Ecology

Biology Notes
GCE Study Buddy
 Ecology
Ecology is the study of interactions among
organisms, and between organisms and the
physical and chemical factors making up their
external environment

Ecologists study both the non-living (abiotic) or

physical environment, and the living (biotic)
environment.
 Physical environment
Amount of light
Light intensity affects the distribution and growth of both plants
and animals
Amount of water
Xerophytes are plants which can live in conditions of prolonged
drought in their habitat
Plants which live in water or very wet places are called
hydrophytes
Pneumatophores arise from the root system and project above
the surface
Temperature
Within a certain range, a fall in temperature usually results in a
decrease in the metabolic activities of the organisms
Salinity and pH of the soil or water
The salt concentration of the cytoplasmic contents of freshwater
organisms is usually higher than that of the surrounding water
so that water tends to enter these organisms by osmosis
Aquatic organisms are sensitive to the effects of the pH of the
water and may be killed if the pH changes appreciably
Amount of oxygen present
Aerobes are organisms which require atmospheric oxygen
 Biotic environment
Habitat: the place where an organism lives
An organism in any habitat is never an independent unit.
Its daily existence depends on and is influenced by other organisms
around it
Ecological niche: the function of an organism or the role it plays
in the habitat is known as the
Population: a group of individuals of the same species occupying
a given area expressed in terms of density (number of
individuals per unit area)
Population increases when the number of new individuals added to it
exceeds the number lost through death or migration and vice versa
Ecological unit: when different populations of plants and animals
live together and interact within the same environment
Ecosystem: an ecological system formed by the interaction of
living organisms and their non-living environment (both biotic and
abiotic factors)
A functioning ecosystem uses both energy and materials (inorganic
nutrients)
Ecosystem
 Organization levels in
ecology
Populations

Communities

Ecosystems

Biosphere
 Ecosystem
In any ecosystem, the living organisms can be identified as
producers, consumers or decomposers
Producers: mainly green plants that manufacture complex
organic food substances from raw materials
They are the only organisms that can convert radiant energy
into chemical energy and store it in their food molecules
during photosynthesis
Producers affect the lives of other organisms because they
are the beginning of a food chain

Consumers: obtain their energy from other organisms on

which they feed. Animals are consumers
herbivores feed directly on plants (primary consumers
Carnivores feed on herbivores (secondary consumers)
Decomposers: act on dead organisms and enable the
materials locked up in them to be returned to the physical
environment and be used again by green plants
Food chain and food web
 Food chain and food web
Each stage in a food chain is known as a trophic
level

A predator is an animal that feeds on another

animal called prey

Food chains are linked up together to form a food

web or food cycle
Ecological pyramids
Ecological pyramids:
pyramid of numbers

The number of
organisms at each
trophic level can be
used to construct a
pyramid of numbers
 Ecological pyramids:
pyramid of numbers
Variation in pyramid of numbers
Pyramid of numbers may be inverted if organisms of
one trophic level are parasitic on organisms of
another trophic level
Ecological pyramids:
pyramid of biomass

Biomass is the total

mass of living matter in
each trophic level at any
one time
Ecological pyramids:
pyramid of energy
A lot of energy is lost to the
environment as food is
transferred from one trophic level
to the next
The total energy level decreases
progressively along the food
chain
Therefore, the pyramid of energy
is always broad at the base and
narrow towards the apex
Energy may be lost to the
environment
As heat during respiration at
every trophic level
Through undigested matter
egested by consumers
Through excretory products
eg urea from consumers
 Ecological pyramids:
pyramid of energy
The greatest amount of energy is lost during its
transfer from producer to primary consumer

The progressive energy loss explains why food

chains are generally short
A shorter food chain means more energy is available
to the final consumer
 Non-cyclic energy flow in
the ecosystem
In any ecosystem, the ultimate source of energy is the
sun
The flow of energy through the ecosystem is non-cyclic
eg energy released as heat to the environment does not
return to the same system or organisms that produced
it
Dead parts and bodies of organisms and egested and
excreted materials contain trapped chemical energy
This is finally released by the activity of microorganisms
which use some of this energy for their needs while the
rest is lost as heat

Eventually, all the energy that enters the biotic part of

the ecosystem is lost as heat energy
 Carbon Cycle
Living organisms need carbon to:
make food (green plants photosynthesise)
make energy (through respiration)
make new cells for growth and repair
Carbon cycles through ecosystems, moving repeatedly from one
organism to another, and between organisms and the environment.

