PLATFORM

EXPRESS equip-
ment hanging
in the derrick
and ready to
go downhole
in Bakersfield,
California, USA.
In this region of
1200-ft [360-m]
wells, reduc-
tions in rig time
and rathole are
cutting logging
costs 20 to 30%.
New measure-
ments and
answer prod-
ucts are lead-
ing to better
detection of
bypassed
pay and more
efficient
steamdrive
strategies.

4
A First Look at
PLATFORM EXPRESS Measurements

For more than 20 years, the triple combo has provided fundamental
formation evaluation in wells worldwide. Now the next generation of
wireline technology has arrived, addressing industrys growing demand
for diverse, high-quality data and greater operational efficiency.

Alison Goligher
Montrouge, France
Bill Scanlan
Bakersfield, California, USA
Eric Standen
Clamart, France
A.S. (Buddy) Wylie
Santa Fe Energy Resources
Bakersfield, California
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to John
Amedick, Wireline & Testing, Buenos Aires, Argentina;
Rob Badry, John Kovacs and Curtis MacFarlane, Wireline
& Testing, Calgary, Alberta, Canada; Ashok Belani,
Charles Currie, Henry Edmundson and Stuart Murchie,
Wireline & Testing, Montrouge, France; Vincent
Belougne, Ollivier Faivre, David Hoyle, Laurent Jammes,
Wireline & Testing, Clamart, France; Mark Bowman,
Phillips Petroleum, Amarillo, Texas, USA; Charles Case,
Darwin Ellis, Charles Flaum, Paul Gerardi and Michael
Kane, Schlumberger-Doll Research, Ridgefield,
Connecticut, USA; John Cunniff, Wireline & Testing,
Midland, Texas; Bill Diggons and Stephen Whittaker,
Schlumberger Oilfield Services, Sugar Land, Texas;
Michael Garding, Wireline & Testing, Liberal, Kansas,
USA; Jim Hemingway and Pete Richter, GeoQuest, Bak-
ersfield, California; John McCarthy and Mark Rixon,
Wireline & Testing, Oildale, California; Bob Mitchell,
Wireline & Testing, Amarillo, Texas; Dwight Peters,
Wireline & Testing, Sugar Land, Texas.
AIT (Array Induction Imager), FMI (Fullbore Formation
MicroImager), Litho-Density, MAXIS Express, MDLT
(Dual Laterolog Tool), MicroSFL and PLATFORM EXPRESS are
marks of Schlumberger.
Low oil prices over the last decade have
forced a steady improvement in the effi-
ciency of oilfield operations. This efficiency
continues to evolve in two waysgradually,
like a river continuously reshaping its
course, and suddenly, like a river overflow-
ing and cutting a new channel that redirects
its course. Every so often, an abrupt jump in 90 ft
[27 m]
efficiency comes from a new technology
that increases productivity. In wireline log-
ging, the latest catalyst of such a leap is the
recently introduced PLATFORM EXPRESS tech-
nologya wireline instrument that
addresses the industrys demand not only for
efficiency, but also for improved reliability,
flexibility and accuracy (previous page ).
The PLATFORM EXPRESS name explains the
technologys most striking departures from
convention. Platform because multiple
functions are integrated into a single pack- 38 ft
age and sensors are interlaced on the same
[12 m]
sonde, rather than assembled as a series of
separate, connectable units. As a result, the
measurement package is less than half the
length of a conventional triple combo
38 ft [12 m] versus 90 ft [27 m]and, at
690 lbm [311 kg], about half the weight
(below and right ). Express because nearly
(continued on page 7)

Specification Triple combo PLATFORM EXPRESS Light is good, short is better. The shorter
length and lighter weight of PLATFORM
Length, ft (m) typically 90 (27) 38 (12) EXPRESS equipment (right) compared to the
1500 (675) 690 (311) conventional triple combo logging string
Weight, lbm (kg)
are made possible by integration of sensors
OD, in. 3 3/8 to 4 1/2 3 3/8 to 4 5/8 and telemetry equipment. Specifications of
this technology allow it to be used in 90%
Temperature rating, F (C) 350 (175) 250 (120)
of operations worldwide.
Pressure rating, psi 20,000 10,000
Max logging speed, ft/hr (m/hr) 800 (540) 3600 (1080)

Summer 1996 5
 Triple Combo vs. PLATFORM EXPRESS Logging Time Triple Combo vs. PLATFORM EXPRESS Rig Time
16
Phillips-Schlumberger Alliance 7 Average lost time
14 Repeat section
6 Calibration
12 Logging time
5 Rig up/down
10 Drill rathole
Hours 4

Hours
8

3
6

2
4

2 1

0 0
Converted to PLATFORM EXPRESS Triple PLATFORM Triple PLATFORM
on 8/15/95 Combo EXPRESS Combo EXPRESS
Land Offshore
Comparison of logging time expenditure before and after initiation of PLATFORM EXPRESS services (left) and rig time comparison of triple
combo versus PLATFORM EXPRESS services averages for land and offshore wells (right). In the Phillips-Schlumberger alliance in the Texas
Panhandle, average time in hole with conventional logging was 9.5 hours and with PLATFORM EXPRESS equipment 3.7 hours, a savings of
5.8 hours in rig time per well. Once the logging tool is on bottom, we know within minutes if were going to set pipe, said Mark Bow-
man, a geologist with Phillips, whereas before, we had another 6 to 8 hours of logging before wed even begin printing the logs. Some
operators have achieved greater time savings by using PLATFORM EXPRESS log quality measurements to justify elimination of routine
repeat sections.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

A sample of PLATFORM EXPRESS presenta-
tions.
Track 1: Conventional track 1 data,
including a water saturation, Sw ,
calculation. Gamma ray backup is used
to find zones that are more radioactive
than normal. Typically, the backup is
scaled 100 to 200 API units when the track
is scaled 0 to 100 units.
Track 2: Calculated micronormal and
microinverse curves, from the microresis-
tivity measurement. Separation (arrows) is
a qualitative permeability indicator since
it occurs in front of mudcake, which accu-
mulates at permeable intervals.
Tracks 3 and 4: AIT Array Induction
Imager logs, comparing 90- and 10-in.
resistivity readings with the 4-ft vertical
resolution 90-in. conductivity reading and
the microresistivity log. Conductivity can
be easier to read when values reach
extremes, and is helpful in making com-
parisons to old logs. Track 4 shows all five
depths of investigation for the induction
log and Rxo with an 18-in. [45-cm] vertical
resolution for easier comparison with
induction measurements. Vertical resolu-
tion of the Rxo measurement can be as
good as 1 in.
Track 5: Real-time resistivity-derived dip
from the PLATFORM EXPRESS laterolog (red)
and FMI Fullbore Formation MicroImager
measurements (black). The two tracks of
densely spaced color stripes are laterolog-
derived images. The first image is the
second derivative of the log curve, in
which color changes indicate bed bound-
aries that are used to compute dip. The
next image is normalized to show bedding.
These images help estimate structural
dip trends.

6 Oilfield Review
 Torture chamber,
all operations take less time (previous page,
Clamart, France.
top). Shorter tool length saves time drilling Bernard Brefort,
rathole and in rigging up and down; new mechanical techni-
technology speeds calibration and doubles cian, securing a
logging speed; faster, more comprehensive wireline tool into a
machine that per-
real-time data processing reduces forms shock testing
turnaround time and provides answers pre- on PLATFORM EXPRESS
viously unobtainable at the wellsite. equipment, prior to
During the initial commercialization of start-up of a test
(top). The blue
PLATFORM EXPRESS, reliability was five times
I-beam moves
that of conventional technology, mainly due repeatedly up and
to shock-resistant designs adapted from log- down, subjecting
ging-while-drilling equipment developed by tool electronics to
Anadrill (right). Greater flexibility is both lit- thousands of 250-g
shocks (bottom).
eral and figurative. Two hinge joints com- These qualification
bined with the shorter 38-ft length allow criteria are similar
more successful logging of higher angle to those used for
holes and provide new opportunities to log logging-while-
the increasing number of short-radius wells. drilling equipment.
(In the bottom
The articulated pad, which is also shorter photo, the top of the
than previous designs, improves sensor shock chamber is
positioning to provide better data in rough open for the photo-
holes. Coupling this new service with the graph, but is nor-
mally closed for
high-efficiency MAXIS Express surface sys- safety and noise
tem provides data in formats that can be abatement.)
configured to diverse marketsfrom the
most cost-sensitive to those demanding the
most comprehensive and accurate informa-
tion (previous page, bottom and below ).
For drillers, flexibility, efficiency and relia-
bility all contribute to higher productivity.
But perhaps the most significant advance-

100%
Vcl 95%

Increasing red
Vcl 65%
AIT signals

Vcl 35%

Vcl 5%
0%

9 10 11 12

Track 6: Lithocolumn display, at 1:1300, a
scale geologists use for correlation. The left
track is a laterolog-derived image that
shows the degree of bedding. Light is low-
resistivity contrast and dark is high. The
right track, in which the right margin of
the track is effective porosity and the
left is bounded by the gamma ray log,
shows lithology.
Track 7: A resistivity invasion profile, 90 in.
from the center of the borehole, in which
red is high resistivity and blue is low.
Summer 1996
Track 8: A laterolog-derived image, in
which light bands are resistive and dark
are conductive. This image is used mainly
for bedding identification and correlation,
but can also be used for dip analysis on a
workstation. The white trace represents the
path followed by the high-resolution pad.
Track 9: Log quality control (LQC) output.
The seven stripes to the left of the induction
log are LQC tracks for resistivity measure-
ments. Each stripe represents a parameter.
The five stripes to the left of the nuclear
track are five parameters for the nuclear log
and accelerometer, including accelerome-
ter, density hardware, neutron porosity
correction, density processing and photo-
electric factor processing checks. A flag
appears in the green tracks if any critical
parameters exceed predetermined values.
Track 10: Rt and mud resistivities from
induction and laterolog measurements,
and invaded zone microresistivity, filtered
at 18 in.
Track 11: Environmentally corrected neu-
tron porosity and a standard-resolution
density porosity. Although not shown here,
the density reading has been computed at
resolutions as good as 2 in. [5 cm].
Track 12: A lithology quicklook at a more
expanded scale than in track 6. Inputs
are density, photoelectric effect and
gamma ray or SP. The left margin is clay
volume. The color scheme (inset) indicates
quartz, dolomite, calcite and anhydrite
values. The points remain fixed and, as
clay content increases, the color tone shifts
toward red.
7
ment is in the measurements and answers
they provide, since this information Tool
improves the geoscientists understanding of acceleration
reservoirs and, ultimately, enhances the
profitability of field developments. With GR
Highly Integrated 24 in.
nearly a year of experience so far, the influ-
Gamma Ray N
ence of new data is yet to be felt fully, but Neutron Sonde 12 to 24 in.
early results give a sense of how this new (HGNS)
information leads to a clearer picture of
reservoir properties. Summarized here are
highlights of the new technology, some b, Pe
common problems addressed by PLATFORM Electronics 2, 8, 18 in.
E XPRESS logs, and a recent case study cartridge
Rxo, Hmc PLATFORM EXPRESS
from California. measurements. The
2, 8, 18 in.
Hinge lower section of the
Better Measurements, New Answers joint string can be an
PLATFORM E XPRESS technology contributes induction- or lat-
new measurements, improved processing erolog-type device,
High-Resolution
depending on bore-
approaches and real-time log quality con- Mechanical
hole mud resistivity
trols. For all three, common features are Sonde
and borehole/for-
greater accuracy, breadth of data and speed mation resistivity
of interpretation. Many computations that contrast. Hinge
Caliper joints above and
formerly took place after some delayon below the High-Res-
the surface at the wellsite after logging, or Hinge olution Mechanical
hours to days later at the log interpretation joint Sonde allow the
centercan now be done downhole in real tool to better nego-
time. We will look first at the measurements tiate rough bore-
holes and improve
themselves. pad contact.
From top to bottom, the platform makes
seven petrophysical measurements: gamma
ray, neutron porosity, bulk density, photo-
electric effect (Pe), flushed zone resistivity High-Resolution AIT Array Induction
(Rxo ), mudcake thickness (Hmc ), also called Rt, Rm
Azimuthal Laterolog Imager Tool
pad standoff, and true resistivity (Rt ) derived Sonde (HALS)
from laterolog or induction imaging mea-
surements (right ).1 Integrated into the pack-
age is a z-axis accelerometer, permitting
real-time speed correction (next page, top ).
This correction for irregular motion is per-
formed on first-generation raw data, rather
than on multisensor data that have been
through one or more processing cycles, HALS AIT
resulting in more accurate and precise real-
time depth matching for all measurements
(next page, bottom ).2 Other measurements
1. Standoff refers to the distance between the pad and Galford JE, Flaum C, Gilchrist WA and Duckett SW:
include caliper, mud temperature and mud formation, regardless of whether this is filled with mud Enhanced Resolution Processing of Compensated
resistivity and, with a special head, down- or mudcake. Standoff usually equals mudcake thick- Neutron Logs, paper SPE 15541, presented at the
ness in permeable formations. 61st SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
hole cable tension. New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, October 5-8, 1986.
2. Belougne V, Faivre O, Jammes L, and Whittaker S:
Except for the gamma ray and neutron Real-Time Speed Correction of Logging Data, Trans- 4. Eyl K, Chapellat H, Chevalier P, Flaum C, Whittaker
measurements, which have standard vertical actions of the 37th SPWLA Annual Logging Sympo- SJ, Jammes L, Becker AJ and Groves J: High-Resolu-
resolutions, other measurements elevate the sium, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, June 16-19, tion Density Logging Using a Three Detector Device,
1996, paper F. paper SPE 28407, presented at the 69th SPE Annual
standards of wireline logging.3 In the density 3. Vertical resolution of the gamma ray and neutron Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans,
measurement, a reengineered pad, addition porosity measurements is 24 in. [60 cm] and for the Louisiana, USA, September 25-28, 1994.
of a third detector and data processing pro- neutron up to 12 in. [30 cm] with enhanced resolu-
tion processing. See:
vide improvements over conventional dual-
Flaum C, Galford JE and Hastings A: Enhanced Verti-
spacing measurements. 4 These improve- cal Resolution Processing of Dual Detector Gamma-
ments yield better compensation for large Gamma Density Logs, The Log Analyst 30, no. 3
(May-June) 1989: 139-149.
standoff (up to 1 in. [2.5 cm]), higher preci-
sion in denser formations and less sensitivity
to barite, which compromises Pe measure-
ments. A shorter measurement pad and

8 Oilfield Review
 PLATFORM EXPRESS
Standard Standard LLS
Gamma Ray 0.2 2.0
Speed-Corrected Speed-Corrected High-Resolution LLS
0 API 125 Gamma Ray 0.2 2.0
Standard LLD

Depth, ft

Depth, ft
0.2 2.0 0 API 125 Speed-Corrected High-Resolution LLD
0.2 2.0
Caliper Standard MicroSFL Caliper
Speed-Corrected High-Resolution RXO
6 in. 16 0.2 ohm-m 2.0 6 in. 16 0.2 ohm-m 2.0

X550 X550

of interest
Zone
X580 X580

Dramatic effect of PLATFORM EXPRESS real-time speed correction (right). In the nonreservoir section of a West Texas well, off-depth log read-
ings were related to sticking. Lack of speed correction can lead to incorrect logs, improper correlation and, possibly, undetected pay.

MDLT Dual Laterolog

5.0 ohm-m 50,000
HALS Standard-Resolution Laterolog
0.5 5000

HCAL HALS High-Resolution Laterolog

8 13 0.05 500
Pad
Invaded Zone Resistivity deg
1:100
0.005 ohm-m 50 -180 180
Real-time resolu-
Depth, ft

tion matched mea-

surements, from the
Middle East. The
standard laterolog
X450
curve appears at
far left and the
highest resolution
PLATFORM EXPRESS
data are presented
on the right. In the
laterolog-type
image track on the
right, light bands
are resistive and
dark bands are
conductive.

X500

Summer 1996 9
articulated arms improve contact with the
formation, which enhances tool response in
rough boreholes (next page, top left and
bottom left ). A new, short-spacing detector
crystal with a shallow depth of investigation
and a high counting rate provides additional
measurements that result in reduced sensi-
tivity to standoff and improved statistics in
hard formations, yielding higher vertical res-
olution (next page, right ). In addition, the
device also gives a rough estimate of mud-
cake density and Pe.
A new microresistivity technology makes
measurementsat three depths of investiga-
tionthat are analyzed to evaluate flushed
zone and mudcake propertiesRxo , Rmc
and standoffovercoming a limitation of
conventional microresistivity sensors, which
can measure resistivity in the flushed zone
or mudcake, but not both (see A New Look
at Microresistivity, below ). Improved focus-
ing of this measurement helps increase Rxo
vertical resolution to 1 in.5 In addition, mud
resistivity, typically taken with a mud cell at
surface and corrected with an estimated
downhole temperature, can now be mea-
sured downhole in real time by the induc-
tion or laterolog component. The multipur-
pose microresistivity sensor on the platform
has reintroduced, and sometimes intro-
duced for the first time, microresistivity
measurements in places where they were
not used routinely, providing new insights
into formation properties (below ).
The induction measurement provides logs
with vertical resolution of 1, 2 and 4 ft, each

Finding elusive sands with the new focused microresistivity log.

Oil In Bakersfield, California, sands often elude detection with
Correlation Resistivity Porosity Res Perm Sat gamma ray and SP. The gamma ray measurement is often mis-
Depth, ft

leading because the arkosic sands are rich in radioactive potas-

sium and, when steamed, become more radioactive as mobile
radionuclides concentrate in them. The SP cannot find sands
because fresh water from steaming changes formation Rw , alter-
ing the static SP deflection as water shifts between fresh and salty.
Historically, fewer than 10% of logging programs in the region
included a microlog or Rxo measurement. Estimation of sand
count relied on other methods, with mixed results. The new
microresistivity log provides a more consistent answer as well as
X900 being available on every service run without additional tools in
the logging program. In the new microresistivity processing (track
labeled Res), Rxo (left curve) and mudcake or standoff (right curve)
are computed. The program then back-calculates micronormal
and microinverse values from the microlog.
In this well, the microresistivity log is also used to calculate net
pay and define shale barriers, which can be interpreted as hori-
X1000 zontal, low-permeability layers that are critical in steam injection
strategy. In addition, the microresistivity log, in combination with
deep-reading resistivity, is also used to distinguish movable from
immovable (heavy) oil. If the deep water-saturation value (Sw )
equals the shallow (Sxo ), then the hydrocarbons are not movable.

X1100

Right: Standoff
Left: Rxo

A New Look at Microresistivity

The new focused microresistivity measurement
differs in four main respects from existing Rxo
measurements: electrodes are mounted on a stiff
pad that is not deformed by the borehole, making
for a more consistent standoff measurement; sur-
vey currents are independently focused in planes
parallel and perpendicular to the tool axis, reduc-
ing sensitivity to borehole geometry; the three
depths of investigation permit solving for mudcake
and formation properties more reliably via inde-
pendent equations of tool response; and sensors
are adjacent to the density sensors, so both mea-
surements sample the same formation volume at
nearly the same time. As a result of these fea-
tures, vertical resolution of raw measurements is
improved to less than 1 in. An Rxo value and esti-
mate of mudcake parameters are obtained through
inversion processing that simultaneously solves
for all the unknown variablesRxo, Rmc and Hmc.1
In this way, positive curve separation is recorded
only when the program computes the presence of
mudcake in front of the pad. Through inversion
processing, raw measurements are corrected for
thick mudcakes. This measurement is insensitive
to thin mudcake and has a depth of investigation
about two thirds that of MicroSFL measurements.
Therefore it is less affected by the noninvaded
zone and gives a truer Rxo value, and hence Sxo.
1. Rmc is not quite an unknown. Its value is fixed by the Rm
value obtained by the PLATFORM EXPRESS induction or
laterolog measurement.
Inversion processing is a simultaneous solution for a
number of unknowns with constraints defined by the
physics of the measurements. In the case of the new
microresistivity log, there are three measurements of
microresistivity. Rather than run each through a series of
chart corrections, which leads to systematic, additive
errors, the inversion program minimizes error on each
output. This results in a solution that not only is more
accurate, but also has a quantifiable precision.

10 Oilfield Review
 2-in. PEF
Caliper 1 11

Depth, ft
6 in. 16 Neutron Porosity
0.6 g/cm3 0
Hinge joint
Gamma Ray
2-in. Density
0 API 150 1.7 2.7
X230

Force applied
at center of
skid

Hinge joint

X240
Log-core compari-
son, Bakersfield,
California. In this
comparison, the
Improving contact in rough boreholes. high-resolution
Hinge joints improve density-Rxo pad con- density confirms
tact with the borehole wall and formation that 2-in. streaks
face, especially in rugose hole and seen on the microre-
washouts. Better pad contact improves sistivity log are
measurement accuracy and interpretation limey, which can
in difficult boreholes. act as vertical per-
meability barriers.
Locating these
PLATFORM EXPRESS Formation Density streaks helps the
operator identify
Litho-Density RHOB where steam break-
through, which can
Caliper X250 kill a producing
well, will not occur
and where produc-
ers can therefore be
perforated closer to
RHOB > NPOR the water leg. Limey
streaks visible in the
core at X234 ft and
X242 ft correspond
to density peaks at
those intervals.

5. Eisenmann P, Gounot M-T, Juchereau B, Trouiller J-C

and Whittaker SJ: Improved Rxo Measurements
Through Semi-Active Focusing, paper SPE 28437,
Washout presented at the 69th SPE Annual Technical Confer-
ence and Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA,
September 25-28, 1994.

Improved density measurement in rough

hole. The conventional and new three-
detector density measurements track
together in smooth hole, but the shorter,
better articulated pad of the new measure-
ment gives superior results where the
caliper indicates washouts (arrow). The
PLATFORM EXPRESS measurement also compen-
sates for standoff of up to 1 in. Shown here is
the standard-resolution measurement.

