Plant cell walls

Cellulose
Made out of beta glucose with 1-4 glycosidic bonds
middle lamella
First part of the plant cell wall to be formed
microfibrils
groups of 10-100,000 cellulose molecules
hemicelluloses
short-chain carbohydrates that act as a kind of glue binding to each other and to the
cellulose molecules
suberin & lignin
These compounds affect permeability of the wall
pectin
polysaccharide which acts like glue and holds the cell walls of neighbouring plant
cells together
calcium pectate
binds to the cellulose that forms on either side
primary cell walls
The cellulose microfibrils and the matrix
secondary cell wall
Cellulose microfibrils are laid densely at different angles and lignin is added to the
cell walls
Plasmodesmata
Sites of intercellular exchange through cytoplasmic bridges between plant cells

Plant organelles
Vacuole
A fluid-filled space inside the cytoplasm surrounded by a membrane called the
tonoplast
Chloroplasts
They are disc-shaped structures appearing green to the presence of the light-
harvestingmolecule chlorophyll
Amyloplasts
Used to store amylopectin
Tonoplast
a membrane that surrounds the vacuole
cell-sap
a solution of various substances in water
Plant tissues
Epidermis
The outer layer of the stem
Parenchyma
packing tissue which make up most of the plant stem
Collenchyma
Supporting tissue in plants which have thick primary walls which give the tissue its
strength
Sclerenchyma
Found around vascular bundles in older stems and in leaves
sclereids
Schlerenchyma cells that become completely impregnated with lignin
pits
Join sclereids together
Xylem
carries water and dissolved minerals from the roots to thephotosynthetic parts of the
plants
Phloem
The phloem is living tissue made of phloem cells which transport the dissolved
product of photosynthesis
Cambium
layer of unspecialised cells which divide to give rise to more specialisedcells which
form both the xylem and phloem
protoxylem
The first xylem form is capable of stretching and growing as the walls are not fully
lignified

Uptake in roots
Transpiration
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the surface of a plant
Cohesion
Water molecules sticking together
Adhesion
Water sticking to the walls of the xylem
Vacoular Pathway
Water moves by osmosis across the vacuoles of the cells of the root system
Symplast Pathway
Water moves through interconnected cytoplasm of cell through plasmodesmata
whichgo through pores in the cellulose cell wall

Apoplast Pathway
Water is pulled by attraction between water molecules across ajdacent cell walls
from the root hair cell to the xylem
Nutrients for plants
Nitrogen
Used to make amino acids and therefore proteins
Lack of nitrates
Older leaves turnyellow and die along with stunted growth
Calcium
Combine with pectin in the middle lamella to produce calcium pectate which holds
plant cells together
Lack of calcium
Growing points die back and young leaves are yellow and crinkly
Magnesium
Needed to produce green pigment chlorophyll
Lack of magnesium
Yellow areas develop on older leaves and growth slows down
Phosphates
Needed for phosphate groups in ATP and ADP

Drug testing
Clinical Trials
Drugs tests on Humans
Phase 1 Trials
Trial in which a new drug is given to a small number of healthy volunteers
Phase 2 Trials
Trial in which a new drug is given to a small group of volunteer patients affected by
the condition the drug is designed to treat
Phase 3 Trials
Trial in which a new drug is used with a large group (5000+) affected by the condition
the drug is designed to treat
Double-blind trials
Neither patient nor doctor know whether the drug given is the new medicine, a
control medicine or a placebo

Ecology
Biodiversity
The number and variety of different organisms found in an area
Genus
A group of similar specie
Species
A group of closely related organisms that are all potentially capable of interbreeding
to produce fertile offspring
Morphology
Inner and outer appearance
Molecular Phylogeny .
Analysis of different chemicals and genes in different organisms to define
interrelationships
Ecological Niche
Role of the organism within an ecological community
Ecosystem
An environment that includes all the living organisms interacting together, the
nutrients cycling through the system and the physical and chemical environment in
which the organisms are living
Habitat
Place where an organism lives
Community
All the populations of living organisms living in a habitat at any one time
Population
A group of organisms of the same species, living and breeding together in a
particular niche in a habitat
Anatomical adaptations
Adaptations ofthe anatomy of an animal or plant to conditions
Physiological adaptations
Adaptations of the biochemistry or physiology of an organism to the environment in
which it lives

Population genetics
Mutations
Small changes in genes
Allele frequency
The relative frequency at which a particular allele is found in a population
Gene pool
All the different genes (alleles) found in a population

Human reproduction
Acrosome
An organelle in the head of a sperm that contains digestive enzymes.
sperm
The male gamete.
oocyte
immature sex cell, matures to an egg cell
Ovum
A stationery female gamete
Flagellum
long, whip-like organelle extending from the cell membrane
gametogenesis
The process by which gametes are produced.
zona pellucida
layer around mammalian egg; important for sperm and egg recognition; protects
early embryo; prevents embryo from embedding in fallopian tubes; embryo hatches
out of to implant into uterus

