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(i) Modulates flow of power from the soqrce to the motor in such a manner that motor is
imparted speed-torque characteristics required by the load.
(ii) During transient operations, such as starting, braking and speed reversal, it restricts source
and motor currents within permissible values; excessive current drawn from source may overload
it or may cause a voltage dip.
(iii) Converts electrical energy of the source in the form suitable to the motor, e.g. if the
2 F'undamentals of Electrical Drives
8. They are powered by electrical energy which has a number of advantages over other forms
of energy. It can be generated and transported to the desired point economically and efficiently.
Conversion of electrical to mechanical energy and vice versa, and electrical energy from one
from to another can also be done efficiently and economically.
Because of the above advantages, the mechanical energy already available from a, non-
electrical prime mover is sometimes first converted into electrical energy by a generator and
back to mechanical energy by an electric motor. Electrical link thus provided between the,non:
electrical prime mover and the load imparts to the drive flexible control characteristics. Consequently,
the load requirements are fully met. For example, in diesel-electric locomotive and ship, the
mechanical energy produced by diesel engine is converted into electrical energy by an electrical
generator and is utilised to drive electric motors which drive locomotive and ship. The operations
of generator and motors can be controlled to shape speed-torque curves and other parameters to
meet traction or propulsion requirements in the best possible manner.
maintenance. The permanent magnet synchronous motors have all the advantages of squirrel-
cage induction motors except that they are available in lower power rhtings.
Because of numerous advantages of ac motors described above, ac drives have succeeded in
replacing dc drives in a number of variable speed applications.
Brushless dc motor is somewhat similar to a permanent magnet slmchronous motor, but has
lower cost and requires simpler and cheaper converter. It is being considered for low power high
speed drives and for servo applications, as an alternative to dc servo motor which has been very
popular so far. The dc servo motor motor has all the disadvantages of commutator and brushes
listed above. At low power levels, *1s gsrrlomb friction between the brushes and commutator is
objectionalle, as it a,flversely affects the steady state accuracy of the drive.
Recently, stepper motor has become popular for position control and switched reluctance
motor drive for speed control. -
(q) Converters
Wlpn a power modulator peforms function (iii) (see Sec. 1.1), it can be classified as converrer.
Usually, a converter also performs fungtion (i) in adtlition to (ii). Depending on the circuit, it
may also be able to perform function (iv) of'the power modulator. Need for a converter arises
when nature of the available electrical power is different than what is required for the motor.
Power sorrces are usually of the following types:
(i) Fixed voltage and fixed frequency ac
(ii) Fixed voltage dc.
For the control of dc motors one requires variable dc voltage whereas for ac motors one
requires either fixed frequency variable voltage ac or variable frequency variable voltage ac.
These motor requirements are met by the followiirg converters and their combinations:
l- ac to dc Corwerters: ac-dc converters are shown in Fig. I.2.The converter of Fig. 1.2(a) is
used to get dc supply of fixed voltage from the ac supply of fixed voltage. Such a converter is
kndwn as uncontrolled rectifier. Converters, of Fig. 1.2(b) to () allow a variable voltage dc
supply to be obtained from the fixed voltage ac supply. In converters of Figs. 1.2@) and (c), a
stelss variatiron of output voltage can be achieved by controlling firing angle of converter
fryristus by low Power signals flom a control unit. Converter of F-ig. 1.2(b) is a iwo quadrant
convrE in the sense that it is capable of providing variable dc voltage of either polarity with
positircwrentHowever, converter of Fig. 1.2(c) is a single-quadrant converter (positive voltage
andcurreinlC-rnverters of Fig. 1.2(b) and (c) produce harmonics both on dc and ac side andhave
low powerfactrfalow dc voltages. The converters ofFig. 72(d), (e) and (f) operate at unity
fundamental pwufur- The output voltage in converter 1.2(d) is changed by applying mecha-
nicalforce. Fewdiscr@*ps of dc voltage can only be obtained. In cohverter of Fig. 1.2(e)
Electrical Drives-An introduction 5
Fixed Fixed
voltage Variable
lor voltage dc
3-phase ac
o)
Fixed Variable voltage ac
l.