Summer 1996 11
 HCAL Log Quality Control
High-Resolution
7 in. 12
Shallow Resistivity
Since the dawn of well logging, the repeat
CORPOL Dips All
Hole AZ run has provided proof of satisfactory tool
0 deg 90 2 ohm-m 2000 function. Now, PLATFORM EXPRESS log quality
Pad control (LQC) procedures are giving an
1A Z
High-Resolution increasing number of operators confidence
DEVI Deep Resistivity
-1 9 FMI Dips All to log without the time-honored repeat run
1:1200 0 deg 90 2 ohm-m 2000 and gain significant time savings and other
operational efficiencies.
Depth, ft Real-time log quality indicators allow
monitoring of two categories of LQC data:
hardware performance parameters, which
indicate tool function; and data validity
parameters, which are geared to indicate
environmental problems that may skew
X200
readings. Functions are checked at every
sampling interval, typically 6 in. [15 cm] or
less. When any value falls outside a prede-
fined limit, a solid square appears in the
LQC tracks (next page, top ). At the end of
the log, an LQC summary reports the per-
centage of the logged interval with LQC
values outside the defined limits. This sum-
X400 mary provides a quick indicator of the
degree of confidence in overall log quality,
and the flags show whether significant
problems arose in intervals critical enough
to warrant a repeat run. Not usually dis-
played on the logs, but available to the field
A PLATFORM EXPRESS first: Real-time resistivity-derived dip, from West Texas, USA. This
engineer, are diagnostics that zero in on the
structural dip presentation compares PLATFORM EXPRESS laterolog and FMI measurements. specific failure. Five variables each are
Track 2 shows good agreement in dips derived from the two techniques. Changes in dip measured for nuclear and electrical mea-
azimuth and magnitude at X200 and X230 ft are probably associated with faults or surementstwo hardware parameters,
unconformities. The laterolog-derived image in track 3 is the second derivative of the log three for data validity.
curve. Color changes here correspond to inflection points on the log curve, which indi-
cate bed boundaries and are used to compute dip. The laterolog-derived image in track In the data validity category, one example
4 is normalized to show bedding. Taken together, these two tracks help detect the struc- is the quality parameters for Pe measure-
tural dip trend. ments. The Pe measurement is sensitive to
barite, and up to a point can be corrected
with depths of investigation of 10, 20, 30, New tool physics and tool design have for the influence of barite. But when the
60 and 90 in.6 In addition, an integrated led to better environmental corrections correction exceeds a certain value, the flag
mud resistivity measurement allows for made in real time. For example, a new appears, signaling data are of limited confi-
accurate, real-time environmental correc- measurement of standoff in the microresis-
tions to be made.7 tivity and density logs allows for improved 6. Barber T, Orban A, Hazen G, Long T, Schlein R,
The azimuthal laterolog combines a dual environmental corrections and log quality Alderman S and Seydoux J: A Multiarray Induction
Tool Optimized for Efficient Wellsite Operation,
laterolog array for standard deep- and shal- control. 9 In addition, measurements of paper SPE 30583, presented at the 70th SPE Annual
low-resistivity measurements with an mudcake Pe and bulk density permit calcu- Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas,
USA, October 22-25, 1995.
azimuthal array of electrodes that makes deep lation of an environmentally corrected for-
7. Barber TD and Rosthal RA: Using a Multiarray
and shallow resistivity measurements around mation Pe for better response in bad hole Induction Tool to Achieve High-Resolution Logs with
the borehole with 8- or 16-in. [40-cm] verti- conditions (next page, bottom left ). Real- Minimum Environmental Effects, paper SPE 22725,
cal resolution.8 The new azimuthal readings time environmental corrections to the den- presented at the 66th SPE Annual Technical Confer-
ence and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA, October
are especially helpful for interpreting hori- sity log, using a temperature log, are prov- 6-9, 1991.
zontal well logs and invasion profiles, evalu- ing valuable in steamflood regions (next 8. Smits JW, Benimeli D, Dubourg I, Faivre O, Hoyle D,
ating fractures and other formation hetero- page, bottom right ). Temperature-corrected Tourillon V, Trouiller J-C and Anderson BI: High Res-
olution From a New Laterolog with Azimuthal Imag-
geneities, and for estimating both formation density and neutron logs can more reliably ing, paper SPE 30584, presented at the 70th SPE
dip and resistivity of dipping beds (above ). distinguish steam breakthrough from zones Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas,
Like the induction sensor, the laterolog also that are hot, but may still contain Texas, USA, October 22-25, 1995.
9. Eyl K et al, reference 4.
measures mud resistivity in real time and producible oil. Finally, measurements of
downhole. downhole temperature, Rm and calipers
allow for real-time correction with mea-
sured, rather than estimated or derived,
parameters of the borehole environment
(page 15, left ).

12 Oilfield Review
 Resistivity Track
HAIT array (1-2) Nuclear Track
HAIT hardware HAIT array (3-4) Neutron porosity
RXO processing HAIT array (5-6) Density detector Density computation
MCFL hardware HAIT array (7-8) Accelerometer Pe computation
4350

AIT borehole/

Depth, ft
formation
digital ratio

HGNS
deviation

AIT signals
Caliper Density
standoff

Gamma
ray Resistivity
standoff

4400

Tool sticking here... ...probably related to this accelerometer flag

Interpretation of PLATFORM EXPRESS log quality measurements, which are presented as green stripes. In some provinces, the completeness
of LQC data has given operators the confidence to log many wells without repeat runs. In the density and resistivity standoff curves (left
track, right margin), if a threshold value is reached, a flag appears, indicating several causesmud is too fresh for microresistivity mea-
surements, barite is present in the mud or the density tool has been miscalibrated.

RXOZ Oil
2 200 Resistivity Porosity Res Perm Sat
HMNO
AIT-H10
HMIN 2 200
Bit Size ohm-m AIT-H20 HDRA
mm 0 20 kg/m3
125 375 2 200 -50 450
HCAL AIT-H30 PEF
HMNO
125 mm 375 2 200 0 10
ohm-m
Gamma Ray 0 20 AIT-H60 DPHZ
0 API 150 2 200 0.6 m3/m3 0
SP 1:240 AIT-H90 NPOR
-80 mV 20 m 2 ohm-m 200 0.6 m3/m3 0
Density-
neutron
crossover

X40

Steam breakthrough or just a hot tamale?

In the steamflooded fields of Bakersfield,
X50
California, a density-neutron crossover is
often associated with the high temperature
of steam breakthrough. However, crossover
is not always a reliable indicator of break-
through. Conventional logs may mistake a
zone adjacent to steam for a zone where
steam has broken through. PLATFORM EXPRESS
density-neutron logs can be temperature-
X60 corrected in real time to show crossover
Bad hole, good logs. Depth-matched and speed-corrected PLATFORM EXPRESS logs in this only in zones with breakthrough. In wells
Canadian well react vigorously to calcitic and shaly laminations, giving the operator a of the Midway-Sunset field, use of this
clearer understanding of the distribution of shale laminae and shale clasts, which is technique has yielded an additional 50 ft
important in steam-injection strategy. Even the large breakout at X46 m does not of pay, which otherwise would have been
dramatically distort density or Pe readings. Improved density response derives from plugged. The technique relies on a temper-
tool articulation and a smaller pad. ature sensor that has a four-fold improve-
ment in response time compared to previ-
ous technology.
Summer 1996 13
 AIT-H10 in. AIT-H10 in. AIT-H10 in.
Gamma Ray AIT-H20 in. AIT-H20 in. AIT-H20 in.
50 API 200
Bit Size AIT-H30 in. AIT-H30 in. AIT-H30 in.
Depth, ft
6 in. 16
Caliper
AIT-H60 in. AIT-H60 in. AIT-H60 in.
6 in. 16
SP AIT-H90 in. AIT-H90 in. AIT-H90 in.
-100 mV 0 0.2 ohm-m 200 0.2 ohm-m 200 0.2 ohm-m
X470
X490
Resistivity signatures of tricky sands in the San Joaquin Valley. The PLATFORM EXPRESS
induction log can be presented at three vertical resolutions, from left, 1, 2 and 4 ft.
The 4-ft scale can be useful for comparison with older logs, and shows how high tempera-
turethis interval measures 200F [93C]affects resistivity readings. Between X472 and
X474 ft, the small bump on the 4-ft log appears to be shale. At the 1-ft scale, however, it
shows a 3-ft sand with potential pay, with a high gamma ray reading due to radioactive
elements concentrated in the formation from steaming. Below X480 ft, the 1-ft log reveals
laminated sands that appear as a coarsening upward sequence.
dence. For resistivity measurements, LQC barrels/day [7.9 m 3 /d]. Santa Fe Energy
diagnostics may indicate that the tool is Resources, which produces more than
working fine, but that environmental condi- 48,000 BOPD [635 m3/d] from three main
tions, for example, may be responsible for fields in the area, faces several technical
an aberrant reading. This would typically be challenges.
the case for the shallow-reading devices in A major challenge is identifying oil left
washed-out zones, where the borehole sig- behind after steam injection, when conven-
nal would be larger than the formation sig- tional logs sometimes present ambiguous
nal. In the realm of hardware LQC, a flag interpretations. In a steamed zone, the den-
will indicate, for instance, whether a density sity-neutron log curves may cross over
detector voltage is out of tolerance. because the tools read the steam, a light
fraction of hydrocarbons released from the
Case Study: Finding Bypassed Pay heat, or gases from in-situ combustion of
in Bakersfield hydrocarbons. The gamma ray log reads
Tight margins are a way of life in the Mid- high because steaming causes migration
way-Sunset field of southern California, in and concentration of radionuclides. High
one of the oldest, most productive basins in temperature lowers Rw , reducing apparent
the lower 48 states. Heavy oil (10 to 15 true resistivitysometimes even in the pres-
API) lies as shallow as a few hundred feet, ence of hydrocarbons (above ). The chal-
but production usually requires costly lenge is finding oil that eludes detection
steamflooding. A typical well might produce conventionally.
20 to 30 barrels of oil per day (BOPD) [3.2 A critical step in addressing this problem is
to 4.8 m3/d] for several decades, with an correcting logsin this case, the neutron,
exceptional producer reaching 50 but sometimes also the Rwfor the high
temperature. For the special needs of this
field, the PLATFORM EXPRESS system was fitted
with a new contact temperature sensor,
which measures temperature of the forma-
14
tion rather than the mud. It responds four
times faster than previous technologies,
enabling Santa Fe Energy to acquire a high-
resolution temperature measurement for a
temperature-corrected neutron log (next
page, left ). A better fix on porosity yields a
more accurate water saturation (S w ) . A
quicklook log with customized a, m and n
200 values, and temperature-corrected neutron
and Rw values goes into a real-time compu-
tation of saturation.10 With this log, casing
decisions that used to take hours can now
be made in minutes.
Better understanding of desaturation yields
other dividends. It leads to more effective
steaming strategies, such as better identifica-
tion of thief zones or intervals receiving
insufficient steam. In addition, it improves
completion strategies, like leaving slotted
pipe in zones previously thought to be
depleted of hydrocarbons, and which were
formerly completed with blank pipe.
In diatomite formations of Californias San
Joaquin Valley, PLATFORM EXPRESS measure-
ments have shed new light on possible pro-
duction mechanisms. These diatomites are
massive, low-permeability formations that
must be hydraulically fractured. Electrical
imaging logs sometimes revealed high-resis-
tivity streaks, which were not well under-
stood. When PLATFORM EXPRESS microresistiv-
ity and Rxo measurements were first run, the
microresistivity reported mudcakenot pre-
viously observedand the R xo showed
unusual spikes (next page, right ). To look for
possible causes, the FMI Fullbore Formation
MicroImager tool was run, which revealed
mudcake and Rxo spikes in front of the high-
resistivity streaks, suggesting that they are
fractured zones. The PLATFORM EXPRESS den-
sity measurement, presented with a 2-in.
vertical resolutionthe highest axial resolu-
tion possible for a density measurement
indicated that the streaks are possibly cherty.
This adds one more piece to the oil origins
and distribution puzzle.
Santa Fe Energy has also ceased running
repeat sections, due mainly to the combina-
tion of PLATFORM EXPRESS log quality data and
better tool reliability. The log quality display
provides enough information about tool
function and wellbore conditions to confirm
10. Exponents m and n in the Archie formula relate oil
saturation in porous rock to the resistivity of the fully
water-saturated rock. The constants a and m relate
the measured resistivity of a fully saturated porous
medium to the water resistivity. Both constants are
related to the nature of the connection between pore
spaces; a , often taken as 1, is called the cementation
factor, and m , the porosity exponent, reflects the tor-
tuosity of the current flow through the rock pores.
The saturation exponent, n , often taken as 2, is
related to the wettability of the rock surface.
Oilfield Review
 Std. Resolution Density
0.6
Density Porosity 0 g/cm3
1 3
Temp. Converted TNPH RXO
0.6 vol/vol 0 Very High Resolution
Formation Pe 1 ohm-m 1000
-1 9 HMNO
Horizontal Scale 1:6
HILT Porosity Crossplot
p.u. HMIN Azimuth Scale
60 0
Density ohm-m 0 120 240 360
Standoff 0 20
Crossover FMI. FUN [A860948]
1:60
MicroLog Resistivity ft
Standoff Zone of Interest
Gamma Ray AIT-H RT
50 API 200 Density SW
Standoff 1 0 TNPH Temp. Correction
HCAL in. AIT-H90 in. 905
2 0 AIT-H
6 in. 16
Resistivity Water Env. Corr. Thermal
SP Standoff Microresistivity Saturation Neutron Porosity
-100 mV 0 2 in. 0 0.2 ohm-m 2000 0.6 vol/vol 0

X350

910
Depth, ft

X380

915

Water saturation, with and without heatstroke. The PLATFORM EXPRESS water saturation A new view of possible production mecha-
display (second track from right) shows a real-time Sw curve corrected for the effect of nisms in San Joaquin Valley diatomites. An
temperature on the neutron input. In the right track, the corrected neutron (left margin of FMI log reveals high-resistivity streaks that
the green area) is offset from the uncorrected by up to about one division (6 p.u.). are shown to be permeable by the PLATFORM
EXPRESS microresistivity log (blue curve), and
to have the high grain-density signature of
measurement validity without repeat runs. Where It Leads chert by the 2-in. vertical resolution density
Lost time due to hardware failure is With less than one year of commercial ser- log (purple curve).
approaching 300 jobs per lost-time failure, vice, most operators are still in the hand-
nearly a ten-fold improvement over conven- shake stage, getting to know P LATFORM The immediate and most obvious rewards
tional technology. Given Santa Fes annual EXPRESS technology. For some, a significant are operational efficiencies. In the petro-
300-well logging program, eliminating step is resolution-matching new logs to physical realm, deeper, sharper reading and
repeat logs and reducing lost-time failures older logs for easier comparison, and adapt- more robust measurements are showing
translates into significant savings. Santa Fe ing data bases to the new mnemonics. For details sometimes not seen before, whose
estimates that the time savings allows more many, the easy availability of more compre- full significance will unfold with the
wells to be put on line, and the improved hensive wellsite answers is raising questions expanding library of PLATFORM EXPRESS logs
petrophysics provides better characteriza- about long-standing formation evaluation and with the growth of interpretation tech-
tion of desaturated zones. Together, these practices. At first we thought: We don't niques to get the most from them. JMK
benefits are expected to translate into an need microresistivity, said A.S. (Buddy)
increase in production of more than 22,000 Wylie at Santa Fe Resources, but we found
barrels [3180 m3] per year. that it could give us good additional value at
only an incrementally higher price.

Summer 1996 15
 Simulation Throughout
the Life of a Reservoir

Gordon Adamson Simulation is one of the most powerful tools for guiding reservoir
Reservoir Management Ltd.
Aberdeen, Scotland management decisions. From planning early production wells and

designing surface facilities to diagnosing problems with enhanced

Martin Crick
Texaco Ltd.
London, England
Brian Gane
British Petroleum
Aberdeen, Scotland
Omer Gurpinar
Denver, Colorado, USA
Jim Hardiman
Henley on Thames, England
Dave Ponting
Abingdon, England
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Bob
Archer, Chip Corbett, Ivor Ellul, Roger Goodan and Jim
Honefenger, GeoQuest, Houston, Texas, USA; Randy
Archibald, GeoQuest Reservoir Technologies, Henley on
Thames, England; Ian Beck, GeoQuest Reservoir Tech-
nologies, Abingdon, England; George Besserer,
PanCanadian Petroleum Limited, Calgary, Alberta,
Canada; Kunal Dutta-Roy, Simulation Sciences Inc.,
Brea, California, USA; and Sharon Wells, GeoQuest
Reservoir Technologies, Denver, Colorado.
ECLIPSE, FloGrid, GRID, Open-ECLIPSE, PVT and
RTView are marks of Schlumberger. NETOPT and
PIPEPHASE are marks of Simulation Sciences Inc.
1. Peaceman DW: A Personal Retrospection of Reser-
voir Simulation, Proceedings of the First and Second
International Forum on Reservoir Simulation, Alpbach,
Austria, September 12-16, 1988 and September 4-8,
1989.
2. Wycoff RD, Botset HG and Muskat M: The Mechan-
ics of Porous Flow Applied to Water-flooding Prob-
lems, Transactions of the AIME 103 (1933): 219-249.
Muskat M and Wyckoff RD: An Approximate Theory
of Water-Coning in Oil Production, Transactions of
the AIME 114 (1935): 144-163.
3. Darcys law states that fluid flow velocity is propor-
tional to pressure gradient and permeability, and
inversely proportional to viscosity.
4. Coats KH: Use and Misuse of Reservoir Simulation
Models, SPE Reprint Series No. 11 Numerical Simu-
lation. Dallas, Texas, USA: Society of Petroleum Engi-
neers (1973): 183-190.
recovery techniques, reservoir simulators allow engineers to
predict and visualize fluid flow more efficiently than ever before.
Reservoir simulators were first built as diag-
nostic tools for understanding reservoirs that
surprised engineers or misbehaved after
years of production. The earliest simulators
were physical models, such as sandboxes
with clear glass sides for viewing fluid flow,
and analog devices that modeled fluid flow
with electrical current flow.1 These models,
first documented in the 1930s, were con-
structed by researchers hoping to under-
stand water coning and breakthrough in
homogeneous reservoirs that were undergo-
ing waterflood.2
Some things havent changed since the
1930s. Todays reservoir simulators generally
solve the same equations studied 60 years
agomaterial balance and Darcys law.3
But other aspects of simulation have
changed dramatically. With the advent of
digital computers in the 1960s, reservoir
modeling advanced from tanks filled with
sand or electrolytes to numerical simulators.
In numerical simulators, the reservoir is rep-
resented by a series of interconnected
blocks, and the flow between blocks is
solved numerically. In the early days, com-
puters were small and had little memory,
limiting the number of blocks that could be
used. This required simplification of the
reservoir model and allowed simulation to
proceed with a relatively small amount of
input data.
As computer power increased, engineers
created bigger, more geologically realistic
models requiring much greater data input.
This demand has been met by the creation
of increasingly complex and efficient simu-
lation programs coupled with user-friendly
data preparation and result-analysis pack-
ages. Today, desktop computers may have
5000 times the memory and run about 200
times faster than early supercomputers.
However, the most significant gain has not
been in absolute speed, but speed at a mod-
erate price. Computational efficiency has
reached a stage that allows powerful simula-
tors to be run frequently.
Numerical simulation has become a reser-
voir management tool for all stages in the life
of the reservoir. No longer just for comparing
performance of reservoirs under different
production schemes or trouble-shooting
when recovery methods come under
scrutiny, simulations are also run when plan-
ning field development or designing mea-
surement campaigns. In the last 10 years,
with the development of computer-aided
geological and geostatistical modeling, reser-
voir simulators now help to test the validity
of the reservoir models themselves. And sim-
ulation results are increasingly used to guide
decisions on investing in the construction or
overhaul of expensive surface facilities.
Motivation for Simulation
A numerical simulator containing the right
information and in the hands of a skilled
engineer can imitate the behavior of a reser-
voir. A simulator can predict production
under current operating conditions, or the
reaction of the reservoir to changes in con-
ditions, such as increasing production rate;
production from more or different wells;
response to injection of water, steam, acid

16 Oilfield Review
 Core plugs Whole cores Well logs Well testing or foam; the effect of subsidence; and pro-
duction from horizontal wells of different
lengths and orientations.
Reservoir simulation can be performed by
oil company reservoir engineers or by engi-
neering consultant contractors. Some con-
tractors specialize in engineering consulting,
Borehole geophysics Outcrop studies 3D Seismic data while others offer a full range of oilfield ser-
vices. In either case, the simulator is a tool
that allows the engineer to answer questions
and offer recommendations for improving
operating practice.
To make simulation worthwhile, there must
be a well-posed question of economic
importance: Where should wells be located
to maximize incremental recovery per dollar
of additional investment? How many wells
Large-scale structure Geological expertise are required to produce enough gas to meet
a contractual deliverability schedule? Should
oil be recovered by natural depletion or
water injection? What is the optimum length
of a horizontal well? Is carbon dioxide [CO2]
injection feasible? Should we keep this reser-
voir alive? As observed by K.H. Coats while
at the University of Texas at Austin, USA,
The complexity of the questions being
Small-scale structure 1st generation geomodel asked, and the amount and reliability of the
data available, must determine the sophisti-
cation of the system to be used.4 In all
cases, a simulation study should result in
recommendations for intervention. This may
include a new strategy for data acquisition,
or an infill drilling plan with the number,
location and direction of wells and a com-
pletion strategy for each well.

How a Simulator Works

Simulation model Static reservoir model The function of reservoir simulation is to
Up-gridding

Production
Calibration

help engineers understand the production-

pressure behavior of a reservoir and conse-
quently predict production rates as a func-
tion of time. The future production
schedule, when expressed in terms of rev-
enues and compared with costs and invest-
ments, helps managers determine both eco-
nomically recoverable reserves and the limit
Surface network

of profitable production.
Execution model
Risk analysis

Once the goal of simulation is determined,

the next step is to describe the reservoir in
terms of the volume of oil or gas in place,
input

the amount that is recoverable and the rate

at which it will be recovered. To estimate
recoverable reserves, a model of the reser-
voir framework, including faults and layers
and their associated properties, must be
constructed. This so-called static model is
created through the combined efforts of
Creating models for input to reservoir simulators. The first-generation geomodel is cre- geologists, geophysicists, petrophysicists and
ated through the combined efforts of geologists, geophysicists, petrophysicists and reservoir engineers (left ). Much of the multi-
reservoir engineers. Reservoir properties are then upscaled to produce the static reser-
voir model. Optimizing the grid and calibrating with dynamic data yield the simulation
billion-dollar business of oilfield services is
model. Finally, input from surface facilities analysis and risk calculations results in an centered on obtaining information that
execution model that can guide reservoir management decisions.

Summer 1996 17
eventually feeds reservoir simulators, lead- Block-Centered Geometry
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
ing to better reservoir development and 5800 Block-centered
management decisions.5 and corner-point
The simulator itself computes fluid flow geometries. Block-
6200
throughout the reservoir. The principles centered geometry
underlying simulation are simple. First, the features flat-
topped rectangular
fundamental fluid-flow equations are 6600
blocks that match
expressed in partial differential form for the mathematical
each fluid phase present. These partial dif- 7000
models behind the
ferential equations are obtained from the simulator. Corner-
point geometry
conventional equations describing reservoir modifies the recti-
7400
fluid behavior, such as the continuity equa- linear grid so that
tion, the equation of flow and the equation it conforms to
of state. The continuity equation expresses important reservoir
the conservation of mass. For most reser- boundaries. Three-
dimensional grids
voirs, the equation of flow is Darcys law. are constructed
For high rates of flow, such as in gas reser- Corner-Point Geometry from a 2D grid by
voirs, Darcys law equations are modified to 0 2000 4000 6000 8000
laying it on the top
include turbulence terms. The equation of 5800 surface of the
reservoir and pro-
state describes the pressure-volume or pres- jecting the grid
sure-density relationship of the various flu- 6200 vertically or along
ids present. For each phase, the three equa- fault planes onto
tions are then combined into a single partial lower layers.
6600
differential equation. Next, these partial dif-
ferential equations are written in finite-dif-
ference form, in which the reservoir volume 7000

is treated as a numbered collection of

blocks and the reservoir production period 7400
is divided into a number of time steps.
Mathematically speaking, the problem is
discretized in both space and time.
Examples of simulators that solve this
problem under a variety of conditions are
found in the ECLIPSE family of simulators.
These simulators fall into two main cate-
gories. In the first category are three-phase
black-oil simulators, for reservoirs compris- Local Grid Refinement
ing water, gas and oil. The gas may move Local grid refine-
into or out of solution with the oil. The sec- ment (LGR). Local
ond category contains compositional and grid refinement
allows engineers to
thermal simulators, for reservoirs requiring describe selected
more detailed description of fluid composi- regions of the reser-
tion. A compositional description could voir in extra detail.
encompass the amounts and properties of Radial refined grids
hexanes, pentanes, butanes, benzenes, are often used
around wellbores to
asphaltenes and other hydrocarbon compo- examine coning or
nents, and might be used when the fluid other phenomena
composition changes during the life of the resulting from rapid
reservoir. A thermal simulator would be variation in proper-
ties away from the
advised if changes in temperatureeither well. Refined grids
with location or with timemodified the are also one way to
fluid composition of the reservoir. Such a treat property varia-
description could come into play in the case tions near faults.
of steam injection, or water injection into a
deep, hot reservoir.

