Chapter 3 - Railway Alignment

CENG 5271 - Railway Engineering

Mequanent Mulugeta
(mequ2me@gmail.com )
AAiT
 Outline

Train Resistances
Economic analysis and route selection
Railway geometric design
Plane design
Longitudinal Design

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 Geometrical Design of Railways

The geometrical desing of Railways includes number of tasks

- Route selection and economical survey
- Operational evaluation (resistance, tractive effort, safety)
- Comparison of alternative routes
- Design of geometrical components
Horizontal alignmnet
Vertictical alignment
Transitions
Widenings at curves
etc
- Evaluate Safety level of the alignemnt
- Type of structures to design
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 Railway vs Highway

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 Highway vs Railway
Horizontal Geometry

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 Train Resistance
Train resistance is defined in terms of force required to encounter
resistance arising due to vehicle, track, grade, curve, acceleration,
wind at different time and place etc.
Basic resistance: the resistance exists even the train is running on
flat and straight line; it resists any time.
Additional
resistance: such as
ramp resistance,
curve resistance,
tunnel resistance
and so on; the
direction of the
additional
resistance and the
train are opposite.
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 Train Resistance

Train Resistance= Running Resistance + Alignment Resistance +

Air resistance

- Running resistance, consisting of the rolling resistance b/n wheel

and rail and journal friction. The order of magnitude of the running
resistance is 1.5 to 2, which is much lower than case of road
vehicles (10 to 30).

- Air resistance, which depend on the dimensions and cross section

shape of the rolling stock, which is proportional to the square of the
speed while a possible headwind should also be taken into account.

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 Train Resistance
Other resistances;
Grade resistance: This is the gravity resistance (force) per ton
(weight of train) for each percent grade.
Track resistance: This includes curve resistance, flange
resistance, rolling resistance of wheels on the rails and other
indeterminate resistances.
Wind resistance: This is the resistance of the air to the motion of
the train through it.
Journal resistance: This depends on the journal friction, which, in
turn, depends on the bearing type and condition.
Accelerating force: This is the force exerted by the locomotive to
accelerate the rolling stock and calculated as per Newton Second
Law of Motion.

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 Rolling Resistance
The rolling resistance of a train can be determined by formula is
generally is taken from tables and curves based on formula.
The most widely used of such formulae is the "Davis Formula".
Rolling resistance is generally expressed in kg/t and is
summation of Flange Resistance, Journal Resistance and Air
Resistance.
Other things being equal, total Rolling Resistance increases as
speeds increase.

Eg. Davis Equation- AREA (American Railway Engineering

Association)

= . + + . +

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 At low speeds, journal resistance dominates, but as speed increases
air resistance is increasingly the most important term
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 Curve Resistance, Rc
A one-degree curve is a curve whose central angle extends to a
chord of 30.48 m (100 feet).
A 30.48 m (100 feet) chord is 1/360 of a complete circle; the radius
of a 1' curve is 1746.5 m (5730 feet).
Curve resistance is expressed in kg / t / degree.
Degree of curvature = 5730 / Radius in feet or
= 1746 / Radius in m
=
(N) and = coefficient of curve resistance ()
Curve resistance is caused due to;
The flange of the outer wheel of the leading axle rubs against the
inner face of the outer rail causing resistance due to sliding friction
The outer wheel rotates faster than the inner wheel causing
transverse slip thus adding to sliding friction
Unbalanced super elevation causes increased pressure on outer or
inner rail thus increasing curve resistance
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 Grade Resistance
Grade resistance, expressed in kg/t , is independent of and
unrelated to train speed.
It is due to the force of gravity.
It is always equal to 10kg/tonne for each percent of grade as
illustrated in the calculations below.

