First Lecture Introduction Msc.

Lina Saeed

Introduction

1.1 Product design process

contemporary design is a highly sophisticated process. It requires the involvement of
not only design engineers but also personnel from the department of manufacturing,
finance, marketing, and so on. The primary input to the design process is the
recognition of the fact that a need for a product or service exists. The design process
involves the following six steps:
1. problem identification.
2. preliminary ideas.
3. refinement process.
4. analysis process.
5. decision process.
6. implementation.
The relationship of these steps is illustrate in Fig. (1).

customers Problem identification

Preliminary ideas

Modify the problem

Refinement process and its constraints

No

Analysis and decision criteria

process satisfied

implementation
Yes

Fig.(1) The Design Process

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First Lecture Introduction Msc. Lina Saeed

1.1.1 Problem identification

The key to designing a successful product lies in properly identifying the need and the
attributes of that need for which the product is to be designed. The product is the final
outcome of the need identification process.

1.1.2 Preliminary ideas

Once the problem domain has been identified, the second phase is to generate as many
ideas as possible.

1.1.3 Refinement process

During Refinement process, several good ideas are pursued, using scale drawings to
determine their merits in term of space requirement, critical measurements, dimensions
of structural members, and interactions of surfaces and planes.

1.1.4 Analysis process

The analysis phase is concerned with the evaluation of best designs from the point of
view of a number of criteria such as cost, functional requirements, and marketability.
Other engineering tools such as finite-element methods and assembly analysis tools
should be used to evaluate alternative designs from the functionality point of view.

1.1.5 Decision process

most often, a product is manufactured using a single design. Therefore, in the decision
phase of the design process, the idea is to select a design that has all desirable
characteristic
.

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1.1.6 implementation process

This steps is essentially a detailed design phase. The detailed specifications of
materials, dimensions, tolerance, and surface roughness should be provided.

1.2 Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

CAD refers to the design process with aid of computer. The computer does not change
the basic nature of the design process. It helps improve the efficiency and productivity
of the design process by accurately generating easily modifiable graphics, performing
complex design at amazingly high speed, and storing and recalling information with
consistency and speed. CAD system can be classified into two ways:
• According to applications area.
• Modeling methods.
CAD consists of three major components:
• Hardware, which includes the computer and input-output devices.
• Application software.
• Operating system software, this acts as the interface between the hardware and the
CAD application software system.
The basic CAD system architecture is shown in Fig.(2).

1.2.1 CAD input devices

Input device are tools that users employ to communicate with computer systems. The
input device used depend on the type of information that is to be inputted. The possible
types of information are:
1. Text-input devices.
2. Sound-input devices.
3. Graphic-input devices are divided into three categories:
• Locating devices.
• Digitizer devices.
• Image-input devices.
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1.2.2 CAD output devices

output CAD devices are classified into the soft-type and hard-type devices.
1. Soft-type output devices.
2. Hard-type output devices. There are two types:
• Plotters.
• Printers.

Operating system

Application
software

CAD model
database Graphics User
utility interface

Device drives

Input-Output
devices

Fig.(2) Basic Architecture of CAD system.

1.3 Benefits of CAD

• Reduce the number of steps involved in the design process.
• Make each design steps much easier and less tedious for design to perform.
• Make better decision and will reduce the possibility of having errors.
• The designer arrives at an optimal solution.
• All information is stored in computer instead of on paper.

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Second Lecture Computer Graphics Msc.Lina Saeed

Computer Graphics

2.1 Computer Graphics

Computer graphics are a topic of great importance in computing. We have all come
across applications of computer graphics in every day life- for example in television titles
and weather forecast presentation, or in video games.
There are a number of variations in the characteristics of computer graphics that may be
classified into three categories as follows:
1. The first category defines the control the user has over the image
2. the second category concerns the way the image is generated.
3. The third category distinguishes between image-space graphics, in which the image
itself is directly manipulated to create a picture.

We can now explore the principles of computer graphics as applied to the

generation of images of designs. The model of a design is actually represented using real
valued numbers in two or three dimensions. A representation is drawn on video screen
which is two dimensional with the display being defined by integer numerical
coordinates.

2.2 Two-Dimensional Computer Graphics

The essential steps of the process of two-dimensional graphics are to:
• Convert the geometric representation of the model to a form that may be manipulated
easily by the graphics routines.
• Map, or transform.
• Select those lines that will be visible within the display area on the screen, and discard
the remainder – this is known as the clipping step.
• Instruct the display device to draw the visible lines.

