Earth Science STEM

UNIT II. EARTH MATERIALS AND RESOURCES

Lesson 1: Minerals and Rocks

Learning Objectives:
Identify and describe the three basic rock types
Establish relationships between rock types and their mode of origin and
environments of deposition/formation; and
Understand the different geologic processes involved in rock formation.

Rocks and the Rock Cycle

Rocks are found in the lithosphere (lithos which means stone)
The lithosphere is the rigid, rocky, outermost part of Earth (crust and the
uppermost part of the mantle

Rock Cycle
Rock cycle is a model that describes all the processes by which rocks are
formed, modified, transported, decomposed, melted, and reformed
Occur on both on Earths surface and underneath.
It is a dynamic cycle of processes and products.

Minerals and amorphous solids crystallizes and solidifies, forming igneous rocks
Rocks may then be brought to the surface through uplift, where they are
exposed to weathering and erosion.
The processes of weathering and erosion break the rocks down into smaller
pieces called sediments.
These particles may then undergo transportation via agents such as wind, water,
glaciers, rivers, and oceans until they settle in an area where they will undertake
deposition.

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As more mateials settle on top of each other, temperature and pressure

increases and the sediments at the bottom may undergo lithification (transforms
sediments into sedimentary rocks)
As temperature and pressure increase due to continuous burial and tectonic
activity, the sedimentary rocks undergo the process of metamorphism,
transforming them into metamorphic rocks.
If the temperature continues to increase and exceeds the melting point of the
rocks, the rocks will eventually undergo melting and turn them into magma.
Formation of Igneous rocks

Igneous Rock
- are formed throuhg the cooling and solidification of magma or lava, and may
form in three ways:
a. Below the surface
- magma cools with a good crystallization (coarse-grained)
- Plutonic rocks or intrusive igneous like as granite, diorite, syenite
- Slow cooling
b. On the surface
- lava cools without visible crystals (fine-grained)
- Volcanic rocks or extrusive igneous like basalt and andesite
- Rapid cooling
c. On the surface
- consolidation of particles erupted by explosive volcanic activity
- pyroclastic rocks like ignimbrite, scoria, and pumice

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rock
- the term sediment (Latin sedentarius, which means sitting)
- form from material that has accumulated on Earth's process called deposition
- deposition (products of weathering and erosion
- lithification the process by which unconsolidated materials becomes solidified
into rock transformed into rock
Clastic
this type of rock is from the cementation of sediments that have been deposited,
buried, and compacted over a long period of time
they can be differentiated based on the size of the sediments or clasts in the
rocks.
e.g. shale, sandstone, and conglomerate
chemical sedimentary rocks
this type of rock is from the precipitation of minerals from ions in solution Rocks
that are exposed to water and oxygen can slowly experience chemical
changes such as oxidation (rusting) and hydrolysis through time
these processes break down rocks into their chemical components, particularly
into ions that can be carried by running water in solution
Once the solution is saturated, the precipitationof minerals like calcite and halite
can occur, leadin to the formation of chemical sedimentary rocks
e.g. limestone, dolostone, and rock salt
bioclasts
These types of rocks are from the compaction and cementation of plants and/or
animal remains
e.g. coquina and organic limestone
a. On the surface
- direct precipitation from seawater (volcanic rocks)
b. Below the surface
- buried under the weight of overlying sediment (plutonic igneous rocks)
- only become exposed at the surface by tectonic uplift and erosion of the

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overlying material

Formation of Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic Rock
- form when a sedimentary or igneous rock is exposed to high pressure, high pressure, or
both, deep below Earth's surface
protolith which can either be an igneous rock or sedimentary rock and could
also be a previously metamorphosed rock
metamorphism, meaning change in form produces fundamental changes in
the mineralogy and texture of the rock
tectonic processes such as continental collisions
horizontal pressure with friction and heat for them to become exposed to the
surface
foliation (rock layers spilt off easily into flakes or slabs)
folium Latin word which means leaf

regional metamorphism as tectonic processes involved in this process are regional in

scale that produces mountain chains (e.g. slate, schist, and gneis)

contact metamorphism a parent rock may undergo a fundamental change in texture

due to recrystallization, or even change in mineralogy when chemically-active fluids
are also involved. It results in rocks like marble and quartzite that are called nonfoliated
metamorphic rocks.

Although heat and pressure are still the dominant for the change in form,
metamorphism may immediately happen from instantaneous events such as faulting
for dynamic metamorphism and meteorite impact for shock metamorphism.

Classification of Rocks
Criteria:
1. Texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains and other
constituents in a rock
a. aphanitic the grains are too small to see or identify
b. phaneritic the grains are big enough to see and identify

Igneous rocks
phaneritic the grain size is larger than 1/16 mm
aphanitic the grain size is less than 1/16 mm

Sedimentary rocks
- the formal division between aphanitic and phaneritic is taken to be 1/256 mm

Metamorphic rocks
- the distinction between aphanitic and phaneritic is less quantifiable, but meanings are
the same.