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 Grade Resistance
= 1000 sin R
=
Where: = grade resistance (N)
= slope () sin tan.
Let be the coefficient of grade
resistance (). Then = 1000 tan
Equivalent Grade
Since and are independent of train velocity and both are in , it is
convenient to add them together.
Let = coefficient of total alignment resistance is called Equivalent
Grade.
For a grade resistance of with a curve resistance coefficient
(overlap), the equivalent grade of the sum, = + .
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Gradient Additional resistance:
Its value (N/KN) is equal to the thousandth of gradient.
There are positive and negative additional resistance for gradient,
the negative one has the same effect as traction.
Curve additional resistance:
The resistance is larger on curve than on the straight line; the
increased part is called curve additional resistance, curve
resistance for short.

Freight trains Passenger trains r - unit curve resistance(N/KN);

600
N/KN = (N/kN)
R - curve radius(m);
r R 600, 2000 - experiment data.

the smaller the curve radius is, the larger curve resistance there
exists, the more adverse influence it has. 14
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 Total Alignment Resistance
The total resistance is equal to the sum of all separate resistances,
Rtot =riWi
Where: ri= the ith relative resistance in ,
Wi= the train weight
= + + = + + (N)

Let = + + = + + +

Since is independent of V, it can be added to the constant term a.

Let = a + .
Then = + +
Note: only makes sense for V 0 because train speed cannot be
negative.
However, it might be interesting to investigate its mathematical properties
for the entire range of V.
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 Total Resistance General Equation

= + +

related to journal resistance, rolling and Track resistances

b Related to flange friction, flange impact, Rolling resistance

wheel/rail, wave action of the rail

c related to wind pressure, skin friction of train, Rear drag,

Turbulence between cars, Yaw angle of wind tunnels

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 Train Resistance
Davis Equation- AREA (American Railway Engineering Association)

= . + + . +

Where: Ru =the resistance in lb/ton,
w =the weight per axle (W/n),
n =the number of axles,
W =the total car weight on rails (tons),
V =the speed in miles per hour and
K =a drag coefficient (K=0.07 for conventional equipment, 0.0935 for
containers and 0.16 for trailers on flatcars)

Eg. Application of Davis Equation to a High-Speed Rail System

(Japan Shinkansen Series 200)
R = 8.202 + 0.10656V + 0.01193V2
Where: R is the total resistance (kN), V is the speed of the train (m/s) train
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 Tractive Effort
Tractive effort is defined as the turning force produced at the rails
by the driving wheels.
Tractive Effort can be expressed mathematically as follows for an
AC locomotive.
Tractive Effort = Traction Horsepower x 315 mile-Ibs/hr /
Speed in miles per hour
= Traction Horsepower x 230 km-kg/hr / Speed
in km per hour

=

Where:
P = the power output delivered by the engine,
T = the tractive force or effort,
= the efficiency in converting power output to tractive force
V = the velocity of the vehicle
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 Required pulling force (Tractive effort)

Tractive Force or Effort in Force-speed diagram

Typical Units

= 2650

Where:
T in (N), P in hP, V (km/hr)

Source: Modern railway Track

Adhesion
The adhesion of a locomotive is the ratio of the tractive effort needed
to slip the drivers (wheels) to the weight on the drivers (axles). It is
usually expressed in percent.

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 Exercise 1
Due to speed demand, it is required to increase the speed of a train for the
tractive curve of the typical train shown in the figure below. The Resistance
of a 140t train is given by the general equation = + + . The
current maximum speed of the train is 100mph (44.7m/s) and the power of
the train is 1450kW. Take the values of coefficients, =1.3, b=0.06 and
c=0.006. Calculate the top speed that can be achieved.
(Hint; draw resistance curve on same graph and check your calculation with
the analytic solution)

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 Economic Survey and Route Selection
Earlier stage:
research,
survey and
preliminary design work.
Basic construction stage
first to do the measurement,
technical design and
construction design, then begin to construct it,
finally check it into production.
Effect of feedbackseveral years later, to evaluate the design
and construction quality by investigate the engineering quality,
technical index and economic benefits.