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Second Lecture Computer Graphics Msc.Lina Saeed

Transform
Vectorize to viewport Clip Draw

Fig(2.1 ) Stages in the graphics pipeline.

2.2.1 Vector Generation

Many CAD systems display graphics images simply as a large collection of lines on
the screen, whether the image being displayed involves lines, circles text, surfaces or
whatever. Vector representation allow the display of any geometric entity – including
splines and surfaces – as well as text and graphical symbols.

2.2.2 The Windowing Transformation

It is to map or transform the vector from model coordinate system to the
coordinate system of the display screen. The user may wish to display that part of the
model selected using display control commands such as zoom and pan.
The general viewing transformation allows any desired scaling, rotation and translation to
be applied to the model coordinate definition of the picture. The less general case, in
which no rotation is applied, is called the windowing transformation.
From fig.(2.2) the expressions for the transformation of a point (xw, yw) in model
coordinate to (xs, ys) in screen coordinate as followed:

(vxr − vxl )
xs = ( xw − wxl ) + vxl
( wxr − wxl )

(v yt − v yb )
ys = ( y w − w yb ) + v yb Fig.(2.2) Display tolerance.
( w yt − w yb )

which can be reduced to form:

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Second Lecture Computer Graphics Msc.Lina Saeed

xs = axw+b
ys = cyw+d

The value of a, b, c and d may be computed when the window and viewport are defined,
so each point (generally a line end) may be transformed by a computation involving only
two multiplication and two additions.

Fig.(2.3) Window and viewport.

Example 1
A circle of radius 25 mm, centered at (100, 150), is to be drawn as a series of lines by two
diminution drafting system. The max. tolerance is 1 mm. Cacluate the nu7mbers of lines
required to display the circle within this tolerance, and calculate the screen coordinates of
the first of the lines. The window bounds are (40, 100) and (160, 200), and the viewport
bound are at pixel locations (0, 50), (480, 450).

Solution:

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2.2.3 clipping:
When the window only shows a part of the model, then those vectors outside the
window may lead to undesirable effects if mapped to the screen – they might, for
example, write over a text area of the screen, or over another window, or have their
coordinates set to the screen boundary values. In any case, it is necessary to identify
quickly and efficiently which vectors or parts of vectors are within the window, and to
discard the rest.

2.2.4 line drawing

When this stage is reached, the graphics program has collection or perhaps a steam
of clipped transformed vector to form the image. All that remains is to draw them on the
display. There are two aspects of line drawing:
1. drawing a line on raster display its in the by sitting appropriate bits on the frame
buffer.
2. instructing a remote process to draw a vector.

2.3 Three-dimensional computer graphics

The elements of three-dimensional computer graphics are broadly the same as
those for two-dimensional graphics: the model is converted to a simple graphical
representation such as collection of vectors, these are then clipped to the boundary,
transformed to screen coordinates and displayed in a viewport on the screen (there may
often be multiple viewports on the screen, each displaying a separate view on the model.)
. the simplest case of three-dimensional graphics involves parallel projection of vectors:
in this case differs from the two-dimensional sequence only in that the windowing
transformation is replaced by the more general viewing transformation. The clipping step
becomes a little more complex if a pictorial perspective projection is applied.

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2.3.1 viewing transformations:

In the general viewing transformation the x-y plane of the model coordinate system
is not parallel to the x-y plane of the screen coordinate system, and therefore the
transformation has to include a rotation step to a light these before the windowing
transformation may be applied. The arithmetic of this transformation, and of the
associated translation and scaling operation required where the origins and scales of the
coordinate systems don’t coincide.
The model is defined in coordinate system Oxyz , and the coordinate of the point, P, are
required in system Ox′y′z′ , aligned with the screen coordinate system.
Which may be expressed in matrix form as:

example2:
An arc is defined in the Oxy plane of a coordinate system Oxa ya za and centered at
(100, 100, 0). Oxa ya za is rotated by 45ْ anticlockwise about the Oxa -axis with respect to
the system Oxw yw z w . The origin of Oxa ya za is at (50, 0, 0) in Oxw yw z w and the Ox -axes of

the two systems are coincident. Evaluate the transformation matrices required in the
generation of vectors in Oxw yw z w for display of the arc.