J
(d)
Fixed voltage dc Fixed
Fixed
voltage Variable v Variable
lor voltaee dc
I voltage dc
J
3-phase ac
(e) Fixed voltage ac (0
Fixed voltage ac
ac motor
Fixed
voltage Variable
lor voltage dc
3-phase ac
(D (j)
Fig. 1.2 ac-dc converters or rectlllers
devices of
output voltage can be varied steplessly by controlling the duty ratio of semiconductor
of Fig' 1'2(0 is
the chopper by low power electrical signals from a control unit. The converter
power transistors, IGBTs and
a controlled rectifier employing self-commutaied device such as
When connected in
GTOs. It can be a single or two quadrant converter depending on the circuit'
(fl canprovide four quadrant operation (variable voltage
antiparallel, converters ofFigs. ziu) ana
Fig. I'2(g), output voltage can be
and current of either polaritly;. In ac to dc converter of thg"
unit (amplifier) of higher
controlled by controlling tieid current of the generator from a control
power level than the control units of converters of Figs. 1.2(b), (c),
(e) and (fl' This can operate
of disadvantages:
in all four quadrants. Because of the two rotating machines, it has a number
expensive and requires special foundation'
bulky, heavy, noisy, less efficient, slow response,
of the dc generator (Fig' 1'2(g)) are
Disadvantages associated with commutator and brushes
operate in a single quadrant only'
removed in converter of Fig. 1.2(h). However, this converter can
Some very old equipments may also employ ac to dc converter of
Figs' 1'2(i) and () employing
amplidyne retp"tilu"ty. Magnetic amplifiers and amplidynes are controlled
magnetic amplifier and
from low power dc signals.
6 Fuidamentals of Electrical Drives
voltagey'cr
interposin
fed from r
current ha
frequency
conmlled
harmonicl
power tra
obtainedl
from a fn
due to nu
Fixed voltage
Lower (fixed)
I or 3-phase ac
ac voltage
Frxed voltage
+ Magnetic I Variable 5. Cyclot
I or 3-phase ac I amplifier [iG. u" voltage t
(d) signals d
Fig. fJ ac voltage controllers frequenq
limits.
get variab
such as p
be varied
ntrol unit.
voltage/current can be achieved by varying the input dc voltage. This is achieved either by
interposing a chopper in between fixed voltage dc source and the inverter or the inverter may be
fed from an ac-dc converter from amoug those of Figs. 1.2(b), (c) or (0. Output voltage and
currenthave stepped waveform, consequently they have substantial amount of harmonics. Variable
frequency andvariable voltage ac is directly obtained from fixed voltage dc when the inverteris
controlled by pulse-width modulation (PWM) (Fig. 1.5(b)). The PWM conrrol also reduces
harmonics in the output voltage. Inverters are built using semiconductor devices such as thyristors,
power transistors, IGBTs, GTOs and power MOSFETs. They are controlled by firing pulses
obtained from a low power control unit. In the past variable frequency supply used to be obtained
from a frequency changer employing a rotating machine. Such schemes havb become outdated
due to numerous disadvantages.
Variable frequency
Fixed
fixed voltage/
voltage dc
cuTent ac
Variable frequency
Fixed
variable voltage/
voltage dc
current ac
5 ' Cycloconverter: Cycloconverter (Fig. 1.6) converts fixed voltage and frequency
ac to varidble
voltage and variable frequency ac. They are built using thyristors and are controlled by firing
signals derived from a low power control unit. Output frequency is restricted to 40Vo of supply
frequency in order to keep harmonics in the output voltage and.source curent within u"""ptabl"
limits.
Fixed
fixed
Fig. 1.6 Cycloconverter
of ac motors. Old drives may also employ saturable reactors for the control of induction motors. frtors which I
In saturable reactors, reactance is controlled steplessly by controlling dc current of the control when drc r sq
winding. is &.
(c) Switching Circuits r3J C-d
Switching operations are required to achieve any one of the following: (i) for changing motor Cootrols fu l1
connections to change its quadrant of operation. (ii) for changing motor circuit parameters in a parti!:dr &i
discrete steps for automatic starting and braking control, (iii) for operating motors and drives only tro c-:s
according to a predetermined sequence, (iv) to provi.de interlocking to prevent maloperation and Wb str
(v) to disconnect motor when abnormal operating conditions occur. which emdry
Switching operations in motor's.power circuit are carried out by high power electromagnetic sopbisir:ted c
relays known as contactors. Recently attempts have been made to use thyristor switches. Thyristor
Frrpc Gcd
switches have disadvantages that they cannot provide perfect isolation between the source and inulatiry-A
motor circuit. Consequently, contactors continue to be widely used. Switching operation based logic cmolh
on load's particular position is implemented using limit switches.
In the past sequencing and interlocking operations used to be implemented using low power
electromagnetic relays. Solid state relays have replaced them almost in all applications. For the
l.{ cH(x(
implementation of complicated sequencing and interlocking operations, programmable logic Choice of ro e
factors which are even more important. Therefore, a dc motor may be prefened over ac even
when the ac supply is available and ac motors may be preferred over dc even when the supply
is dc.
r-11=ftUr)=J+*r^# (2.r)
Equation(2.1)isapplicabletovariableinertiadrivessuchasminewinders,reeldrives,
ro, driu"s with constant inertia, (dJldt) = 0. Therefore'
industrial robots.
r=rr*J+ (2.2)
ng quadiant II is known as forward braking. Similarly, operations in quadrant III and IV can be
)nt identified as reverse motoring and braking respectively.