18 Oilfield Review
 These and all other commercial reservoir
simulators envision a reservoir divided into
a number of individual blocks, called grid
blocks. Each block corresponds to a volume
in the reservoir, and must contain rock and
fluid properties representative of the reser-
voir at that location. The simulator models
the flow of mobile fluid through the walls of
the blocks by solving the fluid-flow equa-
tions at each block face. Parameters
required for the solution include permeabil-
ity, layer thickness, porosity, fluid content,
elevation and pressure. The fluids are
assigned a viscosity, compressibility, solu-
tion gas/oil ratio and density. The rock is
assigned a value for compressibility, capil-
lary pressure and a relative permeability
relationship.
Creating the grid and assigning properties
to each grid block are time-consuming tasks.
The framework of the reservoir, including its
structure and depth, its layer boundaries and
fault positions and throws, is obtained from
seismic and well log data. The well-bred grid
respects the framework geometry as much as
possible. Traditionally, reservoir simulation
grid blocks are rectilinear with flat, horizon-
tal tops in an arrangement called block-cen-
tered geometry (previous page, top). This
configuration ensures that the grids remain
orthogonal and exactly match the mathemat-
ical models used in the simulators.
However, this approach does not easily
represent structural and stratigraphic com-
plexities such as nonvertical faults, pin-
chouts or erosional surfaces using purely
rectangular blocks. The 1983 introduction
of corner-point geometry in the ECLIPSE
simulator overcame these problems. In a
corner-point grid, the corners need not be
orthogonal. In modeling a faulted reservoir,
for example, engineers have the flexibility to
choose between an orthogonal areal grid
with the fault positions projected onto the
grid or a flexible grid to exactly honor the
positions of important faults. Three-dimen-
sional (3D) grids are constructed from an
areal, or 2D, grid by laying it on the top sur-
face of the reservoir and projecting it verti-
cally or along fault planes onto lower layers.
Engineers requirements for more detail in
the model, particularly to examine coning
and near-wellbore effects, has led to the
concept of local grid refinement (LGR) (pre-
vious page, bottom ). This allows parts of the
model to be represented by a large number
of small grid blocks or by implanting radial
Summer 1996
grids around wells in a larger Cartesian
grid. 6 Locally refined grids also capture
extra detail in other areas where reservoir
properties vary rapidly with distance, such
as near faults. And LGR, combined with grid
coarsening outside the region of interest,
allows engineers to retain fine-scale prop-
erty variation without surpassing computer
space limitations. The interactive GRID pro-
gram was designed to help construct the
complex reservoir grid efficiently (see
Developments in Gridding, page 21 ).
Once the grid has been constructed, the
next step is to assign rock and fluid proper-
ties from the reservoir framework model to
each grid block. Populating the grid with
properties is another time-consuming and
difficult task. Each grid block, typically a
few hundred square meters areally by tens
of meters thick, has to be assigned a single
value for each of the reservoir properties,
including fluid viscosity, relative permeabil-
ity, saturation, pressure, permeability, poros-
ity and net-to-gross ratio. 7 Log measure-
ments made in wells yield high-density
data, typically every 6 in. [15 cm], but pro-
vide little information between wells. Data
from cores may provide high-density
ground truth, but these represent perhaps
one part in 5 billion of the volume of the
reservoir. Surface seismic reflections cover
the reservoir volume and more, but do not
translate directly into the desired rock and
fluid properties. How are these disparate
data sets merged?
Two processes are required: extrapolating
the well data into the interwell reservoir vol-
ume, then upscaling the fine-scale data to
the scale of a simulation grid block. Tradi-
tionally log or core data were upscaled, or
averaged, over lithological units at the wells.
Then these data were interpolated and
extrapolated through the reservoir and maps
produced for each layerformerly a hand-
drafting exercise by geologists. The maps
would be passed to the reservoir engineer
who would then generate grids, run prelimi-
nary simulations on a series of grid sizes,
and attempt further upscaling based on the
reservoir flow characteristics.
In recent years, the process has been
reversed. The current trend is to use com-
puter programs to build 3D geological mod-
els bounded by seismic data, and to popu-
late the models using geostatistical or
deterministic methods to distribute log and
core data.8
Scaling core and log properties up to grid-
block scales is still a challenging task. Some
properties, such as porosity, are considered
simple to upscale, following an arithmetic
averaging law. Others, such as permeability,
are more difficult to average. And relative
permeabilitiesdifferent permeabilities for
different fluid phasesremain the most dif-
ficult problem in upscaling. There is no uni-
versally accepted method for upscaling, and
it is an area of active research.9
After the model has been finalized, the
simulator requires boundary conditions to
establish the initial conditions for fluid
behavior at the beginning of the simulation.
Then, for a given time later, known as the
time step, the simulator calculates new pres-
sures and saturation distributions that indi-
cate the flow rates for each of the mobile
phases. This process is repeated for a num-
ber of time steps, and in this manner both
flow rates and pressure histories are calcu-
lated for each pointespecially the points
corresponding to wellsin the system.
But even with the best possible model,
uncertainty remains. One of the biggest jobs
5. For specific examples: Bunn G, Cao Minh C, Roesten-
burg J and Wittman M: Indonesias Jene Field: A
Reservoir Simulation Case Study, Oilfield Review 1,
no. 2 (July 1989): 4-14.
Briggs P, Corrigan T, Fetkovich M, Gouilloud M, Lo
Tien-when, Paulsson B, Saleri N, Warrender J and
Weber K: Trends in Reservoir Management,Oilfield
Review 4, no. 1 (January 1992): 8-24.
Corbett P, Corvi P, Ehlig-Economides C, Gurillot D,
Haldorsen H, Heffer K, Hewitt T, King P, Le Nir I,
Lewis J, Montadert L, Pickup G, Ravenne C, Ringrose
P, Ronen S, Schultz P, Tyson S and Verly G: Reservoir
Characterization Using Expert Knowledge, Data and
Statistics,Oilfield Review 4, no. 1 (January 1992):
25-39.
Al-Rabah AK, Bansal PP, Breitenback EA, Hallenbeck
LD, Meehan DN, Saleri NG and Wittman M: Explor-
ing the Role of Reservoir Simulation, Oilfield Review
2, no. 2 (April 1990): 18-30.
6. For more on local grid refinement: Heinemann ZE
and von Hantelmann G: Using Local Grid Refine-
ment in a Multiple-Application Reservoir Simulator,
paper SPE 12255, presented at the Reservoir Simula-
tion Symposium, San Francisco, California, USA,
November 15-18, 1983.
Forsyth PA and Sammon PH: Local Mesh Refinement
and Modelling for Faults and Pinchouts, paper SPE
13524, presented at the Reservoir Simulation Sympo-
sium, Dallas, Texas, USA, February 10-13, 1985.
7. Net-to-gross ratio, sometimes called just net to gross
(NTG), is the ratio of the thickness of pay to the total
thickness of the reservoir interval.
8. For examples of the technique: Schultz PS, Ronen S,
Hattori M, Mantran P and Corbett C: Seismic-Guided
Estimation of Log Properties, The Leading Edge 13,
no. 7 (July 1994): 770-776.
Caamano E, Corbett C, Dickerman K, Douglas D, Gir
R, Martono D, Mathieu G, Nicholson B, Novias K,
Padmono J, Schultz P, Suroso S, Thornton M and Yan
Z: Integrated Reservoir Interpretation, Oilfield
Review 6, no. 3 (July 1994): 50-64.
9. Thibeau S, Barker JW and Souillard P: Dynamical
Upscaling Techniques Applied to Compositional
Flows, paper SPE 29128, presented at the 13th SPE
Symposium on Reservoir Simulation, San Antonio,
Texas, USA, February 12-15, 1995.
19

RTView 96A
6250.13
Pressure, psi
Visualizing the reservoir model in 3D. Visualization is a reliable means of checking
reservoir models before input to a simulator. Inconsistencies in model parameters
may be flagged and corrected. After simulation, results may also be viewed, allowing
faster evaluation of comparative simulation runs and providing insight into recovery
behavior. In this example reservoir pressure is color-coded to show regions of high
and low pressure.
of a simulator is to evaluate the implications
of uncertainty in the static reservoir model.
Sometimes uncertainty or error is intro-
duced through low data quality. Another
source of error arises because laboratory,
logging and geophysical experiments may
not directly measure the property of interest,
or at the right scale, and so some other
property is measured and transformed in
some way that adds uncertainty. There is
also uncertainty in how a property varies
between measurement points. Many reser-
voir descriptions rely on core sample mea-
surements for rock and fluid property infor-
mation. This information is uncertainly
extended through the reservoir volume, usu-
ally in some geostatistical or deterministic
fashion, guided by seismically derived sur-
faces or other geological constraints.
One way to reduce uncertainty is to spot
inconsistencies in the properties of the reser-
voir model before simulation. Three-dimen-
sional visualization software, such as the
RTView application, helps engineers be
more efficient in finding inconsistencies by
allowing them to view the reservoir model in
3D. Results of simulation runs may also be
viewed, allowing faster evaluation of simula-
tion runs and providing immediate insight
into recovery behavior and physical pro-
cesses occurring in the reservoir (above ).
20
8674.00
predict production of gas for drawing up
A simulation run itself can also help
reduce uncertainty. Outside the oil industry,
simulators are used to determine the reac-
tion of a known environment to externally
applied perturbations. An example is a flight
simulator that tests varying visibility condi-
tions. Although a reservoir environment is
largely unknown, simulators can help
improve the description. In a process known
as history matching, reservoir production is
simulated based on the existing, though
uncertain, reservoir description. That
description is adjusted iteratively until the
simulator is able to reproduce the observed
pressures and multiphase flow resulting
from applied perturbationsthat is, the
known production and injection. If the pro-
duction history can be matched, the engi-
neer has greater confidence that the reser-
voir description will be a useful, predictive
tool. The history-matching process is time-
consuming and requires considerable skill
and insight, but is a necessary prerequisite
to the successful prediction of continued
reservoir performance.
These new techniques and programs for
loading data, computing simulations and
viewing results are allowing engineers to use
simulators to guide reservoir management
decisions throughout the life of many fields.
The following case studies highlight some of
the uses of simulators in four different stages
of reservoir maturity.
Preproduction Planning
An example of early use of simulation
comes from the Texaco Erskine Project in
the North Sea Central Graben region
(below ). The Erskine field comprises four
high-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT)
condensate reservoirs, and will be the first
HPHT field in the North Sea to come on
line when production commences in 1997.
Production will be from an unmanned
platform, with a multiphase pipeline to the
Amoco Lomond Platform for separation.
Gas will be exported via the Central Area
Transmission System (CATS) pipeline, and
liquids via the Forties pipeline. Initial pro-
duction with be from three wells, with three
more to be added. The production mecha-
nism will be natural depletion, with no gas
recycling. Other operators in the region who
have similar reservoirs to develop are
watching how Texaco handles the hostile,
overpressured field.
Simulation was selected as a way to
deliverability contractscontracts promis-
ing delivery of designated volumes of gas at
a specified time. The main challenge in sim-
ulating these reservoirs is accounting for
both the permeability reduction due to rock
compaction and the productivity loss due to
condensate bankingexplained belowin
the near-wellbore region of the formation
when the reservoir pressure falls below the
dewpoint pressure.10
Forties e Forties
pipelin Everest
Lomond
Aberdeen
Erskine
e
elin
pip
TS
CA
N
UK
Texaco Erskine Project in the North Sea
Central Graben region. The high-tempera-
ture, high-pressure condensate field is
due to go on production in 1997.
Oilfield Review
 Because of overpressure conditions in the
reservoir, the rock is expected to compact
with depressurization. This means the rock
is expected to decrease its porosity and
effective permeability as production pro-
gresses. To quantify these effects, laboratory
experiments were conducted on rock sam-
ples. The experiments showed that at the
assumed well abandonment pressure of
4000 psi, permeability would be reduced by
about 33% from the initial value, while
porosity would be negligibly reduced.
Modeling flow in condensate reservoirs
requires additional considerations. As pres-
sure drops around the well, condensation,
or dropout, occurs and liquid forms. The liq-
uid saturation increasesin what is called
condensate bankinguntil it is great
enough to overcome capillary trapping
forces and the liquid becomes mobile. But
until the liquid becomes mobile, the pres-
ence of immobile liquid reduces the relative
permeability to gas, resulting in a loss in
productivity. The rapid change in fluid satu-
ration away from the well requires a fine
grid to accurately model reservoir proper-
ties. The ECLIPSE compositional simulator
modeled the regions around the wells with
a refined radial grid, and the remainder with
a Cartesian grid.
In addition, condensate yields vary
between the four different reservoirs, so
each reservoir fluid was represented by its
own equation of state. The local grid refine-
ment and multiple equation of state capabil-
ities were added to the ECLIPSE simulator
for this project, and now form part of the
commercial package.
The simulation was used to conduct
uncertainty analysis for risk management.
To maximize revenues, the tactic is to maxi-
mize gas rates without being penalized for
coming up short. To understand the risks
behind promising a given gas rate, it is
desirable to understand the sensitivity of the
simulation results to each important input
parameter. In this case, repeated simula-
tions indicated that the parameters with the
10. Crick M: Compositional Simulation for HPHT Gas
Condensate Reservoirs: Follow-up, presented at the
Second ECLIPSE International Forum, Houston,
Texas, USA, April 15-19, 1996.
Hsu HH, Ponting DK and Wood L: Field-Wide
Compositional Simulation for HPHT Gas Conden-
sate Reservoirs Using an Adaptive Implicit Method,
paper SPE 29948, presented at the International
Meeting on Petroleum Engineering, Beijing, China,
November 14-17, 1995.
Summer 1996
Developments in Gridding
Since the first grids were built, the variety, range Perpendicular Bisector (PEBI) Grid
and resolution of oilfield measurements have
increased, and computer power and efficiency
have grown. To take advantage of these develop-
ments, reservoir engineers require better and
more comprehensive simulation software tools.
Modern 3D seismic acquisition, processing and
interpretation techniques have resulted in more
reliable and higher-resolution definition of faults
and erosional surfaces. The engineer wants to
represent the full complexity of nonvertical faults,
curving or listric faults, and faults that intersect or
truncate against one another. Another develop-
ment that requires more complex models is the
increasing use of high-angle and horizontal wells
and multilateral wells. These requirements
41 Water saturation % 100
A perpendicular bisector (PEBI) grid showing local
stretch the traditional gridding programs based on
grid refinement around wells. Grid blocks may have
corner-point geometrysuch as the GeoQuest a variety of shapes and can fit any reservoir geome-
GRID programto the limit. try. The smoother grid-block shape also gives a
more accurate simulation solution because there is
This has led to the development of new gridding less chance of choosing the wrong grid orientation.
software techniques such as the FloGrid utility,
which will produce grids that conform to the reser- voir models than exist in analytical models.
voir framework as defined by fault surfaces and Unstructured PEBI grids are of great benefit in
lithological boundaries. Unstructured perpendicu- these situations, allowing the radial components of
lar bisector (PEBI) and tetrahedral grid systems flow into the wellbore to be combined with linear
are being developed and included in gridding and or planar features such as the trajectory of a hori-
simulation programs (above right). Blocks in a zontal well or a fault plane. Simulations run with
PEBI grid may have a variety of shapes, and they PEBI grids tend to take longer than those run on
may be arranged to fit any reservoir geometry. structured grids, but the ability to capture the
The smoother gridblock shape gives a more accu- structural complexity of the reservoirs flow units
rate simulation solution because there is less outweighs the need for speed. A compromise can
chance of choosing the wrong grid orientation be reached by building a structured grid in the geo-
a potential problem with traditional grids. A PEBI logically simple parts of the reservoir, and splicing
grid also allows flow in more directions from a in an unstructured grid when geologic complexity
given grid block, important in the modeling of hor- requires more flexibly shaped grid blocks.
izontal wells, gas injection schemes or the inter-
action of wells in an interference test. These grids
are also being used as a basis for a new genera-
tion of upscaling techniques.
A further gridding development is the linking of
well test analysis with simulator programs to give
the engineer a greater range of numerical reser-
21
 Percentage Changes in Reserves most influence on the results included gas
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 in place, permeability and compaction
(left ).
Gas in place Deliverability and cumulative production
distributions were calculated from the sensi-
Permeability tivity results using the parametric method
developed for oilfield applications by P.J.
Smith and coworkers at British Petroleum.11
Pentland
continuity A normalized average profile was combined
with these distributions in a Monte Carlo
Compaction simulator to give a probabalistic production
profile (below ).
Critical The results of the risk analysis showed the
condensate effects of different production scenarios on
saturation
the level of confidence in ability to deliver
Trapped gas various possible contracted rates of gas over
saturation
the initial plateau period. ( next page,
Well skin bottom ). The required 90% confidence
factor level for a three-year plateau period was
achieved by modifying the production rate
Fault in the first year, adding a contingency well
transmissibility
in the third year, and commingling produc-
tion in one well between the main Erskine
Sensitivity of Erskine simulation results to input parameters. Repeated reservoir and the smaller but higher-perme-
simulations indicate parameters that have the most influence on simula- ability Kimmeridge reservoir.
tion results. Quantifying the uncertainty in the most sensitive parameters
is an important step toward quantifying project risk. Additional simula- As a result, Texaco has modified produc-
tions were run with the high, low and middle values of each parameter, tion plans, which now call for a lower pro-
forming input sensitivities for the risk analysis shown below. duction rate in the first year than in subse-

Initial
Deliverability Distribution

Parametric
Method

Probabilistic Production Profile

Sensitivities Normalized Average Profile
Deliverability
Deliverability

Predicted
production
Monte Carlo
Analysis

Cumulative Production

Reserves Distribution

Parametric
Method

Schematic of deliverability and cumulative production computed for best- and worst-case scenarios. The sensitivity profiles (left)
represent curves for best and worst cases, such as the lowest and highest permeability, lowest and highest compaction and all other
parameters mentioned above. Not all curves were plotted because of space constraints. All the sensitivities were combined through
a parametric method modified for oilfield application. (From Smith et al, reference 11.) A normalized average profile (center) was
combined with initial deliverability and reserves distributions in a Monte Carlo method to give a probabilistic90% confidencepro-
duction profile (right). The upper curve is the deliverability and the lower curve is predicted production. The cyclic nature of the pro-
duction curve reflects the alternation between summer and winter demand for gas.

22 Oilfield Review
quent years. Risk analysis suggested an
additional well in the third year, so platform Bravo
construction has allowed a slot for a contin-
gency well. In addition, production from the
Erskine and Kimmeridge reservoirs will also
be commingled. Alpha
Charlie
Echo
Infill Drilling
Infill drilling is an expensive stage in the life Delta
of a reservoir. Simulation, in conjunction
with other tools, can help guide the place- Forties field
ment of wells and minimize their number.
British Petroleum has harnessed simulation
along with new reservoir description to opti- Brae The Forties field in
mize infill drilling in the Forties field in the Piper the North Sea, oper-
Claymore
ated by BP with five
North Sea (right ).
Beatrice Britannia platforms and 103
The Forties field was discovered in 1970, wells.
Buchan
and produced its first oil in 1975 (middle ). Forties
Current production is from five platforms, Montrose Lomond
with 78 producers and 25 peripheral injec- Aberdeen Erskine
tors. Estimated recovery of the 4.2 billion
Fulmar
stock tank barrels (STB) of original oil in
place (OOIP) is 60%, or 90% of the mov-
able oil.
N
The field is characterized by high perme-
ability, high net-to-gross (NTG) pay thick-
ness and a strong aquifer. A few years ago UK
the Forties was considered to be essentially
a homogeneous reservoir. But early water
breakthrough and water fingering indicated 600

a greater level of heterogeneity than 500

Production, 103 B/D

expected, and suggested the need for more Current

wells to be drilled to reach bypassed zones. 400 production
To understand the potential of infill drilling
300
in the field, a simulation study was con-
ducted, including careful reinterpretation of 200 Oil production Water production
existing 3D seismic data and a new reser-
100
11. Smith PJ, Hendry DJ and Crowther AR: The Quan-
tification and Management of Uncertainty in 0
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2004
Reserves, paper SPE 26056, presented at the SPE
Western Regional Meeting, Anchorage, Alaska, Year
USA, May 26-28, 1993. Production in the Forties field since 1975.

Confidence levels, % Normalized reserves Results of risk

Yearly rate, Number Commingling Tubing analysis ranking
MMscf/D of wells size, in. Year Confidence level, % some of the simu-
lated production
1 2 3 4 90 50 10 scenarios. The
90/90/90 3 None 4.5 75 75 75 40 0.707 0.898 1.139 required 90%
confidence level
80/90/90 3 None 4.5 85 75 75 40 0.699 0.889 1.119 (bottom line) was
90/90/90 3 Erskine and 4.5 85 85 75 45 0.738 0.937 1.176 achieved by reduc-
Kimmeridge in E1 ing the production
80/90/90 3 Erskine and 4.5 90 90 80 55 0.738 0.932 1.170
rate in the first year,
Kimmeridge in E1
adding a well in
the third year and
90/90/90 3 Erskine and 4.5 70 70 65 30 0.682 0.858 1.082 commingling pro-
Pentland in E1 duction from the
90/90/90 4 None 4.5 95 95 65 30 0.704 0.892 1.119 Kimmeridge and
Erskine reservoirs.
90/90/90 3 None 5.5 95 95 70 30 0.685 0.863 1.091
80/90/90 3 Erskine and 4.5 90 90 95 85 0.789 1.000 1.264
Extra well Kimmeridge in E1
in year 3

Summer 1996 23
voir characterization to describe the hetero- Prediction Actual
geneities encountered in the turbidite sand-
stone reservoir. FA31ST FA31ST
Simulation with a coarse full-field model
allowed identification of regions that might
benefit from infill wells, but the results were
not refined enough for detailed well place-
ment. Once a region was identified as con-
taining possible infill well locations, other
aspects were considered, such as: water cut
and production of surrounding wells; inter-
ference tests confirming continuity or lack
thereof with other layers; and reinterpreta-
tion of 3D seismic data for channel identifi-
cationprospective locations tend to be
along submarine channel margins, where Shale Water Oil
there is lower vertical permeability and so
less efficient sweep. Fluid and formation distributions predicted (left) and encountered (right) at the Forties
Alpha 31 sidetrack (FA31ST) location. The predicted distribution closely resembled the
Having passed these tests, the area was layering encountered, and predicted oil production matched the current rate.
tapped for a new simulation study with local
grid refinement spotlighting the volume of 300-m Grid
interest (below right ). The refined grid block Steps in the simu-
size was about 50 by 50 m [164 ft by 164 ft] lation study of the
in area by 8 m [26 ft] in depth. Reservoir Forties Alpha plat-
properties were distributed in the LGR grid form area. Simula-
tion with a coarse
based on a geostatistical model. Then the full-field model
flow in the LGR grid was simulated with the (top) identified
ECLIPSE black-oil simulator and checked regions that would
against the production history from wells in benefit from infill
the grid. The property distribution was wells. Once a
region was identi-
modified and simulation rerun. This process fied as a possible
was repeated until a history match was infill well location,
obtained, with only six iterations required. the location was
The final simulation based on the refined selected for a new
simulation study
grid predicted a fluid distribution at the For- with local grid
ties Alpha 31 sidetrack (FA31ST) location 50-m Grid refinement (middle)
(above right ). The predicted fluid distribu- spotlighting the
tion closely resembled that encountered and volume of interest.
the predicted oil production matched the Reservoir proper-
ties were dis-
current rate. However, the predicted net-to- tributed in the LGR
gross rock volume of the upper zone was grid based on a
optimistic relative to measured values. geostatistical
Lessons learned from this work have been model (bottom) of
the turbidite sand-
fed back into subsequent studies with, for stones.
example, seismic attributes helping to char-
acterize the NTG variation in the reservoir.
Simulation played a similar role in assessing
the potential for infill drilling around the
other platforms.

