What is archaeology?

&
The history of archaeology

7 Sept. 2017
Sunwoo Kim
 Timetable
Week Date Topic Chapter Note

1 8/31 Course Introduction

What is archaeology?
2 9/7 Chap. 1
The history of archaeology
The advent of the first humans
3 9/14 Chap. 2,3 and 4
The utilization of tools -Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods
The origins of food production - Neolithic period Chap. 5 and 6
4 9/21
The dawn of civilizations - Bronze Age Chap. 7 and 8

5 9/28 The civilization of Mesopotamia Chap. 9

6 10/5 Chuseok, Korean Thanksgiving Day

7 10/12 The civilization of Egypt Chap. 10

8 10/19 Midterm Exam.

9 10/26 The Indus civilization Chap. 11

10 11/2 The civilization of China Chap. 11

11 11/9 Korean archaeology

12 11/16 The Aegean civilization () Chap. 9

13 11/23 The civilization of Maya and Aztec Chap. 12 and 13

14 11/30 The Incan civilization ( ) Chap. 14

Archaeology and the public

15 12/7
Managing archaeological sites- World heritage sites
16 12/14 Final Exam.
 Otzi, The Iceman
About 5300 years ago a 40-year-old man made his last journey on a mountain path in the
European Alps. He was found just inside the Italian border with Austria and not too far from
Switzerland in terms of modern political geography. 2.
1.

4.

3.

Source: 1, 4: http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/archaeology/otzi_the_iceman_map.html
2: queerstoryfiles.blogspot.com
3: Echostains Blogechostains.wordpress.com
 Otzi, The Iceman
Secrets of the Iceman tzi (0:10-1:10)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Q544IYnKos

Iceman Documentary | Otzi - Iceman Murder Mystery in the Italian Alps | Copper Age
English subtitles (51:41, 1:01:17)
location: 23:38-26:10
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jNohLDrOj0s

In Focus: tzi "The Ice Man (4:08)

Artifact and clothes: 1:11-2:35
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WA3AiNup7fY

Iceman Documentary | Otzi - Iceman Murder Mystery in the Italian Alps | Copper Age
English subtitles (51:41, 1:01:17)
Stone arrowhead: 14:56-18:25
Stomach: 36:39-38:04
DNA: 38:30-39:30,
Lyme disease: 41:34-43:00 43:12-43:29
Eye color, genetic origin: 43:40-44:05
Lactose intolerance: 46:41-47:32
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jNohLDrOj0s
 Otzi, The Iceman
Otzi (tzi, Oetzi or -tzi) lay undisturbed until his body was discovered
by hikers in September 1991.

Archaeologists were able to determine not only his age, but also the
contents of his meal: meat (probably ibex ( )
and venison ()), plants, wheat, and plums.

At first, it was thought that he died from exhaustion in a fog or blizzard

().

However, later analysis in 2001 revealed an arrowhead in his left

shoulder and cuts on his hands, wrists, and ribcage (), as well as
a blow () to the head, so he may have died a violent death.

These observations are just a sample of what archaeologists were able to

learn about this long-dead man.
 Otzi, The Iceman
The research in 2012 by the Eurac
Institute for the Mummies and the Iceman
in Bolzano, Italy helps flesh out a picture of
the iceman, who had brown hair, type-O
blood, the lactose intolerance ()
that was common among Neolithic agrarian
societies(). He also was the first-
known carrier of Lyme disease (arthritis,
), a bacterial infection spread by ticks (
).

Source: Reconstruction by Kennis South

Tyrol Museum of Archaeology / Foto
Ochsenreiter
The new reconstruction offers a vivid
interpretation of Otzi as a late stone-age /
early copper-age hunter
Otzi, The Iceman
Scientists trace 19 living relatives of tzi the Iceman
whose 5300-year-old body was found frozen in the Alps
MailOnline 11th Oct. 2013
By Steve Nolan

Researchers from the Institute of Legal Medicine at Innsbruck Medical University

in Austria took DNA samples from blood donors in Tyrol in the west of the
country.
DNA from around 3,700 blood donors were analysed and the men were also
asked to provide information on their ancestry.
They managed to match a particular genetic mutation with that of tzi, whose
body was discovered back in 1991.
None of the donors have been informed that they are distantly related to tzi.
Experts now believe that the same mutation might also be found in the nearby
regions of Engadine in Switzerland and the South Tyrol region of Italy.

Source: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2453857/Scientists-trace-19-living-relatives-
tzi-Iceman-5-300-year-old-body-frozen-Alps.html#ixzz2vo0tYYFt [Accessed 10th March 2014]
 queerstoryfiles.blogspot.com

http://www.photoshelter.com/img-get/I0000XrG6oI6kGmc/s/600/401/05ALP-TripMap.jpg
 Otzi, The Iceman

Scientists Locate 5300-Year-Old Iceman's Living Relatives (0:40-1:06)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VvDsHHyCvyY
 Otzi, The Iceman
Making the Dead Speak: Scientists Plan to Recreate the Voice of Otzi the Iceman

24 February, 2016 by Alicia McDermott

Italian scientists are attempting to give tzi the Iceman a voice. By using CT
scans of his throat and the tissue around his voice box, the researchers believe
there is a chance to recreate the sounds of his voice with sophisticated
software.

The Independent reports that the researchers plan to recreate the timbre ()
and color of tzis voice. With that information specialists in Bolzano and
Padua plan to get the worlds oldest mummy to speak stone-age vowels ().

Source: http://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/making-dead- speak-scientists-plan-

recreate-voice-otzi-iceman-005409#sthash.Ck6RFcoG.dpuf [Accessed 4th March 2016]
 Otzi, The Iceman

tzi the Iceman Finds his Voice 5000 Years Later (0:58~2:33)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v2HIXdednq4&feature=youtu.be
 Archaeology
The thrill of discovery and the
ability of archaeology to reveal
at least some of the secrets of
our past have been the theme of
many famous novels and movies:
notably Steven Spielbergs
Indiana Jones series.