Igneous Rock
these are rocks that are derived from the cooling and solidification of magma or
lava
from solidified molten rock materials, usually hard and crystalline
rate of cooling as one of the most important factors that control crystal size
solidification can occur along the surface of the earth or beneath the surface of
the earth

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1. Crystalline textures differs depending on how fast and where the cooling took
place.
a. Intrusive or plutonic rocks
- form from slowly cooled magma have time to form large mineral crystals
that are visible without the aid of a magnifying lens.
Phaneritic (phaneros, a Greek word meaning visible)
Pegmatic texture is one composed of very large crystals (larger than 2-3 cm)

from solidified magma underneath the earth

gradual lowering of temperature is indicated by the movement of magma from
depth to surface
causing slow cooling /crystallization
Phaneritic textures
Examples: granite, diorite, gabbro

b. Extrusive or volcanic rocks

- form from rapidly cooled magma usually exhibit aphanitic(from Greek
word aphaneros which means visible) textures.
Special volcanic texture is displayed by rocks that cool rapidly that the mineral
crystals form, usually when lava is expelled underwater.
Vesicular texture is a result of gases escaping while the volcanic rock is being
formed

from solidified lava at or near the surface of the earth

fast rate of cooling/crystallization due to huge variance in the temperature
between Earths
surface and underneath
common textures: aphanitic, porphyritic (define groundmass vs phenocrysts),
vesicular
examples: rhyolite, andesite, basalt

c. porphoritic texture shows at least two distinct crystal sizes

2. Pyroclastic (Greek pyro which means fire and klastos which means
shattered
- pyroclastic rocks: fragmental rocks usually associated with violent or explosive
type of eruption.
Examples tuff and pyroclastic flow deposits (ignimbrite)

Color index can be used to identify the composition of most igneous rocks
felsic composition light colors (white, light gray, tan, and pink)
- are rich in silica
felsic: granitic: >65% silica, generally light-colored
mafic composition or ultramafic composition dark colors(black and
brown)
- poor in silica but rich in iron and magnesium
mafic: basaltic: 45-55% silica, usually
intermediate composition have an immediate colorgray or consisting
of equal parts of dark and light mineral
intermediate: andesitic: 55-65% silica, generally medium colored (medium
gray)
ultramafic: <45% silica, generally very dark colored
Sedimentary Rocks
- these are rocks that are formed at or near the surface of the Earth
- sedimentary processes include: weathering of rocks, erosion, sediment transport and deposition
- (compaction and cementation)

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- common sedimentary features: fossil assemblages and stratification

- fossil assemblages: remains and traces of plants and animals that are preserved in rocks
- stratification or layering (strata which is >1cm is called bedding and < 1cm is called lamination):
- layering is the result of a change in grain size and composition; each layer represents a distinct
- period of deposition
Clastic sedimentary rocks
grains, matrix and cement are the components of clastic rocks
clastic rocks are commonly classified based on particle size
clastic rocks with volcanic origin (e.g. pyroclastics) and may have undergone some stages in
the sedimentary processes could be classified as sedimentary rock (e.g. volcanoclastic
rocks).
the presence of variable grain sizes (including matrix and cement) is indicative of
sedimentary differentiation which is actually a function of processes happening in different
sedimentary environments

Non-clastic sedimentary rocks

evaporation and precipitation from solution or lithification of organic matter
classified as evaporites (halite, gypsum and dolostone), precipitates (limestone) and
bioclastics (coal, coquina)
chart below summarizes the features of the non-clastic rocks

Metamorphic Rocks
formed below the surface of the earth through the process of metamorphism
with the
recrystallization of minerals in rocks due to changes in pressure and temperature
conditions
contact and regional metamorphism

Contact metamorphism

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heat and reactive fluids as main factors: occurs when a pre-existing rock gets in
contact with
magma which is the source of heat and magmatic fluids where metamorphic
alterations and
transformations occur around the contact / metamorphic aureole of the
intruding magma and
the rock layers. The aureole occurs on different scales depending on the sizes of
the intruding
magma and the amount of water in the intruded rocks and the reactive fluids
coming from the
magma.
creates non-foliated metamorphic rocks
example: hornfels
Regional metamorphism
pressure as main factor: occurs in areas that have undergone considerable
amount of
mechanical deformation and chemical recrystallization during orogenic event
which are
commonly associated with mountain belts
occurs in a regional/large scale
creates foliated metamorphic rocks
examples: schist, gneiss
non-foliated rocks like marble also form through regional metamorphism, where
pressure is not
intense, far from the main geologic event

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References:
Commission on Higher Education Teaching Guide on Earth Science, 2015
http://geology.com/minerals/what-is-a-mineral.shtml
Jose Tolentino Olivar II, Raymond S. Rodolfo, & Hillel B. Cabria (2016). Exploring Life
Through Science Series. Earth Science.

Prepared by: Trisha T. Tan