Geostatistical
Model

24 Oilfield Review
Planning Enhanced Oil Recovery Weyburn Unit
In an example of simulation later in reser- R.14 R.13 R.12W2
voir life, PanCanadian Petroleum Limited is
relying on simulation to examine the feasi- T.7
bility of CO2 injection in Unit 1 in the Wey-
burn field of Saskatchewan, Canada
(right ).12 This field was discovered in 1955
and put on waterflood in 1964. By 1994,
recovery had reached 314 million STB, or
28% of the units original oil in place. Ulti- T.6
mate waterflood recovery is expected to be
348 million STB, or 31%, leaving a large
target for enhanced recovery methods. An
opportunity to take advantage of one
method, gravity segregation via CO2 injec-
tion, is presented by the division of the T.5
reservoir into swept and unswept layers.
Carbon dioxide injected into the lower,
more permeable formation has the potential
Saskatchewan
to contact large amounts of unswept oil in
the tight upper formation since CO2 is 30%
less dense than the reservoir fluids at the Saskatoon
expected operating pressures (below right ).
Yorkton
Evaluating the feasibility of CO2 injection
proceeded in stages. First, using the Geo-
Swift Regina
Quest fluid PVT simulation software, a nine-
Current Moose Jaw
component equation of state was developed
that reproduced the behavior of the oil-CO2
Canada
system. The equation of state also had to
United Sta
predict the development of dynamic misci- tes
bility in flow simulations while still repre-
senting the physical properties of the oil-
CO2 mixtures. The equation was validated Weyburn field of southeastern Saskatchewan, Canada. Discov-
by comparison of simulated and laboratory ered in 1955, the Weyburn field has produced 314 million STB, or
28% of the units original oil in place.
floods on cores.
Second, general performance parameters
were established for the formations to be Producer CO2 Injection
swept. These included CO 2 slug size, a
water-alternating-gas injection strategy, CO2
start-up pressure and post-CO2 blow-down
Density Porosity
pressure. 13 Then various orientations of
injectors, producers and horizontal wells Gamma Ray Neutron Porosity
were tested with the ECLIPSE compositional API %
0 150 45 -15

12. Burkett D, Besserer G and Gurpinar O: Design of

Weyburn CO2 Injection Project, presented at the
Marly
Unswept Zone
Second ECLIPSE International Forum, Houston,
Texas, USA, April 15-19, 1996.
13. Blow-down pressure is the average field pressure
maintained after CO2 injection is stopped. Usually
this is lower than during CO2 injection to maximize Vuggy
oil recovery due to expansion of CO2.
Swept
5m

Zone

Division of the reservoir into swept and unswept layers, opening

the opportunity for gravity segregation of injected CO2. Carbon
dioxide (blue arrows) injected into the lower, more permeable for-
mation will rise to displace the oil (green arrows) remaining in the
tight, unswept upper formation.

Summer 1996 25
 Reservoir link with surface facility. Integrating surface network simulators with reservoir simulators will allow production managers
to optimize flow and fine-tune field planning.

A Weyburn simulator (left ).14 Each original nine-spot

Weyburn Unit inverted nine-spot pattern was found to require two symmetri-
pattern showing
cally positioned horizontal wells in the
vertical and
60-acre horizontal infill upper zone to take advantage of the CO2
vertical infill
well locations segregation process. Results of the paramet-
ax
km

and directions of ric pattern studies, using a 30% pore vol-

maximum and ume CO2 slug, indicated ultimate recovery
minimum perme-
abilities (kmax , without any new horizontal wells to be an
kmin ). Various estimated 37% of OOIP. By adding two
Original orientations of horizontal wells in each injection pattern,
80-acre infill injectors, produc- simulation predicted incremental recovery
ers and horizontal
of 7.2%.
wells were tested
40-acre with the ECLIPSE
vertical infill compositional On the Surface
simulator to Once hydrocarbons have made it up the
km

determine optimal
in

wellbore, most reservoir engineers consider

Horizontal orientations and
spacings. their job done. But tracking fluid movement
sidetrack
through a complex surface network with
chokes, valves, pumps, pipelines, separators
and compressors remains a daunting task.
Optimizing flow through the surface net-
work allows production managers to mini-
mize capital investment in surface facilities
and fine-tune field planning.
Reservoir simulators are not designed to
solve for fluid flow all the way through the
surface-gathering facility, but they can be
integrated with network simulators built for
this purpose. An example of such a network
simulator is the Simulation Sciences
PIPEPHASE system. The PIPEPHASE simula-

26 Oilfield Review
tor, based on a pressure-balance technique
developed originally at Chevron in the
1980s, has been adapted to handle large,
field-wide, multiphase flow networks,
including wells, flowlines and associated
surface facilities. Through a joint project
between GeoQuest Reservoir Technologies
and Simulation Sciences, the PIPEPHASE
simulator and the NETOPT production opti-
mizer are being integrated with the Open-
ECLIPSE system to provide a way to simulate
fluid flow seamlessly from reservoir through
surface network (previous page, top).15 Inte-
gration is achieved through an iterative algo-
rithm that minimizes the differences
between the well flow rates calculated by
the two simulators from a given set of flow-
ing well pressures.
The recent focus on integrated reservoir
management teams is a major step in the
direction of integrated reservoir and surface
network simulation. But the emphasis has
been on integration at the upstream end.
The next step is to focus at the production
and surface facilities end.
Traditionally, the integrated study has been
approached along two independent paths.
For a project involving pressure mainte-
nance through water injection, for example,
the impact on the reservoir has been studied
in isolation. The reservoir simulation is car-
ried out with a simplified well model:
hydraulic behavior of injection or produc-
tion wells is approximated through flow
tables derived from single-well analysis. A
second study is typically performed by the
facilities engineering group to evaluate the
impact of the injection water requirements
on the surface facilities. The reservoir
behavior at the well is incorporated through
an injectivity index relating injection rate to
pressure drop at the formation.
A limitation of this divided approach is
that it ignores the true interaction between
the elements of the surface network, the
production and injection wells, and the
reservoir. The results of a truly integrated
study could be quite different.
The iterative approach to integrating the
PIPEPHASE and ECLIPSE systems, while rig-
orous, may be limited by convergence
issues in more complex applications. The
truly integrated solution, with the surface
and reservoir equations solved simultane-
ously, is expected to require a large effort,
since significant restructuring will be
needed in both simulators. One promising
approach is to initially develop a simple sin-
gle-phase application for a gas field. The
experiences developed in this effort could
then be extended to address the larger prob-
lem of multiphase fluids.
Summer 1996
Simulation Speedup with Parallel Processors
2500
2000
Run time, sec
1500
1000
500
0
1 2 4 8 16
Number of processors
Speeding up simulation with
parallel processors. For a typical
simulation, the 16-processor run
is more than 10 times faster than
a single-processor run.
The Next Step
The future of reservoir simulators may paral-
lel developments in other oilfield technolo-
gies that provide a view of fluid and rock
behavior in the subsurface. For example, the
seismic industry, operating on a similar
physical scale and on equally staggering
amounts of data, has turned to massively
parallel processors (MPPs) for data process-
ing and to high-performance graphics work-
stations for visualization of the results.
Simulation computer codes are being pre-
pared for implementation on MPPs, but the
switch cannot be made quickly. A simulator
typically solves the fluid-flow equations one
grid block at a time. The solution does not
necessarily benefit by processing several
steps in parallel.
For a typical simulation, doubling the
number of processors cuts simulation time
almost in half, and increasing to 16 proces-
sors reduces the time to one-tenth (above ).
Departure from ideal speed gains16 times
faster for 16 processorsis due to three fac-
tors. First, the parallel linear equation solu-
tion method is less efficient than the non-
parallel solution. Second, it takes time to
assemble and transfer data between pro-
cesses. And third, load balancing between
processors is uneven: some parts of the
reservoir are easier to solve than others, but
the simulation must wait for the slowest.
Also, the high cost of MPPs targets them for
sharing within departments or companies,
so one user is less likely to get sole access.
Early tests on parallelized versions of the
ECLIPSE simulator indicate that gains in
speed depend on the complexity of the
reservoir model. A North Sea case with two-
phase flow of oil and water in a relatively
simple reservoir with 50,000 grid blocks
exhibited a four-fold speed up using eight
processors, and even greater gains for bigger
models. But three-phase flow simulation in
a 1.2-million block model filled randomly
with geostatistically derived data with highly
variable permeability showed less dramatic
improvement.
One application of simulators that will
undoubtedly benefit from implementation
on MPPs is that of testing multiple scenar-
ios. Simulation results are most valuable in a
comparative sense. Comparisons can be
made of the production behavior of different
reservoir models to gain understanding of
sensitivity to input parameters. Or different
production scenarios may be tested on a
single reservoir model. Running such simu-
lations simultaneously will save time and
allow comparisons to be made efficiently.
In the family of tools designed to help oil
companies make effective use of expensive,
hard-won data, simulation plays a key role
in making sense of data acquired through
different physical experiments, at different
times, at different spatial scales. Simulation
is one of the few tools available for under-
standing the changes a reservoir experiences
throughout its life. Used together with other
measurements, simulation reinforces con-
clusions based on other methods and leads
to a higher degree of confidence in our
understanding of the reservoir. LS
14. Mullane TJ, Churcher PL, Tottrup P and Edmunds
AC: Actual Versus Predicted Horizontal Well
Performance, Weyburn Unit, S.E. Saskatchewan,
Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology 35, no. 3
(March 1996): 24-30.
15. Dutta-Roy K: Surface Facility Link: Production Plan-
ning with Open-ECLIPSE and PIPEPHASE, pre-
sented at the Second ECLIPSE International Forum,
Houston, Texas, USA, April 15-19, 1996.
27

Ivanna Albertin
Harold Darling
Mehrzad Mahdavi
Ron Plasek
Sugar Land, Texas, USA
Italo Cedeo
City Investing Company Ltd.
Quito, Ecuador
Jim Hemingway
Peter Richter
Bakersfield, California, USA
Marvin Markley
Bogota, Colombia
Jean-Rmy Olesen
Beijing, China
Brad Roscoe
Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA
Wenchong Zeng
Shengli Petroleum Administration Bureau
China National Petroleum Corporation
China
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Darrel
Cannon, Wireline &Testing, Sugar Land, Texas; Efrain
Cruz, GeoQuest, Quito, Ecuador; Steve Garcia,
GeoQuest, Bakersfield, California, USA; Michael Herron
and Susan Herron, Schlumberger-Doll Research, Ridge-
field, Connecticut, USA; Chris Lenn and Colin Whittaker,
Schlumberger Cambridge Research, Cambridge, Eng-
land; and Chris Ovens, GeoQuest, Aberdeen, Scotland.
In this article, CNL (Compensated Neutron Log), CPLT
(Combinable Production Logging Tool), ELAN (Elemental
Log Analysis), FloView, FloView Plus, FMI (Fullbore
Formation MicroImager), Phasor (Phasor Induction SFL),
RST (Reservoir Saturation Tool), SpectroLith, TDT
(Thermal Decay Time) and WFL (Water Flow Log) are
marks of Schlumberger.
1. For a detailed description of the RST tool hardware
and the latest scintillation detector technology:
Adolph B, Stoller C, Brady J, Flaum C, Melcher C,
Roscoe B, Vittachi A and Schnorr D: Saturation
Monitoring With the RST Reservoir Saturation Tool,
Oilfield Review 6, no. 1 (January 1994): 29-39.
Sigma is a measure of the decay rate of thermal neu-
trons as they are captured.
2. Holdup is a measure of the volumetric percentage of
each phase in the borehole. Water holdup plus oil
holdup plus gas holdup equals unity. Flow rate equals
holdup multiplied by area and by velocity.
28
The Many Facets of
Pulsed Neutron Cased-Hole Logging
The multipurpose
RST service. Car-
bon-oxygen ratio,
inelastic and
capture spectra,
sigma, borehole
holdup, porosity,
water and oil
velocities, and
borehole salinity
are some of the
measurements that
can be made with
RST equipment.
Advanced neutron generator design and fast, efficient gamma ray
detectors combine to make a reservoir saturation tool that is capable
of detailed formation evaluation through casing and more. Lithology
determination, reservoir saturations and flow profiles are some of the
comprehensive answers provided by this multipurpose tool.
To manage existing fields as effectively and A Multipurpose Service
efficiently as possible, reservoir engineers The RST service was introduced in June,
monitor movement of formation fluids 1992 with a through-tubing pulsed neutron
within the reservoir as well as production tool capable of providing both carbon-oxy-
from individual wells. Pressure measure- gen ratio (C/O) and sigma reservoir satura-
ments play a vital role in reservoir manage- tion measurements.1 Interpretation of either
ment. However, these data need to be aug- measurement, under suitable formation and
mented by other measurements to detect borehole conditions, provides quantitative
fluid movement within the producing well oil saturation. The high-yield neutron gener-
and the surrounding formation. One ator and high-efficiency dual-detector sys-
recently introduced cased-hole logging tool, tem provide higher gamma ray count rates,
the RST Reservoir Saturation Tool, provides and hence better statistics, than previous
abundant single-well data to help reservoir generations of pulsed neutron devices. This
engineers locate bypassed oil and detect has led to the development of many other
waterflood fronts, fine-tune formation evalu- applications, including spectroscopy mea-
ation and monitor production profiles.
Oilfield Review
 Accurate Inaccurate
surements, accurate time-lapse reservoir
monitoring and evaluation in difficult log- Alpha processing Windows
Accuracy and
ging environments such as variable forma- precision. Alpha
processing combines
tion water resistivity and complex lithology. the accuracy of the
Other features of the tool design allow elemental yields
several auxiliary measurements such as computation of oil
borehole salinity and thermal neutron Precise volume (bottom left)
with the precision of
porosity. The tool comes in two the windows
diametersthe 111/16-in. RST-A tool and approach (top right).
21/2-in. RST-B tool. Both use the same type The result is an oil
of neutron generator, detectors and electron- volume that is both
ics. However, the larger diameter RST-B tool accurate and pre-
cise (top left).
incorporates shielding to focus the near
detector towards the borehole and the far
detector towards the formation, allowing
logging in flowing and unknown borehole
fluids and also providing a borehole holdup Imprecise
measurement.2 More recent applications for
the RST-A tool include WFL Water Flow Log
measurements and separate oil and water
phase velocities in horizontal wellsPhase Yields
Velocity Log (PVL) measurements.
Essentially the RST service provides three 0.5
types of measurements:
reservoir saturation from C/O or sigma
0.4
measurements
Sw=0%, Yo=100%
lithology and elemental yields from
Far carbon/oxygen ratio

analysis of inelastic and capture gamma

ray spectra
borehole fluid dynamics from holdup,
WFL and PVL measurements.
This article summarizes the many facets of
RST logging and reviews several examples.
Reservoir Saturation
Reservoir saturation is derived from C/O or
inferred from sigma measurements (see Sat-
uration Monitoring, South American Style,
next page ). Inelastic gamma ray spectra are
used to determine the relative concentration
of carbon and oxygen in the formation. A
high C/O indicates oil-bearing formations; a
low ratio indicates water-bearing forma-
tions. Sigma is derived from the rate of cap-
ture of thermal neutronsmainly by chlo-
rineand is measured using capture
gamma rays. Saline water has a high value
of sigma, and fresh water and hydrocarbon
have low values of sigma. As long as forma-
tion water salinity is high, constant and
known, water saturation Sw may then be
calculated.
Carbon-oxygenCarbon-oxygen ratio is
measured in two ways. A ratio (C/Oyields ) is
obtained from full spectral analysis of car-
bon and oxygen elemental yields. A second
C/O (C/O windows) is obtained by placing
broad windows over the carbon and oxygen
spectral peak regions of the inelastic spec-
trum. The C/Oyields is the more accurate of
the two ratios, but lower count rates and,
therefore, poorer statistics make it less pre-
Summer 1996
0.3
Sw=0%, Yo=0%
0.2
0.1
Sw=100%, Yo=100%
x
xxx x
x
xxxxx
xxx
x xx x
0.0 xx
xx
Sw=100%, Yo=0%
-0.1
-0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Near carbon/oxygen ratio
Water saturation, Sw, and borehole oil holdup, Yo, crossplot. Far car-
bon-oxygen ratio (FCOR) is more influenced by formation carbon, and
near carbon-oxygen ratio (NCOR) is more influenced by borehole car-
bon. A crossplot of FCOR versus NCOR (crosses) can, therefore, be used
to determine water saturation and borehole oil holdup. Overlying the
crossplot is a quadrilateral whose end points are determined from an
extensive data base that depends on environmental inputs such as
lithology, casing size and hydrocarbon carbon density. The corners
correspond to 0 and 100 % Sw and 0 and 100 % Yo. Interpolation pro-
vides Sw and Yo at each depth.
cise than the C/O windows . Conversely, correction for the carbon density of the
C/Owindows is often less accurate but has bet- hydrocarbon phase.
ter statistics and so is more precise. Each Carbon-oxygen ratios are generated for
ratio is first transformed to give an oil vol- the near and far detectors. These two ratios
ume, and then the two oil volumes are are used to give water saturation and bore-
combined using an alpha processing hole oil holdup (above ).
method to give a final oil volume with good SigmaSigma is a measure of how fast
accuracy and good precision ( top ). The thermal neutrons are captured, a process
transforms of C/O ratio to volume of oil use typically dominated by chlorine. Hence
an extensive data base covering multiple formation sigma may be considered a mea-
combinations of lithology, porosity, hole
size, casing size and weight, as well as a
29
 Saturation Monitoring, South American Style

Fanny field, situated among the oil fields east of Sw RST<<SwOH

Sw RST<<Sw OH
the Andes mountains, in the Oriente basin,
Water
Ecuador, was discovered in 1972 and is presently Oil Water
operated by City Investing Company Ltd. (below). Bound water Oil
Lith. Caliper Sw from Bound water
Differential compaction of sands and shale Total
inelastic 6 in. 16 the RST Calcite
probably created the structural high that forms RST Sigma Near C/R 100 p.u. 0 Porosity Coal
the field. Primary production is from the M-1 0 c.u. 30 Far C/R Silt
Sand SP from OH Near C/R 100 0 25 0 Quartz
sandstones of the Upper Cretaceous Napo with Clay 120 mV 30 -0.10 -0.15 p.u. p.u. Clay
secondary production from the Lower U sand- Lime GR Far C/R Fluid Analysis Combined Model
stones of the Lower Cretaceous Napo. 10 API 110 0 0.25 50 p.u. 100 0 p.u. 100
Depth,
There are six wells in Fanny field and these are M-1 sand
ft
coupled to three others from the adjoining 18B
field drilled by the national oil company of
Ecuador, PetroProduction. Total output is 4000 7700
BOPD of 22.2 API oil with a fluctuating water cut
of between 37% and 91%. Production is by
hydraulic pump.
Fanny-1 was completed as a commingled pro-
ducer in 1978 and after 18 years it was still pro-
ducing about 150 BOPD with 90% water cut from
two zones in the M-1 sand body. The high water
cut prompted City Investing to investigate.
A 111/16-in. RST-A tool was run with the well shut- 7750
in to record carbon-oxygen ratio, formation
sigma, borehole sigma, thermal neutron porosity
and borehole salinity measurements.

Tumaco

Esmeraldas
Balao
Fanny Lower U sand
Quito
Tiputini
ECU AD O R 8400

Tigre Fanny-1 RST log results. ELAN Elemental Log Analysis interpretation of Sw and lithology (track 3) shows the
original openhole water saturation. Since then the oil-water contact has risen to 7752 ft (track 2) shown by the
RST Sw of nearly 100% through the bottom section of the M-1 sand. The high carbon-oxygen ratio from 7702
to 7709 ft is a coal seam. Very little of M-1 above the oil-water contact is depleted and the Lower U sand also
shows high hydrocarbon saturation.

Formation sigma and thermal neutron porosity
improved on the original formation evaluation by
Fanny field location. providing a better estimation of shale volume in
South America the silty, sometimes radioactive, sandstones,
and also more accurate lithology identification.
The final interpretation showed that high water
production was caused by a rise in the oil-water
contact to 7752 ft [2363m] (above). It also
showed that other sections of the M-1 sand were
still at original water saturation and identified
two virgin oil zones.
30
Tests on the interval 7710 to 7720 ft [2350 to
2353 m] confirmed the RST results with a produc-
tion rate of 900 BOPD at only 10% water cut. The
two new zones were also tested and they pro-
duced 1300 BOPD at 4% water cut.
The old perforations were cement squeezed
and the well, reperforated and recompleted, is
now producing 1000 BOPD with low water cut
a sixfold production increase.
Oilfield Review
sure of the chlorine content or salinity of Gamma Ray
the formation, and tracks openhole resistiv- Porosity from Core
0 API 300 SO from Core
ity curves. 100 p.u. 0
The raw sigma measurement contains con- 0 p.u. 100
tributions from the borehole as well as the SP SW (11/7/93) Clay
formation. To isolate the formation sigma, -90 mV 120 100 p.u. 0
the neutron generator is pulsed in a dual DCAL Quartz
burst pattern: a short burst followed by a -10 in. 0
long burst. Near-detector measurements are K-Feldspar
DIT-E SO (11/7/93)
strongly influenced by the borehole environ-
0 p.u. 100
ment and hence borehole sigma espe- Bound Water
cially for the short neutron burst measure- RST SO (11/27/93)
ment. Far-detector measurements are 0 p.u. 100 Irreducible Water
influenced more by formation sigmaespe- RST SO (4/16/94)
cially the long neutron burst measurement. Formation Water
0 p.u. 100
Raw sigma measurements are also affected
RST SO (1/30/96) Phasor Oil Volume
by neutron diffusion and environmental
0 p.u. 100
variables related to the borehole, casing,
cement and formation. At the heart of the Steam/Air 1993
correction process for these effects is a data Depth,
base detailing thousands of combinations of ft Steam/Air 1995
borehole sizes, casing types, formations of
differing porosity and lithology, and bore- X100
hole and formation salinities. Instead of try-
ing to define the response to these variables
by a single set of equations with fixed
parameters, a dynamic parameterization
algorithm uses the data base to compute the
corrected response in real-time, during
acquisition (see The Sigma Data Base,
next page ).3
Time-lapseOnce carbon-oxygen mea-
surements or sigma measurements have
been interpreted to produce saturation logs,
these measurements may be repeated later to
monitor reservoir fluid movement such as
oil-water contacts, secondary recovery pro-
cesses or hydrocarbon depletion ( right ).
Good precision is important for time-lapse
(continued on page 34)

Time-lapse logging in California. This log

is from a well in the middle of a field that is X200
produced by heating the oil in place with
steam. Steam takes a narrow path from
one wellbore to another and will, therefore,
not flush out all the heavy oil. After some
time, the steam needs to be redirected to
produce bypassed oil. RST time-lapse data
are used to monitor steam location and
changes in oil saturation.
There has been little change in oil satura-
tion of the upper intervals X100 to X190 ft
(track 2). The lower interval, X200 to X270
ft, shows some oil movement. Steam has
been turned off in the zone X195 to X205 ft
which has resaturated with water (track 3).