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2.3.2 Perspective projection:

Perspective projection is often used for pictorial projection of large objects, where
parallel projection would give a distorted visual impression. As a general rule it can be
said that perspective projection should be used to represent an object that is so large that
it would normally be viewed with a significant perspective effect – a vehicle or a building
for example. If the one object is small (e.g. if it may be hand-held) then parallel
projection is adequate. Perspective projection involves converging projectors and may be
generated by first transforming points to coordinate system a parallel viewing
transformation.

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Third Lecture Geometric Transformations Msc.Lina Saeed

Geometric Transformations

3.1 Geometric Transformations

Computer graphics is concerned with generating, presenting, and manipulating
models of an object and its different views using computer hardware, software, and
graphics devices. If the data can be presented in graphic form and if the graphic can be
manipulated to be viewed from different sides, enlarged, or reduced in size, it will
provide good communication between the computer and the designers, making it to
possible to modify the product designs. Computer graphics is now becoming pervasive in
our daily lives in applications ranging from weather forecasting and traffic management
to the development of sophisticated products and their manufacture. In this lecture we
study some of the basic functions of graphics, such as changing the scale of an image,
translating it to another location, or rotating it by a certain angle to get a better view of it.
The geometric transformation techniques can be used to accomplish these computer
graphic functions. Geometric transformations is one of the basic routines in many
applications such as graphics, robotics, and finite-element analysis.
3.2 The Geometric Transformations Basic Functions
1. Translations.
2. Scaling.
3. rotating.

3.3 Two-Dimensional Transformations

• Translation: in two dimensional translation, we can determined the new position of
points in the x-y plane by adding the translation amount to initial coordinates of the
points. Mathematically it can be write for each point V(x, y) to be moved to the new
point V ′( x ′, y ′) by d x and d y units parallel to the x- and y-axes, respectively, as

follows:
x′ = x + d x and y′ = y + d y (3.1)

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the definitions of points and the distance in column vector form

x′ x dx
V′ = V = D=
y′ y dy

we will have
V′ =V + D (3.2)

dy

dx

Fig.(3.1)

Example1:
In Fig.(3.1), suppose the initial coordinates of vertices A, B, C are (1,3), (4,5), (5, 3.5),
respectively by distance vector D = [7,−2]T (where T represents transpose). Verify that the
lengths of the edges of the triangle are unchanged.

Solution

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• Scaling : scaling in two dimension means stretching the points in the x-y plane. It can
be accomplished by simple multiplications. As follows:
x′ s 0 x
V ′ = [ S ]V or = x (3.4)
y′ 0 sy y

Example2:
From Fig.(3.2), shows that the length of edge A′B ′ is equal to three times that of AB after
scaling the object uniformly by factor 3.

Fig.(3.2) scaling of object

Solution:

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Third Lecture Geometric Transformations Msc.Lina Saeed

• Rotation: rotation in two dimension space is defined as moving any point (x,y) of an
object to a new position by rotating it through a given angle θ about some reference
point. Positive angles are measured counterclockwise from x to y. the mathematical
expression for the rotation transformation is not as obvious as the formulas for
translation and scaling. In order to have a clear understanding we provide a derivation
here.
From Fig.(3.3), in which a point V ( x, y ) is rotated to V ′( x ′, y ′) through angle θ about
some origin, by simple trigonometry we have
x = r cos φ

y = r sin φ

and x′ = r cos(φ − θ ) = x cos θ + y sin θ

y′ = r sin(φ − θ ) = − x sin θ + y cos θ

which is the forward transformation equation.

y

V ′( x′, y ′)

θ
V ( x, y )
φ
x

Fig(3.3) rotation of object

In matrix form, this expression can be represented as follows

x ′ cos θ − sin θ x
= =
y ′ sin θ cos θ y

this can be written more concisely in matrix form as

V ′ = [ R]V

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Example3:
Determine the new position of object A placed on around holding table after the table has
been rotated by 35ْ .
Solution:
By substituting by θ , x and y in equation (3. ) values 35ْ , 347.3792, and 149.0298 cm,
respectively, we have