Many discoveries in archaeology

are far less spectacular than that Source: med1915a.blogspot.com

of the Iceman, perhaps a

collection of broken pieces of
pottery, but, these kinds of
remains can tell us a lot about the
past too though careful collection
and analyses of the evidence.
 What is archaeology?
&
The history of archaeology
 Study questions

1. What is the Culture-historical (or traditional) archaeology?

2. What is the New archaeology?

3. What is the Postprocessual archaeology?

4. What are the main differences among three of them?

5. When is the turning point in archaeology and why is it occurred?

 Todays subject and contents

1. The introduction of archaeology

1.1 The Definition of Archaeology
1.2 The Nature and Aims of Archaeology
1.3 The Discipline of Archaeology ( )
1.4 The Important questions of Archaeology
1.5 The Division of Archaeology

2. The history of archaeology

2.1 The Speculative Phase ()
2.2 The Beginnings of Modern Archaeology ( )
2.3 Classification and Consolidation ( )
2.4 A Turning Point in Archaeology ( )
 Todays subject and contents
2. The history of archaeology

2.1 The Speculative Phase (, ) (14th~18th)

2.2 The Beginnings of Modern Archaeology (19th(1 Jan. 180131 Dec. 1900)~late 19th)
2.2.1 The Antiquity of Humankind and the Concept of Evolution
2.2.2 Discovering the Early Civilizations
2.2.3 The Three Age System
2.2.4 Ethnography and Archaeology
2.2.5 The Development of Field Techniques
Culture-
historical
(Traditional) 2.3 Classification () and Consolidation ( ) (late 19th~1960)
archaeology
2.3.1 The Ecological Approach
2.3.2 The Rise Archaeological Science

New
archaeology
2.4 A Turning Point in Archaeology ( )
2.4.1 The Birth of the New Archaeology (approx. 1960s~1980s)
2.4.2 The Postprocessual Debate of the 1980s and 1990s (1980s ~ present)
2.4.3 The Widening Field
Postprocessual 2.4.4 The Development of Public Archaeology
archaeology
2.4.5 Indigenous Archaeologies
 1.1 The Definition of Archaeology

Etymology (, )

Archaeology = Archaeos (, ) + Logos (, )

= () + () + ()

Definition

The study of cultures of the past, and of periods of history by examining the
remains of buildings and objects found in the ground

Source: Oxford University Press, 2000, Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary.

1.2 The Nature and Aims of Archaeology

Archaeology is unique in its ability to tell us about the whole

history of humankind from its beginnings over 3 million years ago.

Indeed for more than 99 percent of that huge span of time,

archaeology- the study of past material culture is the only
source of information.

The archaeological record is the only way that we can answer

questions about the evolution of our species and the
developments in culture and society which led to the emergence
of the first civilizations and to the more recent societies which are
founded upon them.
 The Human Fossil Record
http://biologos.org/blog/the-human-fossil-record-part-1-the-nature-of-transitional-fossils
The History and Future of Everything - Time (7:10)

2:22-3:29

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2XkV6IpV2Y0
 1.3 The Discipline of Archaeology
Many archaeologists consider themselves as part of the broader
discipline () of anthropology.

Anthropology
- Physical or biological anthropology ( ( ) ): the study of human
biological or physical characteristics and how they evolved.
- Cultural anthropology (): the study of human culture and society.
- Linguistic anthropology (): the study of how speech varies with social
factors and over time.
- Archaeology (): the study of former societies through the remains of their
material culture and, in the case of literate cultures such
as those of Mesopotamia or Mesoamerica, such written
records as have survived.
The archaeologist is a special type of anthropologist
concerned not with living societies but with ancient cultures.
Archaeology consists of a broad range of scientific methods
and techniques, including biology, botany, geography,
geology, and zoology, for studying the past, used carefully
and in a disciplined way.
1.4 The Important questions of Archaeology

One of the most important tasks of the archaeologist is to ask the right
questions about the evidence, because the evidence of archaeology
cannot speak for itself.

Traditional approaches tended to regard the objective of archaeology

mainly as reconstruction: piecing together the puzzle.

But, today it is not enough simply to recreate the material culture of

remote periods: the archaeologists are interested in how people lived
and how they exploited their environment.

We also want to know why they lived that way, why they had certain
patterns of behavior and how their material culture came to take the form
it did.

In short, we are interested in explaining change.

 1.5 The Division of Archaeology
By time and letters (characters)
- Prehistory: The portion of human history extends back some 3 million
years before the time written documents and archives
- History: The study of human experience through documents
It has a much shorter time span.

By research tendency
- Culture-historical archaeology ( , )
- New archaeology (processual archaeology, , )
- Postprocessual archaeology ()

By subjects
Maritime archeology ( )/ Ethnoarchaeology ( )/
Biblical archaeology ( )/ Gender archaeology (() ) etc.
 Todays subject and contents
2. The history of archaeology

2.1 The Speculative Phase (, ) (14th~18th)

2.2 The Beginnings of Modern Archaeology (19th~late 19th)

2.2.1 The Antiquity of Humankind and the Concept of Evolution
2.2.2 Discovering the Early Civilizations
2.2.3 The Three Age System
2.2.4 Ethnography and Archaeology
2.2.5 The Development of Field Techniques

Culture- 2.3 Classification () and Consolidation ( ) (late 19th~1960)

historical 2.3.1 The Ecological Approach
(Traditional)
archaeology 2.3.2 The Rise Archaeological Science

New
archaeology
2.4 A Turning Point in Archaeology ( )
2.4.1 The Birth of the New Archaeology (approx. 1960s~1980s)
Postprocessual
2.4.2 The Postprocessual Debate of the 1980s and 1990s (1980s ~ present)
archaeology 2.4.3 The Widening Field
2.4.4 The Development of Public Archaeology
2.4.5 Indigenous Archaeologies
 2. The history of archaeology
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutankhamun

The history of archaeology is commonly seen as the history of

great discoveries:
- The tomb of Tutankhamun in Egypt,
- The lost cities of Mexico, Upper: www.visitmexico.com
Lower: en.wikipedia.org
- The painted caves of the Old Stone Age such as Lascaux in France,
- The remains of our human ancestors buried deep in the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania.