3. For more on the dynamic parameterization algorithm

approach:
Plasek RE, Adolph RA, Stoller C, Willis DJ and Bordon
EE: Improved Pulsed Neutron Capture Logging With
Slim Carbon-Oxygen Tools: Methodology, paper SPE
30598, presented at the 70th SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA, Octo-
ber 22-25, 1995. X300

Summer 1996 31

Diffusion, borehole and lithology effects must be
considered when transforming raw pulsed neu-
tron capture measurements to actual physical
quantities. These effects are difficult to account
for in direct analytical approaches across the
entire range of oilfield conditions. Therefore, an
extensive data base of laboratory measurements
is used to correct for these effects in real time.1
Over several years, the data base was acquired
for the RST-A, RST-B and TDT-P logging tools at
the Schlumberger Environmental Effects Calibra-
tion Facility (EECF), Houston, Texas (above and
right). This enables raw tool measurements to be
referenced to calibrated values of formation
sigma, borehole salinity and formation porosity
for a variety of environmental conditions. Each
tool was run in over 30 formations of different
lithologies and porosities. Formation and bore-
hole fluid salinities were varied and different
completions were introduced into the borehole
representing different casing sizes and cement
thicknesses.
Altogether more than 1000 formation-borehole
combinations were measured for each tool. Mod-
32
The Sigma Data Base
The Schlumberger
Environmental Effects
Calibration Facility,
Houston, Texas, USA.
Over 4000 measure-
ments were made in
more than thirty forma-
tions of differing lithol-
ogy and porosity, with
different combinations
of formation salinities,
borehole salinities, and
completions to produce
the sigma data base.
eling was used to extend the range of available
sandstone formations. To date, the data base con-
tains over 4000 points.
The sigma values of the database formations
are calculated classically
= (1- ) ma + S fl fl
where is the formation porosity, ma is
matrix sigma, Sfl is the formation fluid saturation
and fl is fluid sigma.
Porosity of the EECF tank formations was deter-
mined by carefully measuring all weights and vol-
EUROPA facility, Aberdeen, Scotland.
umes of the rocks, fluids and tanks used. CNL
Compensated Neutron Log measurements veri-
fied the porosity values and the homogeneity of
the formations.
Matrix sigma values were determined by gross
macroscopic cross-section measurements pro-
vided by commercial reactor facilities and by pro-
cessing complete elemental analyses through
Schlumberger Nuclear Parameter (SNUPAR)
cross-section tables.2
Water salinity was determined by a calibrated
titration procedure and then converted into fluid
sigma again using SNUPAR cross-section tables.
AlgorithmRST Sigma Processing
A three-step sequence is performed to translate
raw log measurements into borehole salinity,
porosity, corrected near and far sigma and forma-
tion sigma (next page, top).
The first step is to correct the near and far
detector time-decay spectra for losses in the
detection and counting system, and for back-
1. Plasek RE et al, reference 3, main text.
2. McKeon DC and Scott HD: SNUPARA Nuclear
Parameter Code for Nuclear Geophysics Applications,
Nuclear Physics 2, no. 4 (1988): 215-230.
Oilfield Review
 Input ground radiation. Typically the background is
Time decay spectra averaged to improve statistics.
The next step is to generate the apparent quan-
STEP 1
Correction to Spectra tities from the spectra, such as near and far
Counting loss corrections
Background adaptive filtering apparent formation sigmas. These quantities are
Background subtraction not environmentally corrected.
The third step is to apply transforms and envi-
STEP 2
Compute Apparent Quantities ronmental corrections to the apparent tool quanti-
Near apparent borehole sigma SBNA
Far apparent formation sigma SFFA
ties to arrive at borehole salinity, porosity and
Near/far capture count rate ratio TRAT formation sigma. The technique uses dynamic
database parameterization that handles both the
transformation and environmental corrections.
Environmental
Parameters External
Data Base Tool
Borehole size Knowledge
Calibration Accuracy
Casing size/weight (Optional)
Lithology Near/far ratio Porosity A series of benchmark measurements has been
Borehole salinity made to assess the accuracy of the algorithm
used with the data base to compute borehole
salinity, porosity and formation sigma (below).
STEP 3 These benchmark measurements include repro-
Transform from Apparent to
Corrected Quantities cessing the entire data base as well as logging in
industry standard facilities such as the EUROPA
sigma facility in Aberdeen, Scotland (previous
page, top right) and the API porosity test pit,
Outputs
Borehole salinity BSAL SIBF at the University of Houston, in Texas.
Porosity TPHI
Database points were reprocessed with the
Corrected near and far sigma SFNC SFFC
Formation sigma SIGM dynamic parameterization algorithm and the
results were compared with the assigned values.
Simplified RST sigma processing.

60 35
Limestone
30 Sandstone 250
50 41 p.u.
Dolomite 18 p.u.
Measured sigma, c.u.

Borehole salinity, kppm NaCl

25
Measured sigma, c.u.

200 0 p.u.
40
20
30 150
15

20 100
10

10 5 50
-1.5 0.0 1.5
Deviation from assigned
sigma, c.u.
0
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 10 20 30 40 50
Assigned sigma, c.u. Assigned sigma, c.u. Sigma, c.u.

Processing accuracy. Benchmark measurements were made to assess the accuracy of the algorithm in computing formation and borehole sigma, porosity and bore-
hole salinity. Sigma measured with the RST-A tool versus assigned database sigma (left) shows average errors are small0.22 c.u. Sigma measured at the EUROPA
facility in Aberdeen (middle) again shows excellent agreement with the assigned values. Comparison of RST-A tool sigma (right) versus borehole salinity shows that
corrected sigma is independent of borehole salinityvital for time-lapse surveys or log-inject-log operations. In the crossover region (shaded area), formation sigma
approaches or even exceeds borehole sigma. Historically, pulsed neutron capture tools erroneously identify the borehole decay as formation sigma and formation decay
as borehole sigma in this region. However, the RST dynamic parameterization method solves this long-standing problem, correctly distinguishing between formation and
borehole sigma components.

Summer 1996 33
The algorithm does exceptionally well in match-
ing the assigned values. For example, the aver-
age errors for formation sigma were 0.22 capture
units (c.u.) for the RST-A tool and 0.20 c.u. for
the RST-B tool.
The EUROPA facility is an independent sigma
calibration facility partially funded by the UK
Atomic Energy Authority with major support from
a consortium of 15 oil companies and govern-
ment agencies. The RST-A tool was run in all the
openhole formations and several cased-hole for-
mations. A smaller number of measurements
were made with the RST-B tool. Both tools read
the true formation sigma over a wide range of
lithologies, porosities, formation and borehole
fluids, borehole sizes and completions. Even in
the difficult crossover region, where formation
sigma approaches or exceeds borehole sigma,
the errors are small and the tool does not lock on
to the wrong sigma component.
Both EUROPA and the University of Houston API
pits were used to check porosity readings. The
agreement between the two sets of porosities
was excellent.
Precision
Key to time-lapse monitoring techniques is
repeatability or precision. Time-lapse uses differ-
ences in measured quantities to monitor, for
example, the progress of waterflooding, the
expansion of gas caps and the depletion of reser-
voirs. The RST tool has been benchmarked to log
nearly three times faster than previous genera-
tion tools for the same level of precision.3
3. For examples of repeatabilityprecisionsee:
Plasek et al, reference 3, main text.
34
600
500
400
Permeability, md
300
200
100
0
0 0. 2
Dispersed clay, %
techniques, which by definition look at dif-
ferences from one log to another over a
period of several months. RST data can be
gathered at logging speeds nearly three times
those of previous-generation tools for the
same precision.4
Lithology
Assessing reservoir deliverability and
enhancing zone productivity rely on a thor-
ough understanding of the rock matrix. For
example, clay content dramatically affects
permeability ( above ). 5 Elemental yields
derived from RST spectroscopy measure-
ments provide the input to determine clay
and other mineral content and hence
improve understanding of the rock matrix.
Elemental yieldsNeutrons interact with
the formation in several ways. Inelastic and
capture interactions produce spontaneous
release of gamma radiation at energy levels
that depend on the elements involved. Mea-
surement of the gamma ray spectra pro-
duced by these interactions can then be
used to quantify the abundance of elements
in the formation. Elemental yields are often
used in various combinations or ratios to aid
complex lithology interpretation, to deter-
mine shale volume or to augment incom-
plete openhole data (see Making Full Use
of RST Data in China, page 36 ).
4. For more details on time-lapse monitoring see sec-
tions on precision and auxiliary measurements:
Plasek RE et al, reference 3.
5. Herron M: Estimating the Intrinsic Permeability of
Clastic Sediments from Geochemical Data, Transac-
tions of the SPWLA 28th Annual Logging Symposium,
London, England, June 29-July 2, 1987, paper HH.
6. Roscoe B, Grau J, Cao Minh C and Freeman D:
Non-Conventional Applications of Through-Tubing
Carbon-Oxygen Logging Tools, Transactions of the
SPWLA 36th Annual Logging Symposium, Paris,
France, June 26-29, 1995, paper QQ.
Effect of clay and
30 p.u. calcite on perme-
ability. A small
20 p.u. percentage of clay
10 p.u.
has a dramatic
effect on perme-
20 p.u. 15% Calcite ability. Calcite also
reduces perme-
ability. So to deter-
mine a wells pro-
ducibility or the
cause of any for-
mation damage, it
is important to
understand the
mineralogy.
0.4
At high neutron energies, inelastic interac-
tions dominate. After a few collisions, neu-
tron energy is reduced below the threshold
for inelastic events. The probability of an
inelastic interaction occurring is also rea-
sonably constant for all major elements.
As neutrons slow to thermal energy levels,
capture interactions dominate. Some ele-
ments are more likely to capture neutrons
than others and so contribute more to the
capture gamma ray spectrum.
Inelastic and capture gamma ray spectra
are recorded by opening counting windows
at the appropriate time after a neutron burst
from the RST neutron generator. Tool design
allows not only for much higher gamma ray
count rates than previous generation tools,
but also for gain stabilization that enables
lower gamma ray energy levels to be
recorded for both inelastic and capture
measurements. A major advantage of this is
the inclusion of the inelastic gamma ray
peaks on the spectrum at 1.37 MeV for
magnesium and at 1.24 MeV and 1.33 MeV
for iron.6
A library of standard elemental spectra,
measured in the laboratory for each type of
tool, is used to determine individual ele-
mental contributions (next page ).
SpectroLith interpretationSpectroLith
processing is a quantitative mineral-based
7. Herron SL and Herron MM: Quantitative Lithology:
An Application for Open and Cased Hole Spec-
troscopy, Transactions of the SPWLA 37th Annual
Logging Symposium, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA,
June 16-19, 1996, paper E.
8. See Roscoe B et al, reference 6.
Oilfield Review
 Inelastic Spectra alone with the remainder of the formation
Elemental stan- being composed of quartz, feldspar and
dards for the RST-A mica minerals.
tool. Lower gamma SpectroLith interpretation involves three
Oxygen
ray energy levels
are recorded by the steps:
RST tools than by production of elemental yields from
Silicon previous generation gamma ray spectra
pulsed neutron tools. transformation of yields into concentra-
Magnesium Iron This allows mea-
Relative counts tion logs
surement of elemen-
Sulfur Calcium conversion of concentration logs into
tal contributions
Background from elements such fractions of clay, carbonate and frame-
as magnesium and work minerals.
iron. Elemental
Carbon yields are processed
from standard spec- Borehole Fluid
tra obtained using The producing wellbore environment may
laboratory measure- include a combination of oil, water and gas
ments. Shown are phases in the borehole as well as flow
the standards for
inelastic (top) and behind casing. Borehole fluid interpretation
capture (bottom) is primarily based on fluid velocities and
spectra for the borehole holdup. The RST equipment
1 11/16-in. RST-A tool. makes these measurements using several
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Energy, MeV independent methods, with enough redun-
dancy to provide a quality control cross
Capture Spectra
check:
The WFL Water Flow Log measures water
velocity and water flow rate using the
Iron principle of oxygen activation. This
method detects water flowing inside and
Chlorine
Silicon outside pipe, and in up and down flow.
The Phase Velocity Log (PVL) measures
oil and water velocities separately by
Relative counts

injecting a marker fluid, which mixes and

Titanium
Sulfur
Hydrogen
Gadolinium
1 2 3 4
Energy, MeV
lithology interpretation derived from elemen-
tal yields. Traditional lithology interpretation
relied on measurements of elements such as
aluminum and potassium to determine clay
content. Aluminum, especially, is difficult to
measure and requires a combination of log-
ging tools; the interpretation is also complex.
A recent detailed study of cores showed
that a linear relationship exists between alu-
Calcium
5 6 7 8
minum and total clay concentration. Of
more importance, it also showed that sili-
con, calcium and iron can be used to pro-
duce an accurate estimation of clay without
knowledge of the aluminum concentration.7
The concentrations of these three elements
can be obtained from RST spectroscopy
measurements.
In addition, carbonate concentrations
defined as calcite plus dolomitecan be
determined from the calcium concentration
travels with the specified phase. This
method may be applied to up and down
flow, but only fluids in the pipe are
marked and therefore detected.
Two-phaseoil and waterborehole
holdup may be measured in continuous
logging mode with the RST-B tool.8
Three-phaseoil, water and gasbore-
hole holdup is currently an RST-A station
measurement based on a combination of
C/O and inelastic count rate ratio data.
Borehole salinity is one of the computa-
tions made as part of the sigma and poros-
ity log and may be used to compute a
borehole water holdup with either the
RST-A or the RST-B tool.
(continued on page 39)

Summer 1996 35

Gu Dao and Sheng Tuo are typical of the Shengli
complex of oil fields about 200 km [125 miles]
southeast of Beijing near the Bo Hai Gulf, China
(right).1 Both fields have a similar deltaic deposi-
tional environment, with alternating sand-shale
sequences. Thin, tight, calcareous streaks within
the depositional sequences are common. Reser-
voir layer thickness varies from more than 10 m
[31.2 ft] to less than 1 m [3.1 ft] and each layer is
produced separately.
For more than 30 years, many of these eastern
Chinese oil fields have been under water injec-
tion to maintain pressure and improve sweep of
the heavy hydrocarbons. The water injection pro-
gram uses a mix of the low-salinity connate water
and fresh surface water, which has resulted in
variable and unknown water resistivity in many
reservoirs.
In order to efficiently manage the waterflood
enhanced oil recovery program and maximize oil
recovery, it is essential to know the waterflood
sweep efficiency, determine residual or remain-
ing oil saturation, and pinpoint zones bypassed
by the recovery scheme.
Hydrocarbon saturation evaluation from open-
hole resistivity logs, run in newly drilled infill
wells, is difficult because the formation water
resistivity is variable and most of the time
unknown. Reservoir saturation monitoring with
sigma measurements is impractical, as there is
little contrast between the oil and water sigmas
and, in any case, the water sigma is unknown.
These constraints leave carbon-oxygen measure-
ments as the only viable option.
The Shengli oilfield operatorsShengli
Petroleum Administration Bureau, China National
Petroleum Corporation (SPAB-CNPC)decided to
run the 21/2-in. RST-B tool for many reasons:
The shielded dual-detector system alleviates
the effect of a changing or unknown borehole
oil holdup, as well as the effect of waxy
deposits on the casing.
1. Olesen J-R, Chen Y, Zeng W, Zhu L and Zhang Z:
Remaining Oil Saturation Evaluation in Water Flooded
Fields Under Variable Formation Water Resistivity, to be
presented at the 1996 International Symposium on Well
Logging Techniques for Oilfield Development, Beijing,
Peoples Republic of China, September 17-21, 1996.
36
Making Full Use of RST Data in China
MONGOLIA
CHINA
Beijing
Beijing
Qingdao
Bo Hai Gulf
Shanghai
Shengli Complex
Gu Dao
Sheng Tuo
TAIWAN
Hong Kong
Location of Gu Dao and Sheng Tuo fields.
Through-tubing logging, while the well was
flowing, avoids formation damage and also
increases operational efficiency in a multiwell
campaign.
The 5 1/2-in. casing inside 8 1/2-in. borehole
completion produces a thick cement sheath
that reduces measurement sensitivity. The RST
tool has a high-energy, high-yield neutron gen-
erator and an efficient detection system that
provide better statistics in thick cement than
the previous-generation pulsed neutron tools.
An additional pass in sigma mode provides
data useful to accurately evaluate shaliness,
especially in wells with scarce openhole data.
Measurements such as neutron porosity and
count rates can also be recorded to aid inter-
pretation when gas is present.
Evaluation with Scarce Openhole Data
Key to the interpretation of carbon-oxygen data is
a knowledge of lithology to account for matrix
carbon, and effective porosity to calculate oil sat-
uration. A typical Sheng Tuo well illustrates the
benefits of additional data provided by the RST
tool (next page). For this well the openhole data
were limited to sonic and gamma ray logs.
Sonic and gamma ray data do not provide
enough lithology information to account for matrix
carbon. For example, carbonates cannot be distin-
guished from tight siliclastic streaks. Sonic-
derived porosity may also be inaccurate if lithol-
ogy and formation fluids are unknown, and also, if
the sands are unconsolidated and the compaction
factor is unknown. The gamma ray curve alone is
unsuitable for accurate shale volume evaluation
because the reservoir sands are rich in micas and
feldsparsboth radioactive minerals.
To augment the limited openhole data, an RST
sigma-mode pass provided sigma for shale vol-
ume estimation and thermal neutron porosity
(TPHI) for effective porosity evaluation. The
inelastic-capture data were analyzed in detail not
only for the carbon-oxygen ratio (C/O), but also for
elemental yields to provide other ratios. For exam-
ple, the ratio of iron to silicon (IIR) is indicative of
shale volume if kaolinite and heavy minerals are
not present; the ratio of silicon to silicon-plus-cal-
cium (LIR) may be used as a lithology indicator;
and the ratio of chlorine to hydrogen (SIR) gives a
formation salinity indicator.
The initial volume of oil was computed from the
openhole resistivity data in 1994 assuming that all
sands were at connate water resistivity. The 1995
RST carbon-oxygen evaluation computed remain-
ing oil. A decrease in oil between the two may be
due to reservoir depletion, but could also be due
to an overly optimistic openhole evaluation if the
reservoir water was not at connate salinity, but at
the fresher floodwater salinity.
The additional RST data proved invaluable. For
example, in the Gu Dao and Sheng Tuo fields in
general, sigma responds primarily to changes in
matrix sigma and therefore provides the best shale
indicator. The lithology indicator ratio LIR was
used to identify the tight calcite streaks at X201 m
and X218 m.
Interpretation of the salinity indicator ratio (SIR)
is more complicated. However, when the forma-
tion water volume remains constant, SIR responds
directly to formation fluid salinity and can be used
to determine the progress of injection water
approximately the case in the large reservoir
between X220 m and X245 m.
Oilfield Review
 IIR LIR DT Openhole Analysis
0 2.5 0.625 1.25 150 sec/ft 50 0 p.u. 100
SIGM SIR TPHI Openhole Fluid 1994
0 c.u. 50 -0.5 ppk 3.5 60 p.u. 0 100 p.u. 0
GR NPHI Shale
100 API 250 60 p.u. 0 Bound Water
The inelastic count rate ratio (CRRA) from the
Quartz
near and far detector is sensitive to porosity
Calcite
and gas content.
Depth, RST Oil 1995
For example, in one Gu Dao well, the upper
m Water
sand body, X103 m to X109 m, shows the pres-
ence of gas (next page, top). Sigma and CRRA
X200
scales were chosen so that the curves overlay in
clean gas-free formations. In the upper sand they
show negative separation as both sigma and
CRRA are driven lower by the presence of gas.
Similarly, TPHI shows a reduced neutron porosity
when compared to the true formation porosity
taken from the openhole interpretation of 1990.
No gas was apparent on the 1990 openhole
logs, so it is assumed that reservoir pressure has
declined below bubblepoint allowing gas to come
out of solution. Tests indicate that this is a water-
bearing zone with some gas, confirming the RST
X250 interpretation.

