys typically yield descriptive findings, painting a
picture of peoples views on some issue.
Through participant observation, researchers join with people
in a social setting for an extended period of time.
Participant observation, also called fieldwork, allows
researchers an inside look at a social setting. Because
researchers are not attempting to test specific
hypothesis, their research is exploratory and
descriptive.
Gender and Research
Gender, involving both researcher and subjects, can
affect research in five ways:
androcentricity
overgeneralizing
gender blindness
double standards
Interference
Gender the personal traits and social positions that members
of a society attach to being male and female.
Research Ethics
Researchers must
protect the privacy of subjects
obtain the informed consent of subjects
indicate all sources of funding
submit research to an institutional review board I RB)
to ensure it doesnt violate ethical standards
 Comparing Sociology with other Social Sciences
Anthropology
Anthropologists and sociologists
interested in studying human behavior
Anthropology - seeks to understand human existence over
geographic space and evolutionary time
Sociology - seeks to understand contemporary social
organization, relations, and change
Psychology
is the systematic study of behavior and mental
processes- what occurs in the mind.
Social psychology
- branch of psychology which is similar to sociology
- emphasizes how social conditions affect
individual behavior
*Social psychological perspectives on human development are
useful to sociologists who study the process of socialization
Distinction - psychological studies focus on internal factors
relating to the individual their explanations of human behavior
Sociology - Examines the effects of groups, organizations, and
social institutions on social life
Economics
Explains how the limited resources of a society are
allocated among competing demands
Focus on the complex workings of economic systems
( such as monetary policy, inflation, and the national
debt)
Sociology
Focus on the numbers of social institutions, one of
which is the economy
Political science
The academic discipline that studies political
institutions such as the state, government, and
political parties.
Study power relations and seek to determine how
power is distributed to various types of political
systems
Sociology
study these institutions ( political institutions) in the
larger context of other social institutions such as
families, religion, education, and the media
Q & A on Scarborough Shoal
What is it?
Small ring of reefs
250kms ( 140miles) from the main island of Luzon
1000 kms. from the nearest major Chinese landmass,
Hainan island
Rich with maritime life
Part of the Philippines EEZ
But China and Taiwan also claim it
If its so small and Remote, why is it important?
China has moved aggressively
to cement its claims to most of the South China sea
asserts military control over the water
weakens US influence
China built artificial islands in the Spratlys
Spratlys - a strategic location in the southern part of the sea
Could become military outposts
Another military outpost at Scarborough Shoal
seen as the last major physical step required to
secure control of the sea.
An outpost on the shoal would also put Chinese
fighter jest and missiles within easy striking distance
of US forces stationed in the Philippines.
Scarborough - commands the northeast exit of the sea
A military outpost there could stop other countries
navies from using the vital stretch of waters
Whats happened there in the past?
Scarborough part of US territory when the
Philippines became an American colony
Treaty of Paris May 10, 1898
was transferred to the Philippines upon
independence in 1946
The Philippine navy then used it as a gunnery range
for the joint exercises with the American forces
China - controlled the shoal in July 2012
blocked since then the Filipino fishermen from
entering the island
July 2016 UN backed tribunal rules that chinas
claim to the sea had no legal basis ( The Hague)
Is there really a risk of military CONFRONTTATION/
1974 - Paracel islands clashes with the Sotuh
Vietnamese Navy 50 Vietnamse trops died
1988- namval bttle with Vietnam Johnson Reef
killed 70 Vietenamse
US-Philippines Mutual Defense Treaty
US standing offer on the Philippine government for a
joint military excersis
 Culture
What is culture?
is the ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the
material objects that together form a peoples way
of life.
that complex whole which includes, knowledge,
belief, arts, morals, law, custom, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member
of society. E.B. Tylor
Two types of culture
1. Nonmaterial culture - is the ideas created by members of
a society
2. Material culture - is the physical things created by
members of a society
Technology the knowledge, techniques, and tools
that make it possible for people to transform
resources into usable forms, and the knowledge and
skills required to use them after they are developed.
The Elements of Culture
1. Symbols - Symbol is anything that carries a particular
meaning recognized by people who share a culture
- humans give the world meaning
- humans transform elements of the world
2. Language is a system of symbols that allows people to
communicate with one another.
- key to cultural transmission
cultural transmission the process by which one
generation passes culture to the next.
also called: oral cultural tradition
Sapir-whorf thesis states that people see and
understand the world through the cultural lens of
language.
3. Values and Beliefs
Values - culturally defined standards that people use
to decide what is desirable, good, and beautiful, and that
serve as broad guidelines from social living
beliefs specific ideas that people hold to be true
4. Norms rules and expectations by which a society guides
the behavior of its members
a. mores - norms that are widely observed and
have great moral significance. Ex. Taboos
- distinguish between right and wrong
b. laws formal standardized norms that are
enforced by formal sanctions
c. folkways norms for routine or casual interaction
- draw a line between right and rude
Characteristics of culture
A. Culture is Learned
- Cultural learning is unique to humans.
- Cultural learning is the accumulation of knowledge
about experiences and information not perceived directly
by the organism, but transmitted through symbols.
B. Culture is Shared
- Culture is located and transmitted in groups.
C. Culture is Symbolic
- The human ability to use symbols is the basis of
culture (a symbol is something verbal or nonverbal within a
particular language or culture that comes to stand for
something else).
- While human symbol use is overwhelmingly
linguistic, a symbol is anything that is used to represent any
other thing, when the relationship between the two is
arbitrary (e.g. a flag).
D. Culture is All-Encompassing
- The anthropological concept of culture is a model
that includes all aspects of human group behavior.
- Everyone is cultured, not just wealthy people with
an elite education.
E. Culture is Integrated
- A culture is a system: changes in one aspect will
likely generate changes in other aspects.
- Core values are sets of ideas, attitudes, and beliefs,
which are basic in that they provide an organizational logic
for the rest of the culture.
F. Culture is Adaptive and Maladaptive
- Culture is an adaptive strategy employed by
hominids.
- Because cultural behavior is motivated by cultural
factors, and not by environmental
constraints, cultural behavior can be maladaptive.
- Determining whether a cultural practice is
adaptive or maladaptive
Levels of Culture
1. National culture refers to the experiences,
beliefs, learned behavior patterns, and values shared by
citizens of the same nation.
2. International culture refers to cultural practices,
which are common to an identifiable group, extending
beyond the boundaries of one culture.
3. Subcultures are identifiable cultural patterns
existing within a larger culture
4. Counterculture is a group that strongly rejects
dominant societal values and norm and seeks alternative
lifestyles.
Ideal versus Real Culture
Ideal culture values and standards of behavior of that
people in society profess to hold
Real culture values and standards of behavior people
actually follow

High Culture and Popular Culture

High culture consists of classical music, opera, ballet,
live theater, and other activities usually patronized by
elite audiences, composed primarily of members of the
upper-middle and upper classes, who have the time,
money, and knowledge assumed to be necessary for its
appreciation
Popular culture consists of activities, products, and
services that are assumed to appeal primarily to
members of the middle and working classes.

Culture shock - the disorientation that people feel when

they encounter radically different from their own and
believe they cannot depend on their own taken-for-
granted assumptions about life.
Ethnocentrism- the practiced of judging all their cultures
by ones own culture.
Cultural relativism the belief that the behaviors and
customs of any culture must be viewed and analyzed by
the cultures own standards.

Mechanisms of Cultural Change

A. Diffusion
Diffusion is defined as the spread of culture traits through
borrowing from one culture to another; it has been a source
of culture change throughout human history.
Diffusion can be:
a. direct (between two adjacent cultures)
b. indirect (across one or more intervening cultures or
through some long distance medium).
c. forced (through warfare, colonization, or some other
kind of domination) or unforced (e.g., intermarriage,
trade )

B. Acculturation - is the exchange of features that results

when groups come into continuous firsthand contact.
C Independent Invention - Independent invention is defined
as the creative innovation of new solutions to old and new
problems.
D. Cultural Convergence or Convergent Cultural Evolution -
is the development of similar traits, institutions, and behavior
patterns by separate groups as a result of adaptation to
similar environments. Julian Steward

Waves of Migration Theory (Otley Beyer) - Negritos,

Indonesians, Malays