But, even more than that it is the story of how we have come to look with
fresh eyes at the material evidence for the human past, and with new
methods to aid us in our task.

Therefore, the history of archaeology is,

1) A history of ideas, theory, and ways of looking at the past.
2) A history of developing research methods, employing those ideas and en.wikipedia.org

investigating those questions.

3) A history of actual discoveries.
 2.1 The Speculative Phase
14th to 17th centuries: Renaissance in Europe
Source: learningfromdogs.com
- Dilettante(, ), Dilettantism (, )
- Princes () and people of refinement () began to form cabinets of
curiosities ( ) in which curios and ancient artifacts ( ) were
displayed rather haphazardly with exotic minerals and all manner of specimens
illustrative of what was called natural history.
- Scholars also began to study and collect the relics of ancient Greece and Rome.

18th century
- Scholars in more northern lands began to study the local relics of their own
remote past.
- For example, the Englishman William Stukeley (1687~1765, ) and his
colleagues successfully demonstrated that Stonehenge had
been constructed not by giants or devils, but by people in antiquity. www.centrosangiorgio.com

- In Italy, Pompeii was rediscovered in 1748.

- The German Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717~1768, ) was one of the
founders of scientific archaeology and first applied the categories of style
on a large, systematic basis to the history of art. He was considered "The
prophet and founding hero of modern archaeology ( ).
www.arthistoryspot.com
 2.2 The Beginnings of Modern Archaeology

In the middle of the 19th century, the discipline of archaeology became

truly established.

In the background, there were the significant achievements of the newly

developed science of geology (, ).

The study of the stratification of rocks [ (), their arrangement

in superimposed layers or strata] established principles which were to be
the basis of archaeological excavation. It was demonstrate that the
stratification of rocks was due to processes which were still going on in
sea, rivers, and lakes.

This was the principle of uniformitarianism (),that geologically

ancient conditions were similar to, or uniform with, those of our own time.

This idea could be applied to the human past and it marks one of
the fundamental notions of modern archaeology: that in many ways the
past was much like the present.
 Geochronology
http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/86/106986-004-344E040B.jpg
Theories of Geological Evolution:

Catastrophism ( ) vs Uniformitarianism () (~3:27)

by George Cuvier by James Hutton

http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/theories-of-geological-
evolution-catastrophism-vs-uniformitarianism.html#lesson
 2.2 The Beginnings of Modern Archaeology
2.2.1 The Antiquity of Humankind and the Concept of Evolution
These advances in geology did much to lay the groundwork for the
establishment of the antiquity of humankind ( ).
www.policymic.com
It had become widely agreed the earths origins extended far back into a remote past,
so that the biblical notion of the creation of the world could no longer be accepted.
This harmonized well with the findings of Charles Darwin (1809~1882), whose
fundamental work, On the Origin of Species, published in 1859, established the concept
of evolution to explain the origin and development of all plants and animals.
What Darwin demonstrated was how this change occurred. The key mechanism was,
in Darwins words, natural selection ( ), or the survival of the fittest ( ).
The process of evolution: In the struggle for instance, environmentally better-adapted
individuals of a particular species would survive whereas less well-adapted ones would
Nature
die. The surviving individuals would pass on their advantageous traits to their offspring
and gradually the characteristics of species would change to such an extent that a
new species emerged.
The implications were clear: The human species had emerged as part of this same
Human process. The search for human origins in the material record, by the techniques of
archaeology, could begin.
The principles of evolution can also be applied to social organization, for culture can be
Society
seen as learned and passed on between generations.
2.2 The Beginnings of Modern Archaeology

2.2.2 Discovering the Early Civilizations

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
/File:Rosetta_Stone.JPG
Between 1798 and 1800, the splendors of ancient Egyptian civilization had already
been brought to the attention of an avid public after Napoleons military expedition.

It was the discovery in 1799 by the one of his soldiers (Pierre-Franois

Bouchard) of the Rosetta Stone that provided the key to understanding
Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. Inscribed on the stone were parallel texts
written in both Egyptian and Greek scripts.
en.wikipedia.org
The Frenchman Jean-Franois Champollion (1790~1832) used this bilingual
inscription finally to decipher the hieroglyphs in 1822, after 14 years work.

American lawyer and diplomat John Lloyd Stephens (1805~1852) travels in

Yucatn, Mexico, with the English artist Frederick Catherwood (1799~1854),
and the superbly illustrated books they produced
together in the early 1840s, revealed for the first time www.nndb.com

to an enthusiastic public the ruined cities of

the ancient Maya.
en.wikipedia.org
 Mystery Videos of Ancient Egypt: The Mystery of the Rosetta Stone BBC
full Documentary (0:00~2:31)

https://www.tes.com/lessons/tLU-OtN-NxYH3Q/ancient-egypt-hieroglyphs-
and-the-rosetta-stone

The Mystery of Rosetta Stone - Documentary 2017 (32:06-36:57)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WwdjjrDPSKo

Cartouche (/ktu/): an oval with a horizontal line at one end,

indicating that the text enclosed is a royal name

Ancient Egyptian cartouche of

Thutmose III, Karnak, Egypt.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartouche

Coptic or Coptic Egyptian: the latest stage of the Egyptian language, a northern
Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt until at least
the 17th century.
 2.2 The Beginnings of Modern Archaeology
2.2.3 The Three Age System
In 1808, Colt Hoare had recognized a sequence of stone, brass(copper
and zinc), and iron artifacts within the barrows () he excavated.

But, this was first systematically studied in the 1830s by the Danish
scholar Christian Jrgensen Thomsen (1788~1865,
, ).

He proposed that prehistoric artifacts could be divided into those coming en.wikipedia.org

from a Stone Age, a Bronze Age, and an Iron Age, and this classification
was soon found useful by scholars throughout Europe.

In 1865, later a division in the Stone Age was established between the
Paleolithic or Old Stone Age ( ) and the Neolithic or New Stone
Age ( ) by John Lubbock (1834~1913, ). In addition, In 1866, en.wikipedia.org

Hodder Westropp (1820~1885) introduced the Mesolithic () as

a technology intermediate between Paleolithic and Neolithic.