Determining Water Resistivity and Flood Index

Interpreting openhole logs of newly drilled wells
in reservoirs that have been partially or fully
Formation evaluation with additional RST data. Volumetric analysis (track 4) shows remaining hydrocarbon
saturation determined from RST carbon/oxygen ratio. The 1994 openhole fluid curve indicates more oil due to flooded is challenging. Water resistivity, Rw ,
either depletion or an overly optimistic evaluation. A comparison of RST porosity (TPHI), cased hole CNL often varies continuously from the relatively high
Compensated Neutron Log porosity (NPHI), and sonic transit time (DT), shows good agreement (track 3),
value of fresh floodwater to the low value of the
especially when NPHI is put on a sandstone scale3 to 4 p.u. shift to the left. The lithology indicator (LIR) is
about 1 for siliclastics and decreases for carbonates (track 2). Two tight calcite streaks can be seen at X201 more saline connate water. If connate water
and X218 m. The salinity indicator (SIR) responds to formation salinity if porosity and hydrocarbon saturation resistivity is used for Rw , then hydrocarbon satu-
are approximately constant (track 2). The iron indicator (IIR), gamma ray and sigma (track 1) follow the same
trend, and each may be used for shale volume calculation under the correct conditions. Gamma ray indication ration will be optimistic in partially flooded
of shale will be pessimistic if radioactive sands are presentfor example, those containing micas and zones.
feldspars. Clays, except for kaolinite, contain iron. Sigma responds to formation matrix and fluids. Sigma fluid
is almost the same when oil and fresh water are present, so sigma responds primarily to changes in matrix. However, by combining openhole and RST data
In Gu Dao and Sheng Tuo, sigma has proved to be the best shale indicator. a continuously varying Rw may be calculated
leading to true hydrocarbon saturation. The eval-
In the shaly lower section of the reservoir, Identifying Gas-Bearing Zones uation may be taken further if floodwater resistiv-
salinity is high and probably at connate level, Carbon/oxygen ratio responds to the carbon con- ity is known and constant. In this case, the total
indicating minimal depletion. The middle section centration in pore space. In gas-bearing zones, volume of water may then be split into connate
is the cleanest, most permeable section and carbon concentration is low, so C/O is low. Low and floodwater.
shows a progressive drop in salinity. The water- C/O can easily be misinterpreted as a water-bear- Reservoir saturation acquisition timing is criti-
flood front has reached this section. The upper ing zone. However, several auxiliary measure- cal to the interpretation. It must be late enough
section shows an intermediate salinity and shale ments can help identify gas-bearing intervals: after well completion to allow drilling fluids to
content, and also a smaller discrepancy between Gas sigma is much lower than water sigma or dissipate, but before significant hydrocarbon
RST saturation and openhole saturation. Flooding oil sigma; therefore, at comparable shale lev- depletion occurs. Four weeks has proven ade-
has reached this section, but is not complete. els, the RST sigma measurement will be lower quate for Gu Dao and Sheng Tuo fields.
Similar results have been seen with other RST in gas-bearing reservoirs. Water resistivity is computed using standard
logs in these fields. Hydrogen index is also low in gas-bearing openhole interpretation methods. Openhole logs
zones. Therefore, neutron porosity measure- provide Rt , Rclay, Vclay and effective porosity,
ments such as RST porosity (TPHI) underesti- eff. Water saturation comes from RST interpre-
mate formation porosity.
Summer 1996 37
 Radius of Bit Openhole Sw 1990 Openhole Porosity Openhole Analysis tation. The flood index is determined as a linear
0 in. 10 100 p.u. 0 50 p.u. 0 0 p.u. 100 interpolation between floodwater resistivity and
Borehole Fluid Cased Hole Sw 1995 O.H. Fluid Volume 1990 Shale connate water resistivity.
Casing Wall 100 p.u. 0 50 p.u. 0 Bound Water In a Gu Dao field example, connate and floodwa-
Assumed Cement RST Gas Indicator RST Fluid Volume 1995 Quartz ter salinities are 8.5 ppk and 3 ppk, respectively
Sheath 5.75 1.75 50 p.u. 0 Calcite (below left). The lower section, X296 to X303 m,
Formation SIGM TPHI from Sigma mode RST Oil 1995 is shaly and water-bearing. The middle section,
Depth, -10.0 c.u. 30.0 0.5 p.u. 0 Water X287 m to X296 m, is the cleanest and is separated
m Gas RST Oil 1995 from the lower section by a thin, clean, sand streak
where the oil-water contact is situated.
X100
The clean midsection has the highest permeabil-
ity and provides a preferential conduit for water-
flooding. The discrepancy between RST-derived
and openhole hydrocarbon saturation is due to the
inadequate Rw estimation for the openhole evalua-
tion. True hydrocarbon saturation is 40% as shown
by RST data and not 60%. Water resistivity, com-
puted from a synthesis of RST and openhole data,
indicates that fresh waterflooding has increased
Rw from the connate water value of 0.35 ohm-m to
X125
about 1 ohm-m. The flood-index calculation con-
firms that the cleanest levels of this reservoir have
been heavily flooded.
The shalier upper sand section shows general
agreement between RST-derived and openhole
hydrocarbon saturation. Because of the increase in
Gas detection. Inelastic count rate ratios of near-to-far detector counts and sigma are both affected by gas shaliness and the related decrease in permeability,
(track 2). Negative separation of these curves indicates gas. RST porosity, TPHI, also reads lower in gas (track
3). Although no gas was shown on the openhole logs, it is assumed that solution gas has accumulated in the waterflooding essentially bypasses this section
fully depleted zone between X100 m to X109 m. Tests indicate that the layer is mainly water and gas. and little hydrocarbon sweep is achieved.

Radius of Bit RST-derived Rw Openhole Porosity Openhole Analysis Campaign Success

0 10 0 2 50 p.u. 0 0 p.u. 100 The Shengli oilfield RST campaign has shown that
Borehole Fluid Cased Hole RST Sw O.H. Fluid Volume 1994 Shale hydrocarbon monitoring in waterflooded fields with
Casing Wall 100 p.u. 0 50 p.u. 0 Bound water varying salinity is a viable procedure. In addition,
Assumed Flood Index RST Fluid Volume 1995 Quartz ancillary RST measurements complement open-
Cement Sheath 2 0 50 p.u. 0 Nonmovable oil hole information, improving both formation evalua-
Formation Nonmovable Oil Open Hole 1995
tion and detection of gas-bearing intervals. Also,
Remaining Oil RST1995 Movable RST Oil 1995
Depth, the combination of openhole and RST data
m Flood Water Water
acquired within one month is a powerful tool for
evaluating the waterflooding process. During the
course of the campaign, RST data contributed to
the achievement of the SPAB-CNPC engineers goal
of maintaining oil output while controlling water
production. RST results showed a large amount of
X290
remaining hydrocarbon, especially in the massive
sands of the Sheng Tuo oil field.

Water resisitivity, Rw, and flood index. A flood

index can be calculated from variable Rw (track 2)
X300 computed from RST and openhole data collected
before any hydrocarbon depletion and after invasion
fluids have dissipated (track 3).

38 Oilfield Review
 WFL measurementsWater flow logging, Near Detector Far Detector Additional Detector
introduced with the last-generation TDT
Thermal Decay Time service several years
ago, is now available with the RST service.
The RST neutron generator provides
improved burst control, which allows detec-
tion of water velocities up to 500 ft/min
[150 m/min] with the far detector alone. In
Casing
addition, the introduction of energy discrimi- Minitron Oil
nation and shielding between neutron gener-
ator and detectors results in a significant
improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio, and
Water
extends sensitivity to low flow conditions.
Oxygen molecules in water are activated
by a burst of neutrons producing a radioac-
tive cloud. The cloud moves with the water
along the borehole, emitting gamma rays as 16
O+n p+16N +16O* 16
O+ Half-life ~7.1sec
activated oxygen decays back to its steady
state (top right ). As the cloud passes, gamma WFL Water Flow Log service. A short burst of neutrons interacts
rays are first detected by the near detector with oxygen in the surrounding water forming an oxygen isotope
and then by the far detector of the RST with a half-life of 7.1 sec. As the activated oxygen decays back to
sonde, producing a characteristic peak in its steady state, gamma rays are emitted. In flowing water the
cloud of activated oxygen, and hence gamma rays, travels along
the count rate of each. The time between at the water velocity. Characteristic increases in count rate are
neutron burst and cloud detectiontime-of- seen as the cloud passes the various detectors. The distance
flightand the distance between neutron between neutron generator and detector and the time-of-flight
generator and detector give water velocity. give water velocity. The initial cloud volume is proportional to the
amount of oxygen present and hence volume of water. The area
Other detectors can be added farther away
under the gamma ray peak as the cloud passes a detector is,
in the tool string to detect extremely high therefore, also proportional to the volume of water flowing by
water velocities. The RST equipment can (water holdup)allowing for effects of diffusion and decay rate.
also be turned upside-down to detect down- Combining water velocity and holdup gives water flow rate.
ward flow.
In addition, the volume of activated oxy- Phase Velocity
Marker signal Logging (PVL).
gen is proportional to the volume of water A strong neutron
flowing by the detectors. The profile of the absorber is
detected signal carries information about injected into the
the mean water velocity, water holdup and appropriate phase
of producing fluid.
water flow rate. These quantities are related
This is subse-
in that the water velocity, water holdup and Start of injection quently detected,
effective cross-sectional area of the pipe can allowing a time-of-
be combined to compute the water flow 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 flight measure-
rate (see Production Logging in the San Time, sec ment that gives
the velocity of that
Joaquin Basin, next page ). phase.
PVL Phase velocity logging has been Oil-miscible marker RST tool Oil
developed for horizontal wells where strati-
fied flow is present. Like WFL logging, the
Phase Velocity Log measures time-of-flight.
Gadolinium has a very high thermal neutron
capture cross section and is injected into the
producing borehole ( bottom right ). The
injection fluid is designed to mix with either
the water or oil phase only. Gadolinium acts Phase Velocity Sonde Water
as a sink, sucking in thermal neutrons and

Summer 1996 39
 Production Logging in the San Joaquin Basin

Elk Hills is one of the largest oil fields in the San Gas
Joaquin basin about 20 miles [32 km] west of Bak- Oil
ersfield, California, USA (below). The field forms Water
part of the Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 1 and is
Downhole Flow Rate, B/D
operated by Bechtel Petroleum Operations, Inc.
for the Department of Energy. Although Elk Hills 0 3000

was discovered in 1911, production was limited Pressure Temp Water Flow Stations
until the 1974 oil crisis resulted in opening up the Depth, Water Flow Log, B/D
field to full production in 1976. The field has pro- ft 1050 psi 1300 206 F 211 0 3000

duced over 1.1 billion barrels of oil and a signifi-

cant quantity of gas, and now produces about
60,000 BOPD of medium-gravity crude.
Earlier this year, Bechtel wanted to determine X200
the flow profile and quantify the zonal contribu-
tions to oil, water and gas production from a well
in which production from a waterflooded sand
reservoir was commingled with production from a
shaly interval. A production log consisting of tem-
perature, pressure and spinner was run and sta-
tionary WFL Water Flow Log measurements were
X400 Thief zone
taken with the RST tool.
The flow profile turned out to be complex,
showing a zone of water recirculation near the
bottom and a thief zone above (right).1
A combination of spinner and WFL data located
the recirculation zone. The spinner indicated down
flow, while the WFL data indicated a small
X600
amount of water flowing up. The temperature log
Recirculating water zone
also showed a strong anomaly over this interval.
The flow profile shows a net flow of oil from this
zone simply because a recirculation zone requires
multiphase flow.
Both spinner and WFL data show an increase in
flow above the recirculation zone before an abrupt
X800
Fresno
San Andreas Fault WFL Water Flow Log. The flow profile indicates that most of the gas production is from X350 to X370 ft
(tracks 2 and 3). Below this depth is a complex profile of thief zone and water recirculation. WFL stationary read-
ings determined the water production profile, and temperature and pressure (track 1) aided the interpretation.
Coalinga
decrease at X430 ft. The temperature also drops The next significant event in the flow profile
C A L I F O R N I A at this point. The combination of decrease in flow occurs across the short perforated interval X350 to
rate and temperature can occur only if the forma- X370 ft. Here, a large increase in spinner flow rate
Bakersfield tion is taking fluida thief zone. Conventional and a change in slope of the pressure data indicate
Elk hills openhole logs and the mud log suggest that there an influx of gas. The WFL log shows doubling of the
Taft is a highly resistive, low porosity carbonate in water flow rate across the same interval.
this interval. The FMI Fullbore Formation
1. Water recirculation occurs, usually in deviated wells,
U S A MicroImager tool shows what has been inter- when water and oil are present. Water can flow up with
preted as a calcite healed fracture. This fracture the oil on the upper side of the well and down on the
Location of
lower side in a continuous cycle.
Elk Hills field, has most likely been opened by acid treatment
Kern County, A thief zone occurs when a perforated zone has a lower
California. and has created the thief zone. formation pressure than the borehole, causing flow
from borehole to formation.
40 Oilfield Review
 CPLT Combinable
Production Logging Tool RST Reservoir Saturation Tool FloView tool Fluid marker Total flow rate
Pressure and temperature Oil holdup Flow regime injector
Gas indicator Water holdup
Gamma ray
detector

CPLT GR RST FloView Plus tool

Spinner

WFL Water Flow Log Phase Velocity Log

Water velocity Marker injection for oil
Water holdup and/or water velocity
Water flow rate index

The next generation production logging tool string.

changing the borehole sigma. The detection
of this change provides a time-of-flight mea-
surement for the marked phase.
Two-phase borehole holdup The two
detectors of the RST sonde provide two car-
bon-oxygen measurements that are suffi-
cient to solve for formation water saturation
( S W ) and borehole oil holdup ( Y O ) (see
crossplot, page 29 ). Four points may be
defined on a plot of far carbon-oxygen ratio
versus near carbon-oxygen ratio to give a
quadrilateral:
Water in the formation and water in
the borehole (SW = 100, YO = 0 )
Oil in the formation and water in the
borehole (SW = 0, YO = 0)
Water in the formation and oil in
the borehole (SW = 100, YO = 100)
Oil in the formation and oil in the
borehole (SW = 0, YO = 100).
The exact position of these points depends
on lithology, porosity, hydrocarbon carbon
density, hole size, casing size, casing weight
and sonde typeRST-A or RST-B sonde.
With the larger RST-B sonde, the quadrilat-
eral is wide since the far detector is shielded
to be more sensitive to the formation and
the near detector shielded to be more sensi-
tive to the borehole. This provides good sep-
aration of the signals and a good borehole
oil holdup measurement in addition to a for-
mation saturation measurement. The slim-
mer RST-A sonde is not focused and, there-
fore, requires knowledge of the borehole
fluids to separate the formation and bore-
hole signals.9
Three-phase holdupA combination of
RST measurements can be used to compute
three-phase holdup. Gas holdup is indicated
by the inelastic near-to-far count rate ratio.
The near and far C/Oyields depend on gas,
water and oil holdups. By combining these
measurements and applying two condi-
tionsthe sum of the holdups must equal
unity and also the sum of the saturations
must equal unitythree-phase holdups may
be calculated. The RST measurement of
borehole sigma can also be combined with
this analysis to enhance the holdup calcula-
tion if the water salinity is known.
Comprehensive Cased-Hole Evaluation
Since commercialization of the RST service
four years ago, many applications have
been developed. With the addition of lithol-
ogy interpretation, phase velocity logging
and three-phase holdup, the tool is rapidly
becoming a comprehensive cased-hole
evaluation service. 10 A future Oilfield
Review article will explain in more detail
some of these new services, including new
production logging combinations (above ).
AM
9. For an alternative method of measuring borehole
holdup with the RST-A tool: Roscoe B et al, refer-
ence 6.
10. Schnorr DR: Determining Oil, Water and Gas
Saturations Simultaneously Through Casing by Com-
bining C/O and Sigma Measurements, paper SPE
35682, presented at the SPE Western Regional Meet-
ing, Anchorage, Alaska, USA, May 22-24, 1996.

Summer 1996 41
 Seamless Fluids Programs:
A Key to Better Well Construction
New insights into displacement mechanics inside casing and in the annulus, combined with integrated
drilling and cementing fluid services, can improve primary cementing. This structured fluids-train
approach also optimizes overall drilling and completion performance at lower cost for operators.
Lindsay Fraser Improvements in well construction are possi-
Bill Stanger ble if long-standing boundaries between
Houston, Texas, USA drilling and cementing can be eliminated,
and if mud removal and displacement crite-
Tom Griffin ria are properly applied. Efficient slurry
Sugar Land, Texas placement for complete and permanent
zonal isolation relies on effective displace-
Mourhaf Jabri ment of drilling fluids from the casing-bore-
Balikpapan, Indonesia hole annulusmud removaland on avoid-
ing bypassing, mixing and contamination of
Greg Sones fluids in the annulus and casing during
Anadarko Petroleum Corporation cement placement. Understanding displace-
Houston, Texas ment mechanics is essential to successful
cementing, but an integrated drilling and
Mike Steelman cementing fluids approach is a first step
Calgary, Alberta, Canada toward overall wellbore optimization.
The consequences of poor primary
Peter Valk cementing jobs can be severe. Incomplete
Texas A&M University mud removal may leave channels, allowing
College Station, Texas communication between subsurface zones
or to the surface. Likewise, failure to prop-
erly separate fluids as they are pumped
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to downhole can negate the most meticulous
Dominique Guillot, Dowell, Clamart, France, and Jason
Jonas, Dowell, Sugar Land. plans or the best designs and lead to ineffec-
tive mud removal or contamination that pre-
In this article, CBT (Cement Bond Tool), CemCADE, CET
(Cement Evaluation Tool), DeepSea EXPRES, EXPRES,
vents cement from ever setting up (harden-
MUDPUSH, SALTBOND, USI (Ultrasonic Imager) and ing). Approaching well construction as a
WELLCLEAN are marks of Schlumberger. series of interrelated events in which both
mud and cement play important rolestotal
fluids managementresults in a more con-
trollable, structured process with optimal
wellbores as the objective.1
Traditionally, drilling fluids and cementing
services have been provided separately and
the lack of stated, common objectives has
been a roadblock to optimizing these opera-
tions. Better management of fluid services
requires drillers and cementers to work
together from well start to finish to select
42
muds that achieve drilling goals, but do not
impede cementing success. Consideration
must be given to providing gauge holes that
allow casing centralization. It may be neces-
sary to reduce rates of penetrationaverage
to high instead of very highduring drilling
if that means improved borehole conditions,
lower-cost primary cement jobs and reduc-
tion or elimination of expensive repair
workovers. Necessary elements are avail-
able and, in most cases, in place to do this;
where efforts often fall short is in coordina-
tion and management of the entire process
to realize maximum benefits. Success in
terms of the final producta safe, long-last-
ing wellbore at the lowest possible
costshould be an incentive to rethink and
restate fluid objectives.
Better understanding of annular displace-
ment is a key element that is already in
place. 2 By using physical and computer
modeling, cementing criteria have
improved. Simulation and design software
allow the myriad of fluid factors and com-
plicated interactions involved in primary
cementing to be addressed qualitatively, and
most of the time quantitatively as well. The
total process (mud removal and cement
placement) including conditioning, annular
flow regimes, spacera buffer between
drilling muds and cement slurriesselec-
tion and fluid displacement inside pipe can
now be evaluated in planning and design
stages, during mud maintenance and condi-
tioning, and before or after jobs.
Oilfield Review

1. Fraser L and Griffin TJ: Economic Advantages of an
Integrated Fluids Approach to the Well Construction
Process, presented at the American Association of
Drilling Engineers Drilling Fluids Technology Confer-
ence, Houston, Texas, USA, April 3-4, 1996.
2. Lockyear CF and Hibbert AP: Integrated Primary
Cementing Study Defines Key Factors for
Field Success, Journal of Petroleum Technology 41
(December 1989): 1320-1325.
Lockyear CF, Ryan DF and Gunningham MM:
Cement Channeling: How to Predict and Prevent,
SPE Drilling Engineering 5 (September 1990):
201-208.
3. Turbulent flow occurs at higher flow rates. Individual
fluid particles swirl around, but their average velocity
results in what is considered a flat velocity profile.
Momentum is constantly transferring from one region
to another, but overall flow is relatively constant.
Summer 1996
4. Specification 10D, Specification for Casing Centralizers,
2nd. Dallas, Texas, USA: American Petroleum Institute,
1983.
Casing standoff (STO) in percent is defined as STO =
2w/D - d x 100 or w/R-r x 100, where D is hole diame-
ter, d is pipe outside diameter (OD), R is hole radius, r is
pipe radius and w is the smallest annular gap. STO is
100% when casing is concentricperfectly centered.
5. Laminar flow occurs at relatively low flow rates. Fluid
particles move parallel to the casing axis or annulus
walls along straight lines in the direction of flow, with
a parabolic velocity profile. At the walls, where liquids
wet the surface, fluid particles in contact with pipe or
annulus walls are stationary and velocity is zero,
increasing to a maximumtwice the average velocity
for Newtonian fluidsat the center of the flow channel.
High flow rates effectively displace mud if
turbulent3 flow is achieved around the entire
annulus, but are viable only if casing and
hole sizes are relatively small and casing
standoff4 from the borehole is adequate.
Lower flow rates can also successfully
remove mud in many cases where higher
flow rates are not practical, but more sophis-
ticated designs and modified fluids are often
needed to achieve laminar5 displacements.
Spacers with controllable propertiesability
to suspend weighting agents, reasonable tur-
bulent rates, adjustable rheology, compatibil-
ity, low fluid loss and a wide range of appli-
cationsare needed to meet and better
apply mud removal criteria (see Engineered,
Fit-To-Purpose Spacers, page 46 ).6
Finally, to close the fluids loop, displace-
ments inside pipe must be understood
because density differences may cause mix-
ing of fluids or bypassing of mud by spacers,
spacers by cement slurries or lead by tail
slurries.7 Better understanding and applica-
tion of fluid flow and displacement mechan-
ics are required along with more careful
6. Couturier M, Guillot D, Hendricks H and Callet F:
Design Rules and Associated Spacer Properties for
Optimum Mud Removal in Eccentric Annuli, paper
CIM/SPE 90-112, presented at the International Tech-
nical Meeting of the Petroleum Society of CIM/SPE,
Calgary, Alberta, Canada, June 10-13, 1990.
Tehrani A, Ferguson J and Bittleston SH: Laminar Dis-
placement in Annuli: A Combined Experimental and
Theoretical Study, paper SPE 24569, presented at the
67th SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibi-
tion, Washington, DC, USA, October 4-7, 1992.
7. Griffin TJ: Displacement Inside Casing. Schlumberger
Dowell Report (January 3, 1995).
43
Borehole Geometry and Mud Removal
Good
Mud
Chemical
wash
Top wiper
plug
Bottom
wiper plugs
Weighted
spacer
Float
collar
Float joints
(shoe track)
Tail
slurry
Zones of
interest
Float shoe
design of mud systems, spacer fluids and
cement slurries to avoid common cement-
ing problems (above ). This article gives an
overview of integrated fluids services, and
reviews mud conditioning and removal
from the annulus by turbulent and effective
laminar flow (ELF). A Dowell and Texas
A&M University study defining downward
flow in pipe and proposing methods to
improve cement placement without sacrific-
ing effective mud removal is also examined.
The Case for Total Fluids Management
In the past, drilling and cementing fluids
were often provided under individual ser-
vice contracts, often by different companies.
All too frequently, the attitude seemed to be,
drill as fast as possible and worry about
cementing after reaching TD. Other needs
and intentions, and deleterious effects that
occur when some fluids commingle were
often ignored. In principle, instead of segre-
gating drilling and cementing fluid services,
operations can be unified in a single, inte-
grated process. Isolated service-line mentali-
ties are replaced by a common goal of pro-
viding seamless fluids programsfluids
trainsto optimize overall performance
and results. Territorial considerations are for-
44
Displacements
Bad Good
Mud Mud
Chemical
wash
Weighted
spacer
Weighted
Top of cement spacer
too high
Immobile mud
in narrow gap
Lost
circulation
Lead
slurry
Gelled mud
channel
Inflow Tail
slurry
Tail slurry
below zones
of interest
gotten, and the two disciplines work
together to maximize the efficiency and
effectiveness of all well-construction fluids.
Good communications and coordination
are a necessity. Cementing designs are per-
formed before drilling is complete, so
choices about flow regimeturbulent or
laminarand spacer properties are made
assuming hole size and mud characteristics.
Last-minute changes or unexpected varia-
tions in borehole conditions place cementers
at a disadvantage. Irregular holes and
washouts hinder mud removal and casing
centralization, and may preclude use of pre-
ferred turbulent flow. Low standoffs result in
large radial variations in annular fluid veloc-
ity around casing with higher velocity on the
wide side and lower velocity on the narrow
side. This leads to inefficient annular dis-
placement and potentially poor cement
bonds or channels. For cement jobs, casing
OD to hole diameter ratio is close to unity,
so annular flow can be calculated using a
basic slot model (next page, top ).
Drilling fluid designs also influence
cement job quality. For example, zonal iso-
lation cannot be achieved unless mud and
cuttings are removed from the annulus.
Drilling fluids must be designed, maintained
and treated to provide optimum final hole
conditions, and ultimately be conditioned
before cementing for easy removal by spac-
Common cement-
ing problems (red)
Bad
related to drilling,
mud removal and
Spacer displacement.
bypasses
mud
No bottom
wiper plugs
Cement
mixes with
spacer
Bypassed
or mixed
fluids in
shoe track
Tail slurry
ahead of
lead slurry
Bypassed
lead slurry
ers and cement. Ideal muds for efficient dis-
placement are nonthixotropic8 and have
reduced gel strengths, plastic viscosities and
yield points; low density to facilitate
removal by buoyant forces; minimal fluid
loss to prevent thick filter cakes and differ-
ential sticking; and are chemically compati-
ble with cements. Perfect muds, however,
cannot be achieved in practice, so efforts
must be made to get close to ideal charac-
teristics during selection, maintenance and
precementing circulation.
Drilling fluid density and rheology must
be kept low to meet mud-removal require-
ments. Displacing fluid weights and viscosi-
ties become higher with each successive
interface, which can lead to unacceptably
high cement densities and viscosities, and
possible lost circulation if initial mud
weight is too high. Just circulating and con-
ditioning mud before cementing is not
enough; effective solids and chemical con-
trol of rheology are required throughout
drilling operations. If drilling fluids are not
properly designed or deteriorate during
drilling or logging, gelled mud that is diffi-
cult to remove may be left in washouts or
on the narrow side of the annulus.
Fluids compatibility also impacts annular
displacement. Fluid mixtures should have
Oilfield Review
lower rheologies than the individual fluids, Basic Slot Model
but because this is difficult to achieve for Concentric slot
muds and spacers, designs need to mini-
mize mixture viscosities. Problems also arise 3
Pump rates -180 0 180