3.4 Three-Dimensional Transformations

• Translation: in this case we translate a point V ( x, y, z ) by (d x , d y , d z ) to

point V ′( x ′, y ′, z ′) .
• Scaling: If S is scaling coefficient matrix.
• Rotation: the rotation of an object could be about any of the axes.
3.5 Homogeneous Representation
Although the 2D and 3D transformations have obvious geometric meaning, it is not
efficient or economical to implement them on a computer. This is because translation
involves addition of matrices whereas scaling and rotations are performed by their
multiplication. It is, however, posiable to develop what is called a homogenous
transformation scheme, which required only multiplications of matrices in all cases. This
simplifies the transformation process. A homogenous representation scheme is widely
used in transformation computations. In the geometric transformations methods discussed
previously (translation, scaling and rotation) have nonuniform equations as follows:
V′=V + D

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Third Lecture Geometric Transformations Msc.Lina Saeed

V ′ = [ S ]V

V ′ = [ R ]V

V ′ = [ H ]V

3.5.1 Homogenous Transformations representation

Homogenous transformations is based on mapping an N-dimensional space into (N+1)-
dimensional space. That mean that one more coordinate is added to represent the position
of a point. For example, a three dimensional space point that has coordinates ( x, y, z ) is
represented by vector ( x, y, z , w) in homogenous transformation.
Example:
Consider the 3D object shown in Fig.(3. ). The coordinates of the vertices are given as
follows:
A=[3, 5, 3]
B=[7, 5, 3]
C=[7, 5, 5]
D=[3, 5, 5]
E=[3, 6, 5]
F=[3, 6, 3]
Rotate the 3D object by 30ْ in clockwise direction at point D about the y-axis.

Solution

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Geometric Transformations
3.7 Three-Dimensional Rotation about Line
• Line pass through the Origin:
Rotation object (point, line, surface) about line pass through origin with angle of rotation
(α ) is provided by applying right hand rule. Then the rotation process defining with the

following steps of transformations.

1. Rotate about z − axis by θ z to get into z − y plane. z
α
2. Rotate about x − axis by θ x to get into z direction.
3. Rotate α angle about z − axis .
4. Reverse the rotation about x − axis by (−θ x ) . az
y
5. Reverse the rotation about z − axis by (−θ z ) . ay

6. calculate V ′ .
ax

Example 1
The two endpoints of a line are (1,2,3), and (5,3,2). This line is rotated by (30ْ ) ccw with
respect to a line defined by points (0,0,0), and (10,7,4). Find the coordinates of the
endpoints of the transformed line.

Solution:

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Fourth Lecture Geometric Transformations Msc.Lina Saeed

• Line not pass through the Origin:

Rotation object (point, line, surface) about line not pass through origin with angle of
rotation (α ) is provided by applying right hand rule. Then the rotation process defining
with the following steps of transformations.
1. Translate first point of line to the Origin.
2. Rotate about z − axis by θ z to get into z − y plane.
3. Rotate about x − axis by θ x to get into z direction.
4. Rotate α angle about z − axis .
5. Reverse the rotation about x − axis by (−θ x ) .
6. Reverse the rotation about z − axis by (−θ z ) .
7. Translate from Origin to first point of the line back to its original position.
8. calculate V ′ .

example 2:
The two endpoints of a line are (1,2,3), and (5,3,2). This line is rotated by (30ْ ) ccw with
respect to a line defined by points (1,1,3), and (10,7,4). Find the coordinates of the
endpoints of the transformed line.

Solution:

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3.8 Reflection (Mirror):

reflection transformation dose not change the object size and shape. When a negative
scaling factor is used, then the object is reflected (mirrored) in the coordinate plane
normal to the corresponding axis.

3.8.1 Two-Dimensional reflection:

V ′ = RfV

1. Reflection in x-axis
2. Reflection in y-axis
3. Reflection through the Origin
4. Reflection in line pass through the Origin

example3:
line points are(1,3) and (2,2) is reflected about line (0,0) ,(3,4). Find the coordinates of
the endpoints of the reflected line.

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5. Reflection in line not pass through the Origin

Example 4
reflect the point (50,60) through a line at an angle of (30ْ )to the x-axis with its origin at
x=16, y=24.

Solution:

3.8.2 Three-Dimensional reflection:

• Reflection in yz plane.
x′ = − x −1 0 0
y′ = y R fyz = 0 1 0
z′ = z 0 0 1

• Reflection in xz plane.
x′ = x 1 0 0
y′ = − y R fxz = 0 − 1 0
z′ = z 0 0 1

• Reflection in xy plane.
x′ = x 1 0 0
y′ = y R fxy =0 1 0
z′ = −z 0 0 −1