The Three Age System established the principle that they could be ordered
chronologically by studying and classifying prehistoric artifacts.
 Malachite (, )
- a copper carbonate hydroxide mineral Cu2CO3(OH)2
( (II)(Cu2CO3(OH)2) )
- 1

Copper (Cu, ) (from Latin: cuprum)

- atomic number 29 Malachite from the Democratic
- A melting point (henceforth, MP): 1084.6 C Republic of the Congo
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malachite
Macro of native copper about 1 inches
(4 cm) in size
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
When two metals are alloyed, the unique melting point of
one metal which have higher melting point becomes low
relatively.
www.kififire.kr/_board/board/board_filedown.asp?b_f_Idx=209

Bronze ()= Copper + tin (Sn, )

- Tin MP: 232.06 C
- Bronze MP: approx. 875~994 Bronze nugget
http://www.dreamstime.com/stock-
Tin
http://www.empresa-minera.ch/en/metalle-
( ) photography-bronze-nugget-image18990132 minerale/metalle/tin.html

Brass (, )= Copper + zinc (Zn, )

- Zinc MP: 419.73 C
- Yellow brass (67:33) MP: 930 C
However, bronze and brass may also include small
proportions of a range of other elements including Brass die, along with zinc and copper samples
arsenic (), phosphorus (), aluminium (), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brass Zinc
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc
manganese (), and silicon ().
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brass

Iron (Fe, )
- atomic number 26
- MP: 1535 C
https://www.thinglink.com/scene/466966349566967808
 Malachite (, )
- a copper carbonate hydroxide mineral Cu2CO3(OH)2
( (II)(Cu2CO3(OH)2) )
- 1

Copper (Cu, ) (from Latin: cuprum)

- atomic number 29 Malachite from the Democratic
- A melting point (henceforth, MP): 1084.6 C Republic of the Congo
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malachite
Macro of native copper about 1 inches
(4 cm) in size
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper

. ,
,
.
www.kififire.kr/_board/board/board_filedown.asp?b_f_Idx=209

Bronze ()= Copper + tin (Sn, )

- Tin MP: 232.06 C Bronze nugget Tin
http://www.dreamstime.com/stock- http://www.empresa-minera.ch/en/metalle-
- Bronze MP: approx. 875~994 photography-bronze-nugget-image18990132 minerale/metalle/tin.html

( )
Brass (, )= Copper + zinc (Zn, )
- Zinc MP: 419.73 C
- Yellow brass (67:33) MP: 930 C
However, bronze and brass may also include small Brass die, along with zinc and copper samples
proportions of a range of other elements including https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brass Zinc
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc
arsenic (), phosphorus (), aluminium (),
manganese (), and silicon ().
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brass

Iron (Fe, )
- atomic number 26
- MP: 1535 C https://www.thinglink.com/scene/466966349566967808
 Three Age System by Christian Jrgensen Thomsen

: Stone Age Bronze Age Iron Age

(Paleolithic Mesolithic Neolithic)

John Lubbock Hodder Westropp John Lubbock
 2.2 The Beginnings of Modern Archaeology
2.2.4 Ethnography () and Archaeology
Another important strand in the thought of the time was the realization
that the study of living communities in different parts of the world
by ethnographers could be a useful starting point for archaeologists seeking
to understand something of the lifestyles of their own inhabitants who had
comparably simple tools and crafts.
www.nndb.com

Strongly influenced by Darwins ideas about evolution, the British

anthropologist Edward Tylor (1832~1917, , Primitive Culture (1871)), and his
American counterpart Lewis Henry Morgan (1818~1881,Ancient Society (1877)),
both published important works in the 1870s arguing that human societies had
evolved from a state of savagery (, primitive hunting) through
www3.rmsc.org
barbarism (, simple farming) to civilization (, the highest form
of society).
Culture, or civilization, taken in its broad, ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man
as a member of society.
Tylor
Morgans work partly based on his knowledge of living Native Americans.
 Social evolution: by Edward Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan

: savagery barbarism civilization

(, primitive hunting) (, simple farming) (, the highest form of society)
 2.2 The Beginnings of Modern Archaeology
2.2.5 The Development of Field Techniques
In the late 19th century, a sound methodology of
scientific excavation began to be generally adapted.

German Heinrich Schliemann (1822~1890) was a pioneer in the

study of Aegean civilization in the Bronze Age, but, his excavation
with dynamite has been criticized as destructive of significant historical artifacts.
en.wikipedia.org

Lieutenant-General ( ) Augustus Lane-Fox Pitt-Rivers (1827~1900, )

brought long experience of military methods, survey, and precision to impeccably
organized excavations on his estates in southern England. Plans (),
sections (), and even models () were made, and the exact position of
every object were recorded. He was a pioneer in his instance on total recording,
and his four privately printed volume, describing his excavations on Cranborne
Chase from 1887 to 1898, represent the highest standard of archaeological
publication.
Textbook 2, p.20

Sir William Flinders Petrie (1853~1942, ) was likewise noted for his
meticulous excavations and his insistence on the collection and
description of everything found, not just the fine objects, as well as
full publication. He employed these methods in his exemplary
excavations in Egypt, and later in Palestine, from the 1880s until his death.
web.prm.ox.ac.uk s907.photobucket.com
 http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f
/fb/Dorset_UK_locator_map_2010.svg/2000px-
Dorset_UK_locator_map_2010.svg.png

Cranborne Chase

- It is a chalk plateau in central southern England, straddling the counties

Dorset, Hampshire and Wiltshire. The plateau is part of the English Chalk
Formation and is adjacent to Salisbury Plain (Stonehenge) and the West
Wiltshire Downs in the north, and the Dorset Downs to the south west.

- Chalk (, ): .
.