The various processes by which carbon, in the form of carbon dioxide, is

removed and restored to the atmosphere constitute the carbon cycle

During photosynthesis, green plants absorb carbon dioxide from the

atmosphere and use it to manufacture carbohydrates (glucose)

Glucose may be changed to other organic compounds like fats and

amino acids or proteins

When animals feed on green plants, the carbon compounds become part
of the bodies of these animals

The carbon compounds may be preserved in fossil fuels

 Carbon Cycle
Release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
Respiration: when living organisms respire, carbon
compounds like glucose are broken down and carbon
dioxide is released into the environment
Combustion: burning of fossil fuels, like coal and
natural gas, releases carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere
Decay: when organisms die, their dead bodies are
broken down into simple organic and inorganic
substances by decomposers (bacteria and fungi)
Some of the simple organic matter released during
decay is absorbed by decomposers and becomes part of
their bodies
When the decomposers respire, carbon dioxide is again
released into the atmosphere
 Carbon Cycle
Importance of carbon cycle
Ensures that there is a continuous supply of
inorganic carbon dioxide for plants to carry out
photosynthesis a process that converts solar energy
into chemical energy (food) which other non-
photosynthetic organisms can use to stay alive
Enables a linear flow of energy through the
ecosystem. The carbon compounds are the vehicles
through which the trapped solar energy passes from
organism to organism in the food chains of an
ecosystem
Carbon Cycle
 Nitrogen Cycle
Living organisms need nitrogen to make proteins.
They cannot get it directly from the air because
nitrogen gas is too stable to react inside an
organism to make new compounds.

Nitrogen must be changed into a more reactive

form to allow plants and animals to use it. Plants
can take up and use nitrogen when it is in the form
of nitrates or ammonium salts. Nitrogen fixation is
the process when it is changed into a more reactive
substance.
Nitrogen Cycle
 Parasitism
Parasitism is an association between two organisms such that one
organism (parasite) lives on or in the body of another organism (host)

The parasite derives its nutrients, and usually shelter from its host. In
this process, it normally does some harm to its host

Malarial pathogen
M alaria is a disease that is endemic in many tropical countries
Caused by certain species of Plasmodium a parasitic protozoan that spends
one part of its life cycle in M an and the other part in the female Anopheles
mosquito
M alaria is transmitted by the female Anopheles mosquito a vector is an
organism that carries disease-causing organisms and transmits disease
Signs and symptoms
Intermittent fever every 48 or 72 hours
Malarial parasite attacks liver cells and red blood cells
The toxin causes fever, usually accompanied by chills, shivering, and profuse
sweating
Death may occur if untreated
 Life cycle of Anopheles
mosquito
Egg : Eggs are laid one at a time and they float on the surface of the water.
Anopheles species do not make egg rafts but lay their eggs separately.
Anopheles lay their eggs on water. Most eggs hatch into larvae within 48 hours.

Larva : The larva (larvae - plural) live in the water and come to the surface to
breathe. They shed their skin four times growing larger after each molting.
Most larvae have siphon tubes for breathing and hang from the water surface.
Anopheles larvae do not have a siphon and they lay parallel to the water
surface. The larva feed on micro-organisms and organic matter in the water.
On the fourth molt the larva changes into a pupa.

Pupa: The pupal stage is a resting, non-feeding stage. This is the time the
mosquito turns into an adult. It takes about two days before the adult is fully
developed. When development is complete, the pupal skin splits and the
mosquito emerges as an adult.

Adult: The newly emerged adult rests on the surface of the water for a short
time to allow itself to dry and all its parts to harden. Also, the wings have to
spread out and dry properly before it can fly.
Life cycle of Anopheles
mosquito
 Control of malaria
Treating infected persons with drugs to kill the
pathogen

Uninfected persons taking preventive drugs if they

are travelling in malarial regions

Using a knowledge of the vectors habits and life

cycle to get rid of their living and breeding places