Cell cycle
Anaphase
A stage in cell division in which chromosomes are pulled apart by the spindle fibres.
Asexual reproduction
Reproduction by any means which does not involve the fusion of gametes or sex
cells..
Centromere
The region on a chromosome where two chromatids are held together during the
early stages of cell division.
Chromatid
One of the two strands of genetic material that make up a chromosome.
Chromatin
The DNA in the nucleus of the cell when the cell is in interphaseome.
cleavage
the process of cytokinesis in animal cells characterized by pinching of the plasma
membrane; the succession of rapid cell divisions without significant growth during
early embryonic development that c
Diploid
A cell with two of each kind of chromosomes
Equator
At cell division, the widest part of the cell, mid-way between the poles.
Gamete
sex cell, e.g. ova and sperm. In animals and plants, gametes are haploid and each
contains a single set of chromosomes.
Metaphase
Phase in mitosis in which chromatids move towards equator of cell and attached to
spindle fibres by centromere.
Telophase
Phase in mitosis in which chromosomes uncoil and a nuclear envelope forms around
them.
Interphase
the period in the cell cycle when the cell is not dividing. Cellular metabolic activity is
high, chromosomes and organelles are duplicated, and cell size may increase.
Accounts for about 90% of the ce
Cytokinesis
Division of cytoplasm following mitosis.
cell cycle
an ordered sequence of events in the life of a cell, from its origin in the division of a
parent cell until its own division into 2
haploid
Cells or organisms in which the nuclei contain one copy of each chromosome.
Histone
Protein that eukaryotic DNA is wound round to form chromosomes.
Prophase
Phase of mitosis in which chromosomes condense to form two sister chromatids.

Cell Structure
Prokaryotes
DNA=Circular, No Nucleus, Small Ribosomes, No Mitochondria (E.coli)
Eukaryotes
DNA=Linear, DNA inside nucleus, Mitochondria Present, Larger Ribosomes
Plasmid
circular DNA that replicates separately from the bacterial chromosome
Nucleoid
a non-membrane-bounded region in a prokaryotic cell where the DNA is
concentrated
Nucleus
Contains genetic material, which controls the activities of the cell
Cytoplasm
This is what organelles in a cell are surrounded by
Organelles
small bodies in cells with specific structures and functions
Nucleolus
A dark staining body found in the nucleus of a cell. The nucleolus is involved in
making ribosomes.
Ribosome
organell that carries out protein synthesis
Mitochondria
organelles that carry out aerobic respiration
Centrioles
Short cylinders near the nuclear envelope that coordinate cell division.
Cytoskeleton
a network of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments that extend
throughout the cytoplasm and serve a variety of mechanical, transport, and signaling
function.
Vacuole
A region in a plant cell containing cell sap and surrounded by a cell membrane.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
is an organelle of cells in eukaryotic organisms that forms an interconnected network
of tubules, vesicles, and cisternae. Rough endoplasmic reticula are involved in the
synthesis of proteins.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
A network of interconnected sacs in the cytoplasm of a cell. These sacs are
surrounded by membranes and makes lipids.
Golgi Apparatus Function
processes and packages new lipids and proteins. Also makes lysosomes
Lysosome
round organelles surrounded by a membrane and containing digestive enzymes

Plant reproduction
germination
the regrowth of the embryo, after a period of dormancy, if the environmental
conditions are suitable
anther
the terminal sac of a stamen
pollen grain
structure consisting of the male gametophyte enclosed within a pollen wall
pollination
transfer of pollen to the part of a seed plant that contains the ovules
pollen tube
A tube formed after germination of the pollen grain that functions in the delivery of
sperm to the ovule.
endosperm
nutrient-rich tissue formed by the union of a sperm with two polar nuclei during
double fertilization
style
the stalk of a flower's carpel
ovule
structure that develops within the ovary of a seed plant and contains the female
gametophyte
ovary
portion of a carpel in which the egg containing ovules develop

Asexual reproduction
clone
an organism which is genetically identical to another one
fission
The separation of an organism into two or more individuals of approximately equal
size.
Asexual reproduction
Reproduction by any means which does not involve the fusion of gametes or sex
cells
Spore
In the life cycle of a plant or alga undergoing alternation of generations, a haploid cell
produced in the sporophyte by meiosis.
fragmentation
A means of asexual reproduction whereby a single parent breaks into parts that
regenerate into whole new individuals.
budding
Asexual reproduction in which outgrowths from the parent form and pinch off to live
independently or else remain attached to eventually form extensive colonies.
Vegetative propagation
A type of asexual reproduction that does not involve the fusion of gametes or sex
cells. It is common in plants, and includes the growth of new plants from tubers and
bulbs.
parthenogenesis
Asexual reproduction in which females produce offspring from unfertilized eggs.

Stem cells
stem cell
an unspecialized cell that can reproduce indefinitely and differentiate into specialized
cells of one or more types
totipotent
Describing a cell that can give rise to all parts of the embryo and adult, as well as
extraembryonic membranes in species that have them.
blastocyst
The blastula stage of mammalian embryonic development, consisting of an inner cell
mass, a cavity, and an outer layer, the trophoblast. In humans, the blastocyst forms
one week after fertilization.
Differentiation
The process by which cells become specialised
pluripotent
can become any part of the embryo but not the trophoblast; 16 cell stage until mid-
blastula
multipotent
Adult stem cells limited to a subset of all the possible cells in the body
Embryonic stem cells
Stem cells obtained from an embryo
Therapeutic cloning
Research procedure in which it is hoped that a diploid cell could be induced to
develop so as to form a tissue or organ needed for a transplant.