ric For better understanding of the above notations, let us consider operation of a hoist in four
[e quadrants as shown in Fig. 2.3. Directions of motor and load torques, and direction of speed are
at marked by arrows.
ta.
tn nT
-tT
t-.r.
it
m
Counter
6
weight
I uotion
Empty
cage
A hoist consists of a rope wound on a drum coupled to the motor shaft. One end of the rope
is tied to a cage which is used to transport man or material form one level to another level. Other
end of the rope has a counter weight. Weight of the counter weight is chosen to be higher than
the weight of an empty cage but lower than of a fully loaded cage'
Forward direction of motor speed will be one which gives upward motion of the cage' Speed-
torque characteristics of the hoist load are also shown in Fig. 2.3. Though the positive load
torque is opposite in sign to the positive motor torque, according toEq' (2'2), it is convenient to
plot it on the same axes. Load-torque curve drawn in this manner is, in fact, negative of the
actual.
Load torque has been shown to be constant and independqrt of speed. This is nearly true with
a low speed hoist where forces due to friction and winddge can be considered to be negligible
compared to those due to gravity. Gravitational torque does not change itS sign even when the
direction of driving motor is reversed. Load torque line 711 in quadrants I and IV represents
speed-torque characteristic for the loaded hoist. This torque is the diffei'ence of torques due to
loaded hoist and counter weight. The load torque line Tp in quadrants II and III is the speed-
torque characteristic for an empty hoist. This torque is the difference of torques due to counter
weight and qhe empty hoist. Its sign is negative because the weight of a counter weight is always
higher than that of an empty cage.
14 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives
Lzror?^*
Ltrl= |trr'^, (2.4)
From Eqs. (2.3) md (2.4) If loads a
irertia an
J = Jo+ alJl tobe the
(2.s)
the load r
Power at the loads and rnqtor must be the same. If tt'ansmission efficiency of the gears b" ,lr,
then 232 L
Let us cc
Dynamics of Electrical Drives 15
/o ----{
Fig.2.4 Motor load system with loads with rotational and linear motions
Tt=Tto.+ (2.7)
If in additio4to load directly coupled to the motor with inertia Js there are m other'loads with
moment of inertias Jv Jz,. . . , J. and gear teeth ratios of a1' a2,. . . a. then
lfmloadswithtorquesT6T1,,,..,Tt^arecoupledthroughgearswithteethratiosaya2,.-.
am and transmission efficiencies 4y 42, . . . , 4^, in addition to one directly coupled, then
rt=rn.+.++...+ +
belt drive instead of gears, then, neglecting slippage, the equiyalent
(2.e)
transmission system converting rotational motion to linear motion (Fig. 2.a(b)). Let moment of Substit
inertia of the motor and load directly coupled to it be Js, load torque directly coupled to motor
be Tn, and the mass, velocity and force of load with translational motion be M1 ftg), u1 (m/sec)
and F1 (Newtons), respectively.
If the transmission losses are neglected, then kinetic energy due to equivalent inertia must From I
"/
be the same as kinetic energy of various moving parts. Thus
Similarly, power at the motor and load should be the same, thus if efficiency of transmission be
4r
233 U
T1a^= a^.
Tto-
+ Mornenr
motor an
In refr
r,=r,0.
* (#) (2.rr) supply tc
due to m
If, in addition to one load directly coupled to the motor shaft, there are m other loads with At anl
translational motion with velocities u1, u2, . . . um and masses M t, M2, . , . , M^, respectively, then
r = ro. r,(*)' .
",(h)'+ r^(h)' + (2.r2)
' atru
r, =
0r . *(+)
ni\a^1 Q)
Here 41 = 0.9, a1= O.l, Ts l0 N-m,
= 4i= 0.g5, Fr = 1000 x 9.g1 N, u1 = 1.5 m/s and
@E 148.7 rad,/sec.
=
Substiruting in Eq. (2) gives
4=%#+ff(##) =1r753N-m
I
3 Dept Eazy
29 July IQAC
Campus
4
31Juty
5 Aovtsory mceting (9 am.10am) Principa
_;-- _:1lrly___
I
6 --.__':
_Lom-mencement of Class Work S1 :9t: HoD
1{qq__ _ Principa I
7 Schedule of Assignments
3 Aug Senior advisor Dept. Ac.
rse plan, CO_PO
Coo rd i nator
8 r CO evaluation, 4 Aug DAC IQAC
9
t,";;;; 4 Aug
n of at risk students Fa cu lty HoD
10
7 Aug Senior advisor Dept. Ac.
Coordinator
11
7-1,L Aug Fa cu lty Dept. Ac.
bascd on the diag Coordinator, HoD
li_'
12 Class assignment- |
14-18 Aug Facu lty HoD