- The downland (A downland is an area of open chalk hills. This term is

especially used to describe the chalk countryside in southern England) has
a long history with many earthworks and archaeology from the Neolithic
age onwards.

http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/content/properties/knowlton-church-and- http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
earthworks/knowlton_church_and_earthworks_research_3 commons/5/56/Dorset_geology.png
 White Cliffs of Dover, England
https://i.imgur.com/bYmzd.jpg

White Cliffs of Dover, England

http://www.abenteurer.net/wp-content/uploads/Cliffs-of-Dover.jpg

Strait of Dover
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Strait_of
_Dover_map.png
 2.2 The Beginnings of Modern Archaeology

2.2.5 The Development of Field Techniques

Textbook 2, p.21 en.wikipedia.org

Sir Mortimer Wheeler (1890~1976) brought military precision to his excavation, notably
through techniques such as the grid-square method () of dividing and digging a site.
He is particularly well known for his work at British hillforts, Maiden Castle in 1937. His
achievement as Director-General of Archaeology in India was equally outstanding.

Alfred Kidder (1885~1963) was the leading American archaeologist of his time. He was a
major figure in Maya archaeology. He excavated Pecos Ruin in northern New Mexico from
1915 to 1929. Kidder was one of the first archaeologists to use a team of
specialists to help analyze artifacts and human remains. He is also important for
his blueprint() for a regional strategy ( ):

(1) reconnaissance ( )
(2) selection of criteria for ranking the remains of site
chronologically ( )
(3) organizing then into a probable sequence
( )
(4) stratigraphic excavation to elucidate specific problems
( )
(5) more detailed regional survey and dating
( )
Textbook 2, p.22
Archaeological Methods: Set up a 1m grid square (5:09)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xNdFDzQzqPk

Excavation by Mortimer Wheeler using grid method

http://condor.depaul.edu/sbucking/gridex.jpg
 http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/
Dorset_UK_locator_map_2010.svg/2000px-
Dorset_UK_locator_map_2010.svg.png

The excavations at Maiden Castle, Dorset, in October 1937 were led by

Mortimer Wheeler.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Aerial_photograp
h_of_Maiden_Castle_from_the_west,_1937.jpg

http://www.itraveluk.co.uk/maps/england/county/county.php?id=4498&map=&place=Maiden%20N
ewton&county=dorset&where=0
http://mapsof.net/uploads/static-
maps/where_is_new_mexico_located.png

Pecos Pueblo, South of Pecos, New Mexico

Photographer: Eric Vondy
http://www.campinglife.com/wp-
content/uploads/2011/12/Pecos-Mission-Ruins-by-
Eric-Vondy.png
 2.3 Classification and Consolidation
As we have seen, before the end of the 19th century, many of the principal features
of modern archaeology had been established and many of the early civilizations
had been discovered.

There now ensued a period, which lasted until about 1960, which has been
described as the classificatory-historical period (- ).

Its central concern was chronology. Much effort went into the establishment of
regional chronological systems and the description of development of culture
in each era.
en.wikipedia.org

In the United States, the anthropologist Franz Boas (1858~1942, ) reacted against
the broad evolutionary schemes of his predecessors and demanded much greater
attention to the collection and classification of information in the field.

By the 1930s, a group of scholars led by W.C. McKern devised what became
known as the Midwestern Taxonomic System( ) which correlated
sequences in the Midwest by identifying similarities between artifact collections.
 2.3 Classification and Consolidation
In Europe, Gordon Childe (1892~1957) had almost single-handedly been making
comparisons between prehistoric sequences in Europe.

His methods and the Midwestern Taxonomic System were designed to order
the material, to answer the question:
- To what period do these artifacts date?
- With which other materials do they belong?
en.wikipedia.org

This latter question usually carried with it an assumption which Gordon Childe made explicit: that
a constantly recurring collection or assemblage of artifacts (a culture in his terminology)
could be attributed to a particular group of people.
- Who did these artifacts belong to?
But Childe pursued not only the description of the culture sequences but also their origin.

In the late 19th century, scholars had argued that all the attributes of civilization had spread or
diffused to Europe from the Near East by trade or migration of people. Childe modified this
approach and argued that Europe had undergone some indigenous development - but he
nevertheless attributed the major cultural changes to Near Eastern influences.

Later Childe went on to try and answer the much more difficult question:
Why had civilization arisen in the Near East?
Himself influenced by Marxist ideas and the relatively recent Marxist revolution in Russia, he
proposed that there had been a Neolithic Revolution which gave rise to the development of
farming, and later on Urban Revolution which led to the first towns and cities.
 Gordon Childe chart
Archeological Cultures 27c. to 8c. BC GordonChilde & Coon
Childe, V. Gordon (1925), The Dawn of European Civilization
1st edition (6th revised ed., Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1957)
http://s155239215.onlinehome.us/turkic/btn_Archeology/ArcheolChartGordonChilde_Coon.gif
Animal, Vegetable, Mineral (1956)(~4:55)

The programme is chaired by Glyn Daniel, Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. The
experts are V. Gordon Childe (Director of the Institute of Archaeology), Professor Sean P
O Riordain (Department of Archaeology, University College Dublin) and Sir Mortimer
Wheeler (Professor of Archaeology, University of London).

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RdI6T-74E_o&list=PL-
9YApYkS4j0Okq5-47zcUByxJrUI5jUz
 2.3 Classification and Consolidation
2.3.1 The Ecological Approach
One of the most influential new thinkers in North America was the anthropologist
Julian Steward (1902~1972, ). archives.library.illinois.edu

He brought to the question an anthropologists understanding of how living cultures work.

Moreover he highlighted the fact that cultures do not interact simply with each other but with
the environment as well.
Steward christened ( ) the study of ways in which adaptation to the
environment could cause cultural change cultural ecology.

In the late 1940s, the concept of Steward was embodied in the work of
Gordon Willey (1913~2002, ) in the Vir Valley, Peru.
Willey utilized detailed maps and aerial photographs, survey at www.nap.edu
ground level, and excavation and surface potsherd collection. Then, he plotted the
geographical distribution of many sites in the valley at different periods and set the results
against the changing local environment.

The British archaeologist Grahame Clark (1907~1995) developed and an ecological

approach with even more direct relevance for archeological fieldwork.
He argued that by studying how human populations adapted to their environments
we can understand many aspects of ancient society.
Collaboration with new kinds of specialists was essential: for example, specialists www.npg.org.uk
who could identify animal bones or plant remains in the archaeological record could help
build up a picture not only of what prehistoric environments were like, but what foods
prehistoric peoples ate.
 2.3 Classification and Consolidation
2.3.2 The Rise Archaeological Science

After World War II (1939-1945), the other striking development of the period
immediately was the rapid development of scientific aids for archaeology.

Even more important was the application to archaeology of

the physical and chemical sciences.

The greatest breakthrough came in the field of dating. en.wikipedia.org

In 1949, the American chemist Willard Libby (1908~1980) announced

his invention of radiocarbon dating. For his contributions to the team that developed this
process, Libby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1960.

At last, archaeologist might have a means of directly determining the age of undated sites
and finds anywhere in the world without complicated cross-cultural comparisons.

The establishment of date was still important, but, it could now be done much more
efficiently, allowing the archaeologist to go on to ask more challenging questions than
merely chronological ones.
How Does Radiocarbon Dating Work? - Instant Egghead #28 (2:10)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=phZeE7Att_s

Radiocarbon Dating (9:28)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2io5opwhQMQ
 2.4 A Turning Point in Archaeology

The 1960s mark a turning point in the development of archaeology.

By this time some archaeologists were dissatisfied with not so much with
excavation techniques or with the newly developed scientific aids in
archaeology, but with the way conclusions were drawn from them - how
archaeologists explain things.

The fundamental cause for dissatisfaction with the traditional archaeology

was that it never seemed to explain anything, other than in terms of
migrations of peoples and supposed influences.
 2.4 A Turning Point in Archaeology
2.4.1 The Birth of the New Archaeology (Processual archaeology)
In the United States, the answer was provided by a group of younger
archaeologists, led by Lewis Binford (1931~2011), who set out to offer a new en.wikipedia.org

approach to the problems of archaeological interpretation, which was soon dubbed

the New Archaeology.

They maintained that the potential of the archaeological evidence was much greater
than had been realized for the investigation of social and economic aspects of past
societies.

They also argued that archaeological reasoning should be made explicit. Conclusions
should be based not simply on the authority of the scholar making the interpretation,
but on an explicit framework of logical argument. Thus conclusions, if they are to be
considered valid, must be open to testing.

These processual archaeologists sought to explain rather than simply to describe,

and to do so, as in all sciences, by seeking to make valid generalizations.

They tried to avoid the rather vague talk of the influences of one culture
upon another, but rather to analyze a culture as a system which could be
broken down into subsystems (like technology, trade, or ideology).

They placed much less emphasis on artifact typology and classification.

, 1988, , p.21
A STATIC AND SCHEMATIC MODEL OF
THE DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM BETWEEN
THE SUBSYSTEM NETWORKS OF A
SINGLE SOCIOCULTURAL SYSTEM AND
ITS TOTAL ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM

The internal setting of subsytems

within the general system constitutes
'cultural morphology', as opposed to
the external setting of the system in its
environment, comprising 'cultural
ecology'.

David Clarke, "Culture as a System with

Subsystems," Analytical Archaeology,
Methuen, 1968

http://thediagram.com/11_5/astaticand
schematic.gif

, 1988, , p.21
Key concepts The New Archaeology Traditional Archaeology
The nature of Explanatory () Descriptive ()
Archaeology
Archaeologys role was now to explain past change, not simply to
( )
reconstruct the past and how people had lived. This involved the
use of explicit theory.
Explanation Culture process ( ) Culture history ( )
()
The New archeology, drawing on the philosophy of science, would Traditional archaeology was seen to rely on historical
think in terms of culture process, of how changes in economic and explanation.
social systems take place. This implies generalization.
Reasoning Deductive () Inductive ()
()
The appropriate procedure was now to formulate hypotheses, Traditional archaeology saw archaeology as
constructing models, and deducting their sequences. resembling a jigsaw puzzle: the task was one of
piecing together the past.
Validation Testing () Authority ()
()
Hypotheses were to be tested, and conclusions should not be
accepted on the basis of the authority or standing of the research
worker.
Research focus Project design ( ) Data accumulation ( )
( )
Research should be designed to answer specific questions
economically, not simply to generate more information which
might not be relevant.
Choice of Quantitative () Simply qualitative ( )
approach
Quantitative data allowed computerized statistical treatment, with
( )
the possibility of sampling and significance testing. This was often
preferred to the purely verbal traditional approach.
Scope Optimism () Pessimism ()
()
The New Archaeologists were more positive and argued that it They often stressed that archaeological data were not
would never be known how hard these problems were until well suited to the reconstruction of social organization
archaeologists had tried to solve them. or cognitive systems.
Deductive Reasoning () and Inductive Reasoning ()

http://cfile218.uf.daum.net/image/1423574E5052DAFD113CAF

: 2 ()
http://cfile10.uf.tistory.com/image/2012DE404EF1A2150D76E9
 2.4 A Turning Point in Archaeology
2.4.2 The Postprocessual Debate of the 1980s and 1990s

Post-modernist currents of thought in the 1980s and 1990s encouraged

a great diversity of approaches to the past. (Next pages)

The processual tradition established by the New Archaeology rolled on,

there were several new approaches, sometimes collectively termed
postprocessual, which dealt with interesting and difficult questions.
ianhodder.kimdir.com

Influential arguments, some of them first advanced by the archaeologist Ian Hodder
(1948~ ) and his students, have stressed that there is no single, correct way to
undertake archaeological inference, and that the goal of objectivity is unattainable.

It can also lead to charges of relativism, where one persons view has to be regarded
as good as anothers, and where, in interpretative matters, anything goes, and
where the borderlines between archaeological research and fiction (or science fiction)
may be difficult to define.

For its early proponents, postprocessual archaeology represented so radical a critique

of processual archaeology as to establish a new beginning in archaeological theory.
However, others saw postprocessual as simply a development of some of the ideas
and theoretical problems introduced by the New Archaeology.
 Key influences to Postprocessual archaeology

Postprocessualism is a collective term for a number of approaches to the past, all of

which have roots in the post-modernist current of thought that developed in the 1980s
and 1990s.

The neo-Marxist () element has a strong commitment to social

awareness: that it is the duty of the archaeologist not only to describe the past, but to
use such insights to change the present world. This contrasts quite strikingly with the
aspirations towards objectivity of many processual archaeologists.
( .
.
.)

The post-positivist () approach rejects the emphasis on the systematic

procedures of scientific method which are such a feature of processual archaeology,
sometimes seeing modern science as hostile to the individual, as forming an integral
part of the systems of domination by which the forces of capitalism exert their
hegemony.
(
,
.)
 Key influences to Postprocessual archaeology

The phenomenological () approach lays stress on the personal experiences of

the individual and on the way in which encounters with the material world and with the
objects in it shape our understanding of the world. In landscape archaeology, for
example, the archaeologist sets out to experience the humanly shaped landscape as it
has been modified and formed by human activities.
( , , ,
. ,

.)

The praxis () approach lays stress upon the central role of the human agent
and upon the primary significance of human actions (praxis) in shaping social structures.
Many social norms and social structures are established and shaped by habitual
experience (and the notion of habitus similarly refers to the unspoken strategy-
generating principles employed by the individual which mediate between social structure
and practice). The role of the individual as a significant agent is thus emphasized.
( , ()
.
. .)
 Key influences to Postprocessual archaeology

The hermeneutic ( or interpretative) view rejects generalization, another

feature of processual archaeology. Emphasis is laid, rather, upon the uniqueness of each
society and culture and on the need to study the full context of each in all its rich
diversity. A related view stresses that there can be no single correct interpretation: each
observer or analyst is entitled to their own opinion about the past. There will therefore
be a diversity of opinions, and a wide range of perspectives-which is why the emphasis
is on interpretative archaeologies (plural).

( ( ) .

.
.
, () .)
 2.4 A Turning Point in Archaeology
2.4.2 The Postprocessual Debate of the 1980s and 1990s

In recent times, the majority of postprocessual archaeologists have taken a less

aggressively anti-scientific tone, and the emphasis has instead been upon the use of
a variety of personal and often humanistic insights to develop a range of different
fields and interests, recognizing the valid perspectives of different social groups.

Ian Hodders work at the early farming site of atalhyk in Turkey provides a good
example of this approach in action. It is now recognized that there is no single or
coherent postprocessual archaeology, but rather a whole series of interpretative
approaches and interests.

www.smm.org Site location scotthaddow.wordpress.com A panoramic view of site strangesounds.org A reconstruction A large clay figurine of
Mother Goddess ()
archaeology.about.com
GHF: atalhyk, Ian Hodders interview (2:06)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HTHqYjeXrYs

Turkey Catalhoyuk (1:51)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kfBSB9iol3w

Catal Huyuk - Archoastronomie pisode 3 (1:33)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zbPWvZyN86I
 atalhyk: Interpretative archaeology in action

Hodder set himself two yet more ambitious objectives appropriate to the
interpretive approach arising from the postprocessual debate.
The first was to develop a more flexible and open approach to stratigraphic
excavation. This has involved encouraging interpretation at the trowels edge.
The moment of excavation is surrounded in discussion between excavator and a
wide range of specialists. The different specialists process material from the trench
quickly so that they can feed information back to the excavator.
The excavators are also asked to keep video records and to make diary entries
about their interpretations as they dig, and all the data are made available on an
interactive database.
The second objective was simply to allow more open-ended and multivocal
approaches to the interpretation of the site as a whole, allowing not only different
specialists to have a voice, but also the local inhabitants, and indeed visitors, not
least those considering the site to be important for the emergence of a cult of
the Mother Goddess.
The decision to make data from the excavation available on the projects website
(http://www.catalhoyuk.com) thus goes beyond a simple intention to publish the
findings promptly: it furthers the postprocessual or interpretive wish for multiple
and alternative interpretations by all those choosing to take part.
 2.4 A Turning Point in Archaeology
2.4.2 The Postprocessual Debate of the 1980s and 1990s

One of the strengths of the interpretive approach is to bring into central

focus the actions and thoughts of individuals in the past.

Cognitive archaeology ( ) by Colin Renfrew: It argues that in order to

understand and interpret the past, it is necessary to get inside the minds and
think the thoughts of the people in question.

This might seem a logical goal when examining symbolic systems (for
example figurative artworks employing a complex iconography) but there is
in reality no easy way to get into other peoples mind, especially past minds.

Whatever the methodological problems, the consequence of the various

debates has been to broaden the range of archaeological theory in a
positive manner and to emphasize the symbolic and cognitive aspects of
human endeavor in a way that the early New Archaeology failed to do.
2.4 A Turning Point in Archaeology

Gender archaeology ( () )

Public archaeology ( )

Indigenous archaeology ( )
 2.4 A Turning Point in Archaeology
2.4.3 The Widening Field

It is evident that archaeology cannot avoid being caught up in the issues of

the day, social and political as well as intellectual.

An example is the influence of feminist thinking and the growth of feminist

archaeology, which overlaps with relatively new field of gender studies
( () ).

A pioneer in the emphasis of the importance of women in

prehistory was Lithuanian Marija Gimbutas (1921-1994).

Her research in the Balkans led her to create a vision of www.universitadelledonne.it

an Old Europe associated with the first farmers whose central focus was
(or so she argued) a belief in a great Mother Goddess figure. Although
many feminist archaeologists today would take issue with certain aspects
of Gimbutas approach, she has certainly helped foster the current debate
on gender roles.
 2.4 A Turning Point in Archaeology
2.4.3 The Widening Field

In 1984, Margaret Conkey (1943~) and Janet Spector anthropology.berkeley.edu discussions.mnhs.org

(1944~2011) drew attention to the androcentrism (male bias, )

of the discipline of archaeology. As Margaret Conkey pointed out, there
existed a need to reclaim womens experience as valid, to theorize this
experience, and to use this to build a program of political action.

The deeply pervasive nature of androcentric thinking in most interpretations

of the past should not be underestimated: the gender-specific terminology
Man the Tool maker, even when swept away with every reference to
mankind corrected to humankind, does in fact conceal further, widely
held assumptions or prejudices-for instance that Paleolithic stone were
mainly made by men rather than women, for which there is little or no
evidence.
 2.4 A Turning Point in Archaeology

2.4.4 The Development of Public Archaeology ( )

A further turning point came during the later 20th century in the
archaeology of many countries with the development of public archaeology.

There are three key principles here:

- The material record of the past is a public resource which should be
managed for the public good.
- When practical circumstances make inevitable some damage to that
record, steps should be taken to mitigate the impact through appropriate
survey, excavation and research.
- The developer pays: the persons or organizations initiating the eventual
impact (usually through building works undertaken for economic reasons)
should fund the necessary actions in mitigation.
 2.4 A Turning Point in Archaeology

2.4.4 The Development of Public Archaeology

Legal frameworks to deal with these problems vary from country to

country. This approach is termed

preventative archaeology in France,

rescue archaeology in Britain,
Cultural Resource Management in the United States.

In those countries with legislation protecting the material record of the

past, a large proportion of the resources devoted toward archaeology
come through these practices of conservation and mitigation, as governed
by national legislation.
Day of Archaeology 2014: Public Archaeology (1:18)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_tOMq4xX_UE

On the Job: Public Archaeology (1:58)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QC6Z13e8WBI
 2.4 A Turning Point in Archaeology
2.4.5 Indigenous Archaeologies ( )

Comparable questions have continued to emerge in the developing

indigenous archaeologies in the territories of former colonies, now freed
from previous imperial power.
The appropriate policy for cultural heritage management, and indeed the
nature of the cultural heritage itself, are often contested among
competing interest groups, sometimes along ethnic lines.
Deeper questions arise about the nature of the globalization process,
itself the outcome of technological advances developed in the West, and
whether the notion of cultural heritage as commonly understood may
not be a product of Western thought. The Western-conceived notion of
Cultural Heritage Management has been seen by post-colonial thinkers as
an imposition of Western values, with officially endorsed notions of
heritage perhaps leading to homogenization () and the
undervaluation () of cultural diversity ( ).
 2.4 A Turning Point in Archaeology
2.4.5 Conclusion: The role of archaeologists in the present world

Some aspects of archaeology at the beginning of the new

millennium were inevitably controversial, but they were also in some ways
very positive.
The aspects of archaeology emphasized the value and importance of the
past for the contemporary world, and they led to the realization that the
cultural heritage is an important part of the human environment, and in
some ways as fragile as the natural environment.
Then, they imply that the archaeologist has an important role to play in
achieving a balanced view also of our present world, which is inescapably
the product of the worlds which have preceded it.

The task of interpretation is now seen as very much more complex that it
once seemed.
 Todays subject and contents

1. The introduction of archaeology

1.1 The Definition of Archaeology
1.2 The Nature and Aims of Archaeology
1.3 The Discipline of Archaeology ( )
1.4 The Important questions of Archaeology
1.5 The Division of Archaeology

2. The history of archaeology

2.1 The Speculative Phase ()
2.2 The Beginnings of Modern Archaeology ( )
2.3 Classification and Consolidation ( )
2.4 A Turning Point in Archaeology ( )
 Todays subject and contents
2. The history of archaeology

2.1 The Speculative Phase (, ) (14th~18th)

2.2 The Beginnings of Modern Archaeology (19th~late 19th)

2.2.1 The Antiquity of Humankind and the Concept of Evolution
2.2.2 Discovering the Early Civilizations
2.2.3 The Three Age System
2.2.4 Ethnography and Archaeology
2.2.5 The Development of Field Techniques
Culture-
historical
(Traditional) 2.3 Classification () and Consolidation ( ) (late 19th~1960)
archaeology
2.3.1 The Ecological Approach
2.3.2 The Rise Archaeological Science

New
archaeology
2.4 A Turning Point in Archaeology ( )
2.4.1 The Birth of the New Archaeology (approx. 1960s~1980s)
2.4.2 The Postprocessual Debate of the 1980s and 1990s (1980s ~ present)
2.4.3 The Widening Field
Postprocessual 2.4.4 The Development of Public Archaeology
archaeology
2.4.5 Indigenous Archaeologies
 Presentation & Report topics
Renfrew, C & Bahn P. 2011. Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods and
Practice. Thames & Hudson.

Presentation Report
Group Topic Chapter submission
Date
date

1 9/28 What is left? The variety of the evidence 10/19

Chap. 2

2 10/12 Where? Survey and excavation of sites and features 11/2

Chap. 3

3 10/19 When? Dating methods and chronology 11/9

Chap. 4

10/26 Midterm Exam.

4 11/2 How were societies organized? Social archaeology Chap.5 11/23

What was the environment?

5 11/9 11/23
What did they eat? Environment, subsistence, and diet Chap. 6
How were artifacts made, used, and distributed?
6 11/23 12/7
Technology, trade, and exchange Chap. 7

What did they think? The bioarchaeology of people &

7 12/7 Chap. 8 12.7
What were they like? Cognitive archaeology
Chap. 9
 The requirements and recommendations of your presentation

1. Time: Each group will give about 42~49 minute presentation.

So, please keep the time!
ex) a group of 6~7 members 1 students = 7 minutes

2. Contents:
Please make your own knowledge about your part as possible as you can.
Then, explain your part to classmates as easy as possible
because the other students do not know your part!

3. Attitude for listening:

Please keep listening etiquette for a student who present in front.
ex) Please do not look at your mobile phone or your computer!
Please do not sleep!
Please ask questions when you do not understand the contents clearly.
Q&A
 Next week
1. The advent of the first humans

2. The utilization of tools -

Palaeolithic and Mesolithic
http://stuffpoint.com/evolution/image/319515/evolution-of-humans-wallpaper/
periods

http://zl3012ass.blogspot.kr/
Thank you very much indeed!