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 Survey and Economy
For classification
- Railway level based on the annual volume of freight and
passenger (tonnage Rating, line capacity etc)
- Directly affect your survey & route selection
According to the economic importance, (Chinese example)

Railway Volume of freight

Status
level and passenger

Level play the backbone role 20Mt

play the backbone role 20Mt

Level Play the contact and
10Mt
auxiliary role
Level Serve for a region 10Mt
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 Main technical Parameters
1) Design speed: shall be determined after technical and economic
comparisons in terms of the project role in railway passenger and fright
transport network, transport demand, engineering specifications to meet
the demand of travel time target.
2) Maximum gradient: is the steepest grade allowed to be used on a railway
line. The maximum gradient shall be determined according to the design
speed, locomotive power, traffic organization mode, safety and ride
comfort, annual volume of traffic, etc.
3) Minimum plane curve Radius: is the minimum one to be used in a
projected railway. Minimum plane curve radius shall be determined
according to railway classification, designed speed, traffic organization
mode, safety and ride comfort, and engineering working conditions, etc.

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 main technical parameters
4) Numbers of main lines (Double track or single track)
5) Available length of arrival and departure line
Arrival-departure lines are built at stations specially for train
reception and departure
The available length of arrival and departure line is the
maximum length of arrival and departure line that can be
used to trains stopping without influencing the operation
working on adjacent lines
6) Kind of traction and types of locomotives(or EMU type)
There three kinds of traction in railway industry, electric
traction, diesel traction and vapor traction.
Kind of tractive energy greatly influences the railway with
respect to traffic capacity, line standard and economy.

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 main technical parameters
7Tonnage Ratings

Tonnage ratings tell how many tons a given locomotive

can haul over a particular engine district

Comparative tonnage ratings over alternative routes can be

a major factor in route location.

In building trainsyardmasters need to know how many

tons can be placed behind a given locomotive consist or
what horsepower is needed to move a proposed tonnage

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 Route Selection

Route selection criteria

shortest,
direct route,
detour unsuitable geology,
link important sites
Cost effective (user & construction)
Minimum earthwork,
locally materials,
Environmental friendly
aesthetic value etc.

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 Route Selection

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 Geometric design

Necessity
Carry maximum possible load
Ensure smooth and safe running
Achieve maximum speed
Avoid accidents and derailments due to errors in permanent way
Ensure minimum maintenance
Ensure good aesthetics
Design parameters
Gradients
Curvature
Alignment
Super elevation

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 Railway Centerline
Railway line is the foundation of railway operation.
It determines the type of structure such as roadbed, bridges, tunnels
and rail track, Economy(cost), Safety, Station location
Centre line is used to show the place of a line in space.
Line AB is the center line of the track as well as cross section of
the track.

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 Railway Alignment
Railway alignment is space position of the central line of
railway permanent way.
It is expressed in the line linked central points of cross-
section longitudinally. It is called as center line in short.
Number of centerlines depend on the number of mainlines.
In case of multi-track railways each track center line shall be
aligned separately.

Permanent way

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 Railway Alignment
The three-dimensional center line (space curve) is defined by
superposition of the horizontal and vertical alignment projections.
The planar projection of center line is called plane section of the
rail; and its vertical projection is called longitudinal section of the
rail.

longitudinal section
plane section of the rail of the rail

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Requirements of the space curve:
1. Guarantee safety and riding comfort; (i.e. against
coupler separation, coupler break off, derailment, train running
delay and unexpected stopping, etc.
2. Economical;
a) Meet the overall plan railway networks.
b) Enhance construction quality and transport efficiency and
reduce maintenance cost.
c) Cover major cities for passengers convenience and trip
attraction.
d) Coordinate with overall plan of urban, local traffic, farmland
and water conservancy and other relevant engineering
constructions to make proper arrangements.

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 Requirements..
Economical;
e) The location and overall design shall consider side slope
protection, waterproofing and drainage in a system-
engineering way
f) Detour all kinds of unfavorable geologic body (or
engineering improvement measures)
g) The subgrade construction shall avoid high filling, deep or
long cutting
h) As for deep gully sections located in complex terrain and
unfavorable geologic areas, line design shall be compatible
with design requirements of bridges or culverts.
i) The design shall be in accordance with environmental
protection, conservation policies

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