Local to average velocity ratio

if cement and mud mix inside or outside 1 bbl/min Eccentric slot
casing. Some drilling fluid additives acceler- 3 bbl/min
6 bbl/min
ate or retard cement thickening times. But 2
ws ns ws
more commonly, cement-mud combina- Polymer profiles
tions result in high-viscosity mixtures and Water profiles
corresponding friction pressure increases 1
that lead to excessive surface pump pres-
sures and premature job termination as well
as inefficient displacement. Washes and 0
spacers isolate these potentially incompati- -180 -90 0 90 180
ble fluids, but unexpected variations in Wide Narrow side (ns) Wide
side (ws) side (ws)
composition leave cementers unprepared to Position around annulus
maintain this separation. This can be
avoided by using bottom wiper plugs to sep- Flow velocity profiles around a 60% standoff eccentric annulus. For cement jobs,
arate fluids inside casing and liners. outside casing to borehole diameter ratio is close to unity, and annular flow condi-
tions can be evaluated and calculated assuming flow through a slot (inset). If annu-
In addition to displacement considera- lar flow is uniform, the ratio of local to average velocity is equal to one. For thin
tions, cementing cost is an issue as hole Newtonian fluids like water in turbulent flow, velocity profiles are relatively flat
sizes increase from washout or enlargement. with lower-than-average flow in the narrow gap and above-average flow in the
The cost of larger cement volumes is obvi- wide gap. Viscous non-Newtonian fluids like polymers in laminar flow move mostly
on the wide side and can be static in the narrow annulus gap. Higher pump rates
ous, but additional centralizer cost to or increased standoff improve flow velocity on the narrow side of the annulus.
achieve adequate standoff for effective mud
removal is often overlooked (right ). 25
Spacer cost is also important. As hole size
increases, higher flow rates are needed for 20
turbulent flow and spacer volumes must be
increased. For example, if hole diameter
Cost, $1000

15
increases from 6.5 to 8.0 in., the rate to
achieve turbulent flow goes from 4 to 14 Total
bbl/min and cost of standard spacers goes 10
from about $6500 to $15,500. Cement
Workovers are another often overlooked 5
cost component when drilling and cement- Centralizers
ing services are segregated. Typically, if a 0
primary cement job is unsuccessful and a 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
cement squeeze is necessary, more than one Hole size, in.
attempt is needed to achieve zonal isola- Cementing costs versus hole size. The cost of additional
tion. Remedial cementing costs, including centralizers to achieve adequate standoff is often overlooked.
cement, perforating, packers and rig time, As hole size increases from 6.5 to 8.0 in., combined centralizer
can be as much as, or more than, the pri- and cement costs to fill from 8000 ft [2440 m] total depth (TD)
up to 5000 ft [1520 m] using a 16.45 ppg slurry with moderate
mary cement job. fluid-loss control almost triples from $7850 to $22,500.

Integrating Fluids Services in Canada

A managed fluids approach proved success-
ful in western Alberta, Canada, where verti-
cal wells are drilled to between 6888 and
7544 ft [2100 and 2300 m] through uncon-
solidated formations. Historically, drilling
and cementing fluids had been provided by
one company, but individual services were
not working to meet common goals. Drilling
fluids services tried to minimize expendi-
tures directly related to mud use, and
cementers did the best job possible with
resulting hole conditions. Managed sepa-
rately, drilling fluids cost on four wells
drilled with bentonite mud and three with holes were compensated for by pumping
partially hydrolized polyacrylamide (PHPA) extra cement, knowing that there was risk of
fluids was $26,600/well, or $3.58/ft channeling due to reduced fluid velocities in
[$11.75/m] drilled. Average hole enlarge- washouts. Cementing on these seven wells
ment was 113% by volume and typically 23 cost $103,750/well or $13.96/ft [$46/m]
days were spent drilling. Lost time due to drilled, about four times drilling fluid costs.
hole problems and backreaming was about Total fluids averaged over $130,000/well, or
24 hr/well. $17.56/ft [$57.60/m] of hole.
Some elements of drilling fluids perfor-
mance were acceptable, but hole geometries 8. Thixotropic fluids are highly viscous when static, but
that cementers had to address were not. become more fluid-like and less viscous when dis-
turbed or moved by pumping.
Bentonite mud was not conducive to drilling
gauge holes and a PHPA fluid failed to pre-
vent washouts that were responsible for
major cementing cost over-runs. Enlarged

Summer 1996 45
 Engineered, Fit-to-Purpose Spacers
The primary functions of spacers are fluid separa-
tion to avoid compatibility problems and ensuring
flow under a specific regimeturbulent or lami-
narwhile maintaining hydrostatic well control.
Improved mud removal guidelines require pre-
flushes for either turbulent flow or effective laminar
flow (ELF) techniques, so weighted MUDPUSH
spacers were developed for use with WELLCLEAN
optimal mud removal services (right). XT and XS
spacers are for turbulent flow. Viscous XL is used
with ELF. All three can be adapted for use with oil-
base mudsXTO, XSO and XLO spacers.
Turbulent spacers were designed to overcome
settling problems experienced with thin spacers.
Weighting agents are suspended at surface or bot-
tomhole temperatures under static and shear con-
ditions by a properly designed base-fluid rheology
that eliminates free water and particle settling over
a wide range of densities while allowing turbulent
flow at reasonable pump rates. The XT spacer is for
turbulent flow regimes in low-salinity environments
(fresh or less than 10% salt by weight of mix water)
and the XS spacer is for high-salinity applications
(30% salt by weight of mix water). Both can be for-
mulated at 10 to 19 lbm/gal [1.2 to 2.3 specific
gravity (SG)] densities.
Laminar-flow spacers have higher viscosities
than turbulent-flow spacers, so good particle-carry-
ing capacity ensures that weighting agents to
achieve required densities do not settle out. To
meet ELF friction-pressure hierarchy criterion,
spacer rheology can be adjusted so that apparent
viscosity across the range of pumping shear rates
falls between drilling mud and cement slurry
apparent viscosities. Spacer density can also be
designed halfway between mud and cement slurry
weights at any density from 10 to 20 lbm/gal
[1.2 to 2.3 SG].
In addition to proper spacer rheology and parti-
cle-carrying capacity, fluid-loss control and com-
patibility are important. Fluid-loss control must be
considered because water lost during displacement
increases the spacer solids-to-liquid ratio, density,
1. Courturier et al, reference 6, main text.
Tehrani et al, reference 6, main text.
46
MUDPUSH Spacer Properties
Excellent ability to suspend
weighing agents
Reasonable turbulent flow pump rates
Adjustable viscosity and density
for laminar flow
Cement, oil- and water-base mud
compatibility
Good fluid-loss control
Applicable for a wide range of fluid
weights and salinities
and to a greater extent, apparent viscosity. Exces-
sive fluid loss introduces the possibility of spacers
coming out of turbulent flow at design rates, which
can lead to channeling of spacer through the mud.
Fluid loss for these spacers is low and few compat-
ibility problems have been encountered. Some
mixtures of these spacers and cement slurries
develop weak gel strengths when left static at low
temperature, but these gels are broken by shear
rate or small temperature increases.
Consistent performance under field conditions is
also an advantage in effective mud removal. Spac-
ers must perform under variable conditions from
low-quality barite and brackish or high-salinity
water to low-shear mixing without major changes
in properties and effectiveness. Spacers should
also have adequate viscosity and fluid-loss control
at field conditions. MUDPUSH spacers perform
successfully under a wide range of operational con-
ditions, and rheological properties are consistent
with laboratory measurements made prior to jobs.
These spacers are limited to maximum bottom-
hole circulating temperatures of 300F [149C], but
the new XEO spacer, a polymer-modified, oil-in-
water emulsion spacer, extends applicability to
450F [232C] for oil-base mud removal only. The
WHT spacer is a water-base spacer developed for
these same higher temperature applications and
oil- or water-base mud removal to complement the
XEO spacer. However, it exhibits less fluid-loss
control, especially when seawater is used as mix
water. MUDPUSH spacers can also be used for
other cementing applications where weighted spac-
ers are needed, such as plug or squeeze cement-
ing, even when WELLCLEAN services are not
directly applicable.
Overall improvement was the goal of a
unified fluids approach on two subsequent
wells. Total fluids costs were targeted to be
reduced by improving hole gauge and
reducing cement volumes. Unconsolidated
formations in these wells were identified as
the cause of washouts, so because of the
lack of success with even a moderately
inhibitive PHPA system, mixed-metal-
hydroxide (MMH) mud with unique fluid
rheology was chosen to minimize hole
enlargement.
After the revised fluids program was
implemented, gauge holes allowed for bet-
ter casing centralization and improved dis-
placement designsa laminar flow regime
was chosen for these wellbore geometries.
Spacers effectively removed MMH fluids
from the annulus and logs indicated good
cement placement and successful zonal iso-
lation. Cement returns compared to cement
volume pumped in excess of caliper hole
volume indicated minimal if any channeling
in both the wells drilled with MMH fluid.
But severe channeling was likely in three of
the previous seven offset wells, and one had
significant losses during cement placement.
Water flowthe first in this field
occurred while drilling the initial test well.
Although most of the 57% washout was
over the interval where flow occurred on
this well, this still compares well with over
100% average washout on offsets. Drilling
fluid cost exceeded average offset cost
because dilution, borehole instability and
the need to increase density resulted in
excess product use that skewed cost. Posi-
tive results, however, were seen in improved
hole gauge and cement cost, which fell to
64% of the average.
The second test well had no losses or flow
and was drilled in the least number of days,
despite moderate rates of penetration. Lost
drilling time on this well was the lowest for
this field and washouts were reduced to
29%. Drilling fluid cost at $43,000 was
above the $25,000/well average, but
cementing costs of $45,000 were less than
half those of previous wells.
Total fluids cost was the lowest on record
for this fielda 32% savings over the aver-
age for offsets. The objective of reducing
overall well construction fluid costs was
achieved by reducing washouts, and higher
drilling fluid costs to minimize hole enlarge-
ment were more than offset by cement sav-
ings. Proper drilling practices cannot assure
cementing success, but poor drilling prac-
tices may make cementing success
unachievable.
Oilfield Review
Circulation: Mud Conditioning
Primary cementing operations often have 18 R Turbulent flow-rate
multiple objectives. On long intermediate 16 corrections versus
D
d r casing eccentricity.
casing strings, a complete cement sheath 14
The critical flow rate
from bottom to top is preferred, but a good

Flow-rate ratio
12 w to achieve turbulent
seal near the bottom of the string and 10 flow completely
around the casing seat is all that may be STO, % = w or 2w x 100 around a casing-
8 R-r D-d borehole annulus
required, making the casing seat the primary
6 doubles as casing
and the full cement sheath the secondary standoff (STO)
objectives. For liners, isolation away from 4
decreases from 100
the shoe (bottom) may be important as well 2 to 70% and there is
as a seal at the liner-casing overlap (top). 0 almost a tenfold
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 increase if standoff
Cementing goals dictate job designs. To drops to 30%.
API standoff, %
solve cementing problems, better under-
standing and application of fluid flow, dis-
Adjust rheology if necessary
placements and placement are required
along with careful design of mud systems,
spacer fluids and cement slurries. Cement
Eccentered Flow Screen Optimizing mud
placement is important in most cases; mud removal. In the early
Evaluate flow regimes and range of
removal is critical on all cementing jobs. flow rates versus hole size; select 1990s, pipe eccen-
The accepted procedure is to circulate and flow regime and standoff. tricity was first taken
condition before cement jobs.9 However, in into consideration in
designs and in the
the past, there were few guidelines for these field by using WELL-
procedures, except generally to reduce mud Centralizer Calculation CLEAN optimal mud
viscosity, gel strength and fluid loss; maxi- Select centralizers appropriate for removal service in
mize standoffcasing centralization; use hole dimensions and desired standoff. CemCADE cement-
ing design and
preflusheschemical washes and spacers to
evaluation software.
separate mud and cement; move the This comprehensive
Pump Rate Selection
piperotate or reciprocate; circulate a min- software is used to
imum of two hole volumes and pump at Select pump rate that meets criteria evaluate all well
for the chosen flow regime, hole parameters, includ-
size and standoff. ing casing standoff,
2000 Adjust and to recommend
Cementing geometry: standoff
0.81 diameter ratio or flow rate flow regimes,
U-Tube Calculation preflushes and
volumes, and pump-
Frictional pressure drop, Pa/m

1500 Evaluate U-tubing that occurs

while pumping at the selected rate. rate sequences
for optimum fluid
displacement.

Evaluate Mud Removal Criteria

1000
Drilling geometry:
0.55 diameter ratio
500
0 ever, the critical flow rate correction to
0 20 40 60
Pipe standoff (STO), %
Cementing versus drilling geometries:
the importance of standoff. At lower stand-
offs, the decrease in frictional pressure
drop in a cementing geometrylarge cas-
ing in open holeis significantly greater
than in a drilling geometry smaller drill
pipe in open hole. Standoff, therefore, has
a double effect on annular displacement in
a cementing geometry. Both wall shear
stress and pressure drop are lower for poor
standoffs in an eccentric annulus, which
further compounds mud removal and
cementing problems. In the past, most
cementing designs used drilling simulators
that assumed a concentric annulus.
Summer 1996
Determine if mud removal criteria
are met across all zones of interest.
high rates. Also, until a few years ago, criti-
cal flow-rate calculations assumed that cas-
ing was perfectly centered in the hole. How-
80 100
account for casing eccentricity is significant
and must be taken into consideration (top ).
In the early 1990s, eccentricity was first
taken into consideration in designs and in
the field by using WELLCLEAN optimal mud
removal service in the CemCADE software
(above ).
Gelled mud must be removed from the
annulus before placing cement, but mud in
the narrow side of an eccentric annulus is
often difficult to move. Casing standoff from
borehole walls is less than 100% even in
vertical wells, and frequently no higher than
85%. At low flow rates, drilling mud with
high yield stress and gel strength can be
static in the narrow gap of an eccentric
annulus because of distorted velocities,
lower frictional pressure drops and uneven
wall shear stress distribution (left ). This is
undesirable because stationary mud may gel
or dehydrate by static filtration at permeable
zones and be difficult to mobilize during
mud removal and cement placement.
Conditions leading to zero flow in narrow
annular gaps need to be defined by account-
9. Howard GC and Clark JB: Factors to be Considered
in Obtaining Proper Cementing of Casing, in Drilling
and Production Practices. Dallas, Texas, USA: Ameri-
can Petroleum Institute (1948): 257-272.
Haut RC and Crook RJ: An Integrated Approach for
Successful Primary Cementations, paper SPE 8253,
presented at the 54th SPE Annual Technical Confer-
ence and Exhibition, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA,
September 23-25, 1979.
47
ing for casing eccentricity. In the absence of
Increasing flow rate
pipe movement, frictional pressure drop and
density differences are the only forces acting
to move mud. Mud yield strength must be
less than the wall shear stress generated by A B
frictional pressure drop from viscous forces
for mud to flow in narrow gaps. Wall shear
stress can be increased by higher flow rates,
improved standoff and increasing density dif- Decreasing standoff
ferences, or mud gel strength can be
Flow Regimes
reduced before casing is run. No flow A B
Another consequence of uneven velocity
profiles is coexistence of different flow Laminar flow
regimes. In an eccentric annulus, mixed
flow regimes are possible if critical flow rate Turbulent flow
for turbulence is calculated, as in the past,
based on a concentric annulus, a common
assumption in drilling hydraulics models.
For fluids exhibiting yield stress and gel
strength like muds and cements, it is possi- Annular flow regimes. Fluids calculated to be in turbulent flow, assuming perfectly cen-
tered casing, are now known to be turbulent only in part of the annulus. In fact, three
ble for three annular flow regimes to coex- flow regimesno flow, laminar and turbulentcan coexist in an annulus, which means
istno flow if wall stress is less than fluid that mud may be removed effectively on the wide side, while on the narrow side mud is
yield strength on the narrow side of the static, resulting in a channel. Between the extremes of no flow on the annulus narrow
annulus, turbulent on the wide side and side and full turbulent flow around the annulus, mud removal may be poor, unless lami-
nar flow displacements are properly designed.
laminar in between (right ).

STO 40% 40% 60% 60% 50%

Rate 2 bbl/min 8 bbl/min 2 bbl/min 5 bbl/min 8 bbl/min
10 Mud, spacer and cement distribution for
various displacement rates, standoffs and
9
spacer properties. In the base case (far left),
8 mud and spacer channels were left along
the length of a simulated annulus in this
full-scale flow loop. As displacement rate
Distance from shoe, m

7
was increased, mud was displaced from
6 the annulus narrow side, but full cement
placement did not occur because interfa-
5 cial velocity was low. Increasing standoff
(STO) had a dramatic effect on mud dis-
4
placement and cement placement (middle
3 and bottom), but further rate increase
under these conditions did not significantly
2 improve cement placement. Rate is, there-
fore, important in mud displacement, but
1 less influential in cement placement. Bet-
ter standoff, higher rate and a thin spacer
0
ws ns ws ws ns ws ws ns ws ws ns ws ws ns ws for more effective turbulent flow also had a
positive impact on cement placement,
Cement Spacer Mud highlighting the importance of proper fluid
Displacement Efficiency STO = 75% rheology designs, especially for spacers
100 (far right). (From Lockyear and Hibbert, refer-
ence 2 and Tehrani et al, reference 6.)
STO = 50%
75
Efficiency, %

50

Experiment
25 Theory

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Hole volumes pumped

48 Oilfield Review
The Annulus: Removing Mud, CemCADE Design and Evaluation
Placing Cement
A better understanding of annular displace-
ment emerged in the late 1980s and early
1990s.10 Previously, casing eccentricity, or Enter well data Administration, well, casing,
standoff, was not considered in designs, Fluid editor: rheologies, caliper, survey and formation
even though it was known to be a factor in slurry design, API
data, spacer design,
channeling and primary cementing failures. wash design, chemicals Enter fluids Evaluate displacement
Competent cement sheaths and a good seal and materials criteria using Eccentered
depend on effective mud removal by turbu- Flow screen: Turbulent or
Effective Laminar Flow (ELF)
lent or, under certain conditions, laminar Foamed cement versus hole size, standoff
Enter all
flow. But fluids calculated to be in turbulent placement sequences and rheology
flow assuming perfectly centered pipe might PPA-gas migration
If not
actually bypass mud in an eccentric annulus OK
because fluid velocities vary radially around Pressure margins
eccentric casing. Now CemCADE cement-
ing design and evaluation software can be
If standoff
used to make mud circulation, annular dis- If OK not OK
placement and cementing recommenda-
tions based on actual well geometry, casing
standoff and fluid rheologies (right ). Centralizer data from Design
data base or user centralizers
Even if mud gel strength is broken during based on
enters vendor
circulation and conditioning, the question centralizer information eccentered
of whether cement will flow into the narrow flow analysis
annulus gap needs to be answered. If
cement flows primarily on the annulus wide If standoff OK
side and leaves a slow-moving mud or
spacer channel in the narrow side, good
cement placement and zonal isolation will Select pumping
not be achieved. Cementing, therefore, can rate using Rate not
design rate acceptable
be considered in two parts: mud removal selection
and cement placementuniform cement
flow without channelingwhich both
depend on proper displacements up the Acceptable rate
annulus and down casing. Increasing stand-
off improves mud displacement and cement
placement; displacement rate is important Enter pumping
for effective turbulent mud removal (previ- schedule and
ous page, bottom ). run simulation
Displacing mud with spacers in turbulent Not met
flow is one of the most effective and widely View Efficient
accepted cementing techniques. Turbulent- Time or Efficient
flow mud removal dates back to the 1940s. Volume Plots
It was subsequently recognized that turbu-
lent scavenger displacing fluidspre-
Mud removal criteria met
flushesplaced in contact with formations
3D survey (if significant),
for about 10 minutes improved mud Efficient Time/Volume,
removal. 11 Increasing displacement rate Prepare customer well security and
improves turbulent mud removal. And thin, reports, printouts control, and
and plots surface pressure plots
less viscous spacers like water and surfac-
tants that can easily be placed in turbulent Computer-assisted cement job designs. CemCADE software can be used to make mud
flow at low pump rates work best, probably circulation, annular displacement and cement placement recommendations based on
because of combined drag, erosion and actual well geometry, casing standoff and fluid rheologies.

10. Bittleston S and Guillot D: Mud Removal: Research
Improves Traditional Cementing Guidelines,
Oilfield Review 3, no.2 (April 1991): 44-54.
11. Brice JW and Holmes BC: Engineered Casing
Cementing Programs Using Turbulent Flow Tech-
niques, Journal of Petroleum Technology 16
(May 1973): 503-508.
Clark CR and Carter LG: Mud Displacement With
Cement Slurries, Journal of Petroleum Technology
25 (July 1973): 775-783.

Summer 1996 49
dilution at interfaces due to turbulent eddies is close to mud density and mud weight can-
( below left ). Chemical washes should Turbulent Flow not be modified, spacer density range is lim-
always be used, but weighted spacers Displacement Criteria ited and it may not be possible to meet this
designed for turbulent flowlow rheologies criterion.
and temperature stabilitycan be used Yield stress of fluids being displaced must
Preflushes in turbulence all
under some conditions if required. The max- around the pipe be exceeded by wall shear stress. Minimum
imum wash or spacer volume without com- +
pressure gradient defines the force needed
promising well control should be recom- to move drilling fluids in the annulus narrow
Preflushes in contact with
mended or the 10-minute annular contact zones of interest for 10 min gap and should also be applied prior to
time should be used. Even moderate chemi- + cementing during mud circulation to ensure
cal wash volumes used with spacers reduce that all the mud is moving and recondi-
Similar displacing and displaced
mud viscosity and are preferable to spacers fluid densities tioned. Below this force some mud remains
alone. immobile on the narrow side of the annulus.
Pump rates to achieve turbulence on the When mud is displaced by heavier fluids in
annulus narrow side depend on hole dimen- When turbulent flow is not an option, there laminar flow, a density differential helps
sions and casing standoff. However, achiev- is a need for properly designed mud dis- meet this condition by contributing to wall
ing turbulence around the entire annulus, placements with spacers and cement in lam- shear stress (next page, top left ). MPG veri-
even on the narrow side, requires high inar flow. These designs are more compli- fies fluid mobility and defines a lower flow-
pump rates in large casing that may not be cated, but criteria have been established to rate limit to ensure that flow occurs all
practical because of surface equipment lim- ensure displacement efficiency (below right ). around the annulus.
its or fracture gradients. Achieving mud Effective laminar flow requires positive den- The differential between frictional pres-
removal by turbulent flow becomes harder sity contrasts10% is recommended when- sures generated by fluids should be at least
as hole sizes get larger and standoff ever possiblea minimum pressure gradient 20% to increase interfacial stability. Other-
decreases, and is even more difficult when (MPG) to overcome mud yield stress and wise the displacing fluid tends to bypass
weighted spacers are used. Turbulent flow positive rheological hierarchies to maintain fluid ahead. Under laminar flow, spacers
criteria for annular mud removal require tur- increasing friction pressure and minimize with higher rheologiesthicker or more
bulence around the entire annulus, includ- differential velocity between fluids. Positive viscous than the mudare most effective
ing the narrow side, thin preflushes in con- density differential, which is independent of (next page, top right ). This is equivalent to
tact with formations for 10 minutes, and hole geometry, helps generate a flatter, more having apparent mud viscosity lower than
similar displacing and displaced fluid densi- stable interface and is the first condition to that of the displacing fluid for a given flow
ties (above ). check. In cases where cement slurry density rate and annular geometry. The frictional

Velocity Profile
2.5
Displacing fluids:
3-lbm/bbl xanthan polymer
Local to average velocity ratio

2.0 2-lbm/bbl xanthan polymer

Effective Laminar Flow
0.6-lbm/bbl xanthan polymer
(ELF) Displacement Criteria
1.5
Water
Minimum pressure gradient (MPG)
1.0 +
Positive density hierarchy
0.5 +
Positive frictional pressure hierarchy
0
0 90 180 +
Narrow Position around a 50 STO annulus Wide
side side Minimum differential velocity
at interfaces
Various viscosity fluids displacing a 3-lbm/bbl xanthan
polymer. Thin fluids like water displace thicker, more viscous
fluids because of increasing turbulence.(From Lockyear, Ryan Recommendations for ELF displacements.
et al, reference 6.)
These conditions should be applied to both
mud-spacer and spacer-cement interfaces
throughout the zone of interest. The differen-
tial velocity criterion is optional because it
is difficult to achieve, but should be applied
whenever possible to get good displace-
ment up to the designed top of cement.

50 Oilfield Review
 Displacement Efficiency
Displacement Efficiency = 16% Case 2
100 100
Case 1
= 2%
75 75

Efficiency, %
Efficiency, %
50 50

Experiment Experiment
25 25 Theory
Theory

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Annular volumes pumped Annular volumes pumped

Velocity Profile Velocity Profile

2
Displaced fluids:
2.5 Displacing fluid specific gravity (SG):
3-lbm/bbl xanthan polymer
Local to average velocity ratio

Local to average velocity ratio

1.6
2-lbm/bbl xanthan polymer
2.0 1.29 0.6-lbm/bbl xanthan polymer
1.16 Water
1.0
1.5
1

1.0

0.5 Displacing fluid:

3-lbm/bbl xanthan polymer
0 0
0 90 180 0 90 180
Narrow Position around a 60% STO annulus Wide Narrow Position around a 50 STO annulus Wide
side side side side

How density () affects laminar flow displacements.
Positive density hierarchiesincreasing the density of each
successive displacing fluidgreatly improve mud removal
and minimize channeling because of buoyancy effects. The
greater the differential density, the better the displacement
efficiency (top left). Like the classic example of communicat-
ing vessels from basic physics where liquids come to the
same level regardless of container size or shape, denser
displacing fluids try to equalize in an eccentered annulus
(top right). Increasing displacing fluid density greatly
improves the interfacial velocity profile and displacement
efficiency as shown by various specific gravity (SG) fluids dis-
placing a 1.0 SG fluid (bottom). (From Lockyear, Ryan et al, ref-
erence 2 and Tehrani et al, reference 6.)
How viscosity affects laminar displacements. A positive
rheological hierarchy between displacing and displaced
fluids at a low flow rate (Case 2 top) results in more efficient
displacement than displacing and displaced fluids of similar
rheologies at a high flow rate (Case 1 top) Thick fluids displace
thin fluid more uniformly than the reverse. Interfacial velocity
on the annulus narrow side improves as displacing fluid plas-
tic viscosity and yield point increasehigher rheologies
because of the large frictional pressure drops generated by
more viscous fluids (bottom). (From Lockyear, Ryan et al, refer-
ence 2 and Tehrani et al, reference 6.)

pressure criterion is important and an ini- stable interface and reduce the possibility of
Displaced mud
tial check should be always be made. If one fluid fingering or channeling through or spacer (1)
there is not at least a 40% friction pressure another. The sum of gravitational and fric-
Pressure drop

differential between mud and cement, both tion forces for displacing fluids in the wide
spacer and cement cannot meet this condi- side must be greater than those of the fluid
tion and rheological properties must be being displaced on the narrow side of the Displacing spacer
or cement (2)
changed by reducing mud yield point, den- annulus to balance forces so flow is uniform
sity and solids contents to a minimum dur- around the annulus. This condition can be
ing mud conditioning prior to cementing or satisfied if annular flow rate is below a criti- V2 < V1 Vc
Velocity
by increasing spacer and cement rheology cal value (right ).
(plastic viscosity and yield point). Improv- Annular velocity differential can be mini- How differential velocity affects laminar
ing casing standoff and increasing density mized by reducing mud yield point during displacements. Friction pressure develops
differentials also helps satisfy this criterion. conditioning, maximizing standoff, meeting faster on the annulus narrow side because
of the smaller flow area (effective slot size),
Friction pressure hierarchy and MPG estab- density and friction pressure heirarchy con- so the two friction pressure curves cross,
lish minimum flow rates. ditions by using viscous weighted spacers, since displaced and displacing friction
Differential velocity around the annulus at displacing at low pump rates and moving pressures increase at different rates. To
fluid interfaces must be minimized to estab- the pipe. When displacement rates are too maintain a stable interface between fluids,
velocity must remain below the critical
lish a relatively flat interface. The combina- high, displacing fluids tend to flow faster in
value (Vc ) represented by the intersection
tion of density and frictional pressure differ- the wide side of the annulus, regardless of of the two curves. And displacing fluid
entials helps generate a relatively flat and gravitational effects that tend to flatten the velocity must be less than displaced fluid
interface. Therefore, differential velocity cri- velocity.

Summer 1996 51
teria establish maximum annular flow rates
and contradict pump-as-fast-as-you-can Spacer
philosophies.
Unlike turbulent displacements in which
annular flow is maintained above a critical
rate, displacements by ELF must be main-
tained between maximum and minimum
rates. In turbulent flow, preflush volume is
determined from the 10-minute contact time
at a critical rate. For ELF displacements, Mud Mud
Interfacial
spacer volumes should be at least 500 ft boundary
[150 m] of annular fill, with a 60 bbl [10 m3]
minimum. Increased wellbore inclination
reduces displacement efficiency by decreas- Velocity profiles for displacement inside pipe. Overall flow direction was defined to be
ing gravitational effects, but this reduction downward, but allowed to be locally positive (down) or negative (up). Arrows represent
can be compensated for by optimizing pump velocity relative to radial position at an axial location. To compute interfacial boundary
shape, computations are made along the entire length of the pipe. A software called
rates and fluid rheologies. Complicated lami- Mathematica (version 2.2.3, Wolfram Research) derived displacement calculation rou-
nar displacements highlight how properly tines for displacement efficiency versus time and interfacial boundary position at various
designed spacers are essential in annular times during displacement, using fluid density, yield stress, plastic viscosity, pipe length
mud removal. and diameter, and pump rate.

Down Casing: Displacing Cement
Much effort goes into selecting proper flu-
ids, flow regimes and displacement
mechanics to remove mud from the annulus
and place cement. This usually means
pumping fluid stages with increasing densi-
ties. For downward flow inside pipe, how-
ever, a positive density hierarchy is counter
to effective displacement. Mixing and con-
tamination occur when interfaces between
fluids are unstable or displacing fluids
bypassfall throughfluids ahead, prob-
lems that can be overcome by using wiper
plugs for mechanical separation. Sometimes
only one bottom wiper plug is run, but more
often, none is used.
After investigation of primary cementing
failures in which fluid mixing inside casing
was a possible cause, P. Valk performed an
in-depth study of frictional and gravitational
forces on fluids flowing downward in
pipe.12 The mechanics of heavier fluids dis-
placing lighter fluids down casing when
wiper plugs are not used were defined, and
methods were developed to calculate dis-
placement efficiency and interfacial bound-
ary shapes. This project was based on ear-
lier work involving upward flow in annuli
and packed, fluid-filled columns (above ).13
The software to make these calculations
uses fluid densities and rheologies along
with gravitational effects, assuming vertical,
laminar flow and no mixing.14 This software
is only qualitative and not a simulation, and
cannot determine when bottom wiper plugs
should not be run.
Problems associated with
incomplete casing displacement
ing high pump pressures can also result if
Retarded (delayed) cement set time
Poor zonal isolation
Unset cement at liner tops
Lack of hard cement in shoe tracks
High displacement pressures from
viscous incompatible fluids mixtures
on pressure charts in the form of early lift
Subsequent work with this software shows
that there may be three forms of displace-
ment inside pipe (next page, top ). Fluid
interfacial boundaries may form smooth
parabolas with moderate displacement effi-
ciency or there may be an outer cylinder of
the first fluid that is not moving, so effi-
ciency is lower. It is also possible to have a
region where the first fluid tends to move
upward, in opposition to primary flow, so
displacement efficiency is quite low. In
cementing applications it is not possible for
fluids in the casing to flow up because of
the cementing head, but this force can lead
to a high degree of mixing at fluid inter-
faces. As expected, displacement is never
completely effective, demonstrating the
need for mechanical separationbottom
wiper plugs.
Incomplete fluid displacement inside cas-
ing is likely to mean an unsuccessful
cement job (left ). The tendency for upward
flow at interfaces can cause spacer or
cement leading edges to be contaminated or
complete mixing of mud, spacer and
cement, leading to inefficient mud removal.
Extreme viscosity increases and correspond-
slurries and muds are incompatible. Fluid
mixing can have disastrous results, includ-
ing appearance of premature set if incom-
patibility is severe enough. It is also possible
for displacing fluids to bypass fluids that
were pumped ahead. This is often evident
pressure and from returns at the surface as
heavier fluids bypass lighter fluids and turn
the cornerU-tubefrom the casing into
the annulus sooner than expected.
Cement contamination by spacer or mud
can change slurry rheology or retard thick-
ening time, as evidenced by friction pres-
sure increases during displacement or
apparent lack of set cement on evaluation
logs. In some cases, mixing may be only at
the slurry leading edge and result in lower
than expected cement tops or low-strength
cement up hole. It is also possible for tail

52 Oilfield Review
 100 100 100 Displacement

Displacement

Displacement

Displacement
efficiencies (top)

efficiency, %

efficiency, %

efficiency, %
80 80 80
60 60 60 and fluid interfacial
boundary shapes
40 40 40
when the leading edge
20 20 20 reaches the end of
0 0 0 pipe (bottom). Depend-
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 ing on fluid properties,
Normalized time, t Normalized time, t Normalized time, t
pipe (wireframe)
diameter and flow
velocity, the interface
between fluid stages
may be stable and
approach the shape of
a parabola (left). There
may be a region in
which the lighter bot-
tom fluid is static and
the heavier top fluid is
flowing down through
the middle of the pipe
in an internal
parabola (middle).
Or there may be a
region where the
lighter fluid is flowing
upward, counter to the
t=1 t=1 t=1 primary downward
flow direction (right).
Increasing casing size or density difference between fluids

slurries to fall through lead slurries; in this joints below float collars, compounding a placements become more inefficient, and in
case, cement evaluation logs may show difficult situation. larger pipe sizes, reverse flow of lighter flu-
good cement bond across most of the inter- Sensitivity analyses using this new soft- ids causes unstable conditions.
val, but poor cement at the bottom, where ware indicate that effective displacement Although there are often acceptable results
good, strong tail cement should be. There inside casing cannot be achieved by modi- when bottom plugs are not used, theory and
may also be spotty occurrences of good and fying fluids without adversely affecting field data indicate that mechanical separa-
bad cement. In some cases, no evidence of annular displacements. Properties that might tion at each interface is the only way to
cement may be found even after several influence interface shape and displacement ensure that competent fluids leave the cas-
days because of complete mixing and retar- efficiency include average velocity, yield ing and enter the annulus. This work sug-
dation of cement by spacer. point, density, plastic viscosity and pipe gests that bottom plugs should be used
Two common problems are failure of size. Displacement efficiency improves as whenever possible and that many undesir-
cement to provide a seal at the shoe and flow velocity and yield point difference able results can be explained by the phe-
lack of hardened cement in shoe tracks between bottom and top fluids increase. nomenon of heavier fluids falling through
(float joints) during drill out. Shoe failure Efficiency decreases as fluid-density differ- or mixing with fluids being displaced ahead
may be related more to formation character- ences increase; even at similar densities, in the casing. Running bottom wiper plugs
istics where casing is set than to cement job displacement is only 70% after a pipe vol- is strongly recommended and, in critical
quality, but there are cases when slurries ume of fluid is pumped. Differences in plas- cases, bottom plugs should be run at each
bypass spacers and the cement seal is actu- tic viscosity have little effect on displace- interface (see Using Multiple Wiper Plugs,
ally being tested. ments in the range of geometries and shear next page ).
Displacement efficiency also affects rates studied. As pipe sizes increase, dis-
cement quality in shoe joints. If bottom
plugs are not run and cement bypasses 12. Valk P: Fluid Displacement in Pipe. College 14. Wolfram S: Mathematica A System for Doing
spacer or mud, the top wiper plug can push Station, Texas, USA: Texas A&M University, Mathematics by Computer, 2nd ed. Reading, Mas-
October 30, 1994. sachusetts, USA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Com-
bypassed spacer and mud into the shoe pany, 1993.
13. Flumerfelt RW: Laminar Displacement of Non-
joint. Since wiper plugs stop at float collars, Newtonian Fluids in Parallel Plate and Narrow Gap
there may also be low-quality cement or Annular Geometries, SPE Journal 15 (April 1975):
mixed fluids between the float collar and 169-180.
Beirute RM and Flumerfelt RW: Mechanics of the
float shoe. Even when bottom plugs are run, Displacement Process of Drilling Muds by Cement
cement may bypass other fluids in the shoe Slurries Using an Accurate Rheological Model,
track. Also, float collar outlet orifices estab- paper SPE 6801, presented at the 52nd SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, Col-
lish a thin fluid jet through casing or liner orado, USA, October 9-12, 1977.
Hill S: Channelling in Packed Columns, Chemical
Engineering Science 1, no. 6 (1952): 247-253.
Flumerfelt RW: in B Elvers, ed: Ullmans Encyclope-
dia of Industrial Chemistry, vol. B1. Cambridge, Eng-
land: VCH Publishing (1990): 4-35.

Summer 1996 53
 Using Multiple Wiper Plugs

Use of the EXPRES Extrusion Plug Release from two plugs to three plugs and to subsea
System, a next generation cementing head, cementing using a Surface Dart Launcher (SDL)
continues to expand. This innovative design and Subsea Tool (SST) (next page). The first
automates release procedures and gives a DeepSea EXPRES prototype was used off the west
positive indication of plug launch. Plugs are held Hydraulic coast of Africa in mid-1994 and two other
launcher
in a basket below the head and inside casing so prototypes were placed in service in the Gulf of
that cementing fluidschemical washes, Mexico earlier this year. Over 28 jobs have been
spacers and cement slurriescan flow around performed with these tools. The SDL holds
the basket (right). Over 2000 lb of force from a identical darts, which are individually released
hydraulic ram launches the plugs, minimizing from surface during cementing jobs. These darts
chance of premature or accidental release. launch the wiper plugs when they reach the
Mechanical stops in the launcher provide an end downhole SST, but unlike free-falling balls, are
to each phase of the job. An oil-level gauge pumped down drillstrings to separate fluids and
indicates launcher-rod position and gives a clear wipe pipe walls. Other advantages over dropping
indication of plug departure. Top plug departure balls include positive fluid displacement and
Clamp
is verified by sensors mounted on the casing that elimination of the time and uncertainty of waiting
detect drillable magnets in the plug, sounding a 2-in. for balls to reach bottom.
inlet
horn and sending a signal to the cementing unit. The heart of DeepSea EXPRES, the downhole
Modular design, quick-latch connectors and Casing SST, allows use of high-performance, easily
adapter
remote operating capability save rig-up and job drillable EXPRES plugs with simplified designs
execution time. This means better mud that eliminate problems associated with pumping
Casing
conditioning prior to cementing and the unique collar fluids through wiper plugs. The tool retains wiper
ability to launch plugs on the flywithout plugs, preloaded in a basket with over 2000 lb
interrupting pumpingwhich reduces U-tube force, until they are launched by arrival of a dart
Wiper
effects and improves mud removal. High plugs from the SDL. Friction holds plugs in place during
pressure ratings allow pressure-integrity testing pumping operations. The current design accepts
immediately after cementing, saving rig time and up to three 8 5/8- to 13 5/8-in. plugs, or two 16- to
reducing possibility of forming a microannulus. 20-in. plugs that are under development. During
Plug
An exclusive wiper plug fin design ensures basket circulation, mud flows down the drillpipe,
complete fluid separation and effectively wipes through a sliding sleeve and out two orifices into
casing walls, so cement slurry reaches the float the casing-SST annulus. When a dart reaches the
Wiper
collar without being contaminated. Exposure to plug tool, drillpipe pressure forces the sliding sleeve
fins
high pressure is minimized by remote control and down, ensuring that each dart travels a full
light, well-balanced modules make the EXPRES length. Continued pumping forces the dart and
system easy and safe to handle. Casing rod down, pushing a plug out of the basket. After
The concept, developed several years ago, of a dart reaches its final position, a spring retracts
preloading plugs in a basket has been expanded the sliding sleeve to ensure complete,
unobstructed flow through the orifices. Darts
EXPRES cementing head. The automated Extrusion
remain in the holder and are retrieved with the
Plug Release System improves mud circulation and
conditioning, and cement job quality in addition to tool after the job.
reducing high-pressure hazards. Plugs are held in a Rod travel is slowed by a shock absorber filled
basket below the head and inside casing that cement- with hydraulic oil that flows past a small gap
ing fluids can flow around. Over 2000 lb of force from
a hydraulic ram launches plugs, minimizing chance of
premature or accidental release. A safety latch pre-
vents top plug release until the hydraulic ram begins
its final stroke.

54 Oilfield Review

between the rod piston and bore. The resulting
pressure differential resists rapid movement
and stops the rod after plugs are released.
Combined with plug friction, this causes a
Sliding sleeve 1500 psi [10,350 kPa] pumping pressure increase
and provides a positive indication of plug launch.
Spring Three brass shear pins increase top-plug release
Orifice pressure to 3000 psi [20,700 kPa]. A sleeve
First dart holding these pins slides down, but remains
inside the basket after the top plug leaves the
Dart holder
tool. Spacers that keep plugs from sticking
together also slide down the basket and are
Rod
retrieved with the tool.
Systems are also available to improve liner
cement jobs. In the past, one pump-down plug
Hydraulic
shock and a top plug were used, but new top and
absorber
bottom, four-plug systems prevent cement
Hydraulic oil contamination inside liners. Spacer is pumped
down drillpipe followed by a pump-down plug,
cement slurry, another pump-down plug and
displacement fluid. The first pump-down plug
passes through the top wiper plug and into the
Shear pins bottom wiper plug at the top of the liner where it
latches into a catcher. Pressure shears pins
Top plug attaching the bottom wiper plug to a mandrel and
the plug is pumped down the liner to the float
Plug basket
collar. A further increase in pressure shears the
catcher from the bottom wiper plug, allowing it to
Plug spacers
move into a circulating tube, which permits
cement slurry to pass through float equipment
Bottom
plug being into the annulus. The second pump-down plug
released
latches into the top wiper plug, which is
displaced through the liner until it reaches the
bottom wiper plug where it forms a seal.
The heart of DeepSea EXPRES. The downhole Sub-
1. Drelkhausen H: Quality Improvement of Liner
sea Tool (SST) allows use of high-performance, easily Cementations by Using Bottom and Top Plugs,
drillable EXPRES plugs with simplified designs that paper SPE/IADC 21971, presented at the SPE/IADC
eliminate pumping fluids through wiper plugs. During Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
pumping operations, wiper plugs, preloaded in a bas- March 11-14, 1991.
ket with over 2000 lb force, are held in place inside a
basket until they are launched by arrival of a dart from
the Surface Dart Launcher (SDL).
Summer 1996
Cement and Spacer Mixing
A mixed 9 5/8- by 9 7/8-in. intermediate cas-
ing string was set at 12,673 ft [3863 m] in
the Gulf of Mexico by Anadarko Petroleum
Corporation. A bottom wiper plug was run
between mud and spacer. From all indica-
tions, pipe was cemented normally and the
job was successful. On surface, full returns
were taken and samples for quality control
set up as expected. However, two days after
cementing, while testing casing to 5000 psi,
pressure dropped to zero. After casing
integrity was checked with a packer and
found to be intact, the float shoe was
drilled, but no cement was found. After pri-
mary cementing, the well circulated around
the intermediate casing annulus during a
cement squeeze. Evaluation with CBT
Cement Bond Tool, CET Cement Evaluation
Tool and USI UltraSonic Imager logs indi-
cated no cement with strength.
Common problems with cement harden-
ing and over-retardation by cement addi-
tives were ruled out as causes, but tests on
cement-spacer mixtures indicated that mod-
erate amounts of spacer could cause long
setting times. A total of 382 bbl [60.6 m3] of
cement and 80 bbl [12.7 m3] of spacer were
used. If these two fluids mixed completely,
the ratio of spacer to cement would be
about 17%. Cement contaminated by 20%
spacer attained a compressive strength of
only about 25 psi in 48 hours, which
matched the actual behavior observed in the
field. Cement-mud mixtures were even
more retarded.
Software to evaluate casing displacements
was not available during this investigation,
but mixing due to poor rheