REPORTER: MONTESINO, JESSICA S.
These rollers are not suitable for clayey soils,
AZARRAGA, CRISTINA M.
(PRINCIPLES OF COMPACTION)
THE COMPACTION PROCESS
COMPACTION- is the process of increasing the density
of soil by mechanically forcing the soil particles closer
together, thereby expelling air from the void spaces in
the soil.
CONSOLIDATION- is an increase in soil density of a
cohesive soil resulting from the expulsion of water
from the soils void spaces.
The degree of compaction that may be achieved in a
particular soil depends on the soils physical and
chemical properties.
Compaction has been employed for centuries to
improve the engineering properties of soil.
Improvements include increased bearing strength,
reduced compressibility, improved volume-change
characteristics, and reduced permeability.
Compaction specifications
It is intended to ensure that the compacted
material attained the required engineering
properties and a satisfactory level of
uniformity.
It is customary to prescribe the characteristics
of the material to be used and a minimum dry
density is to be achieved.
Typical density requirements range from 90%
of the standard proctor to 100% of modified
proctor.
A lack of uniformity in compaction may result
in differential settlement of structures or may
produce a bump or depression in pavements.
(COMPACTION EQUIPMENT AND
PROCEDURES)
Construction equipment
1. TAMPING FOOT ROLLERS
It utilizes a compaction drum
equipped with a number of protruding feet.
During Initial compaction, roller feet
penetrate the loose material and sink to the
lower portion of the lifts. All tamping foot
rollers utilizes static weight and manipulation
to achieve compaction.
2.GRID OR MESH ROLLERS
Grid rollers are used for compaction
of weathered rocks, well graded coarse soils.
silty clays and uniform soils. The main use of
these rollers is in subgrade and sub-base in
road constructions.
3. VIBRATORY COMPACTORS
Are indispensable tools for paving and
compaction jobs. The vibrating devices, often
coupled with roller compactors, enhance the
leveling of terrain, as well as the compaction
of soil, concrete, gravel and other materials.
4. STEEL WHEELED ROLLERS
Is used for compaction and finishing
operations on base coarse materials and
asphalt. This roller produces smooth, solid
surface under favorable conditions, but may
fail to compact areas narrower than the roll,
and do not compact deeply in proportion to
their weight.
5. PNEUMATIC OR RUBBER-TIRED ROLLERS
These rollers are used for compaction
of coarse grained soils with some fines. These
rollers are least suitable for uniform coarse
soils and rocks. Generally pneumatic tired
rollers are used in pavement subgrade works
both earthwork and bituminous works.
6. SEGMENTED PAD ROLLERS
These rollers operate at high speeds,
and are capable to breaking large lumps.
These rollers also consists of leveling blades
to spread the material.
Pad foot or tamping rollers are best suitable
for compacting cohesive soils.
7. RAMMERS OR TAMPERS
Are small impact-type compactors
which are primarily used for compaction in
confined areas, some are classified as
vibratory rammers because of their operating
frequency.
Compaction in confined areas
The equipment available for compaction in
confined areas such as trenches and around
the foundations includes vibratory plate
compactors, tampers or rammers
Selection of compaction equipment
The proper selection of compaction
equipment is an important factor in obtaining
the required soil density with a minimum
expenditure of time and effort.
 Job management
Trial operations are usually required to
determine the exact values of soil moisture
content, lift thickness, compactor weight and
vibratory frequency.
The use of nuclear density device to measure
the soil density actually being obtained during
compaction is strongly recommended.
Do not use boom-mounted compactors such
as compaction wheels to trim trench walls,
pull backfill into the trench or to lift heavy
objects.
Traffic planning and control is an important
factor in compaction operations.
Hauling operations must be given the right-of-
way without unduly interfering with
compaction operations.
The use od high-speed compaction
equipment may be necessary to avoid
conflicts between hauling and compacting
equipment
GROUND MODIFICATION
is the process of giving natural soils
enough abrasive resistance and shear
strength to accommodate traffic or design
load. It is also called soil stabilization. There
are 4 methods involve in ground modification,
these are mechanical methods, hydraulic
methods, reinforcement methods and
physiochemical methods.
1. MECHANICAL METHODS
There are two types of mechanical
methods, these are Dynamic compaction and
Vibratory compaction,
DYNAMIC COMPACTION
is a method that is used to increase the
density of the soil when certain subsurface
constraints make other methods
inappropriate. It is a method that is used to
increase the density of soil deposits.
it involves dropping a heavy weight from a
crane onto the ground surface to achieve soil
densification. Typically it drops 10-40 tons of
weight with a drop height of 50-100ft.
VIBRATORY COMPACTION
is a process of densifying cohesion
less units by inserting vibratory prove into the
soil.
The vibrator is typically hung from a crane
and lowered vertically into the soil under its
own weight and vibrations. Penetration is
usually helped by water jets integrated into
the vibrator assembly. After reaching the
bottom of the treatment zone, the soils are
densified as the vibrator is raised in lifts.
During vibratory compaction, clean sand
backfill is typically added at the ground
surface to compensate for the decrease in soil
volume from the densification process.
2. Hydraulic methods
Saturated cohesive soils are
particularly difficult to densify since the soil
grains cannot be forced closer together unless
water is drained from the soils void spaces. A
newer technique that provides faster
drainage at lower cost involves forcing wicks,
or plastic drain tubes into the soil at intervals
of few feet.
3. Reinforcement methods
This includes confinement, inclusions,
mini piles, soil nailing and stone columns.
Stone column construction, also called
vibratory replacement or vibro-replacement,
is a technique for strengthening cohesive
soils.
4. Physiochemical methods
While soil stabilization technically
includes all techniques described in other
methods, in common construction usage, the
term soil stabilization refers to the
improvement of the engineering properties of
a soil by the use of physical or chemical
admixtures. The principal physiochemical
admixtures used for soil stabilization include
granular materials, Portland cement, lime and
asphalt.
Grading and Finishing
GRADING is the process of bringing
earthwork to the desired shape and
elevation(or grade).
Finish grading, or simply FINISHING involves
smoothing slopes, shaping ditches and bring
the earthwork to the elevation required by
the plan and specification. Finishing usually
follows closely behind excavation,
compaction and grading. Finishing in turn, is
usually followed closely by sodding to control
soil erosion. The piece of equipment most
widely used for grading and finishing is the
motor grader.
 Motor grader
is a construction machine with a long
blade used to create a flat surface during the
grading process. Typical models have three
axles, with the engine and cab situated above
the rear axles at one end of the vehicle and a
third axle at the front end of the vehicle, with
the blade in between.
Grade excavator
are heavy construction
equipment consisting of a boom, dipper (or
stick), bucket and cab on a rotating platform
known as the "house". The house sits atop an
undercarriage with tracks or wheels. They are
a natural progression from the steam shovels
and often mistakenly called power shovels
Trimmers
Is capable of compacting base
material, laying asphalt or acting as a slip
form paver. While grade trimmers lack the
versatility of motor graders, their accuracy
and high speed make them very useful on
large roadway and airfield projects.

Job management
Careful job planning, the use of skilled
operators and competent supervision are
required to maximize grader production
efficiency.
Use minimum possible number of grader
passes to accomplish the work.
Eliminate as many turns as possible
For working distances less than 1000ft, have
the grader back up rather than turn around.
Grading in reverse may be used for longer
distances when turning is difficult and
impossible.
Several graders may work side by side if
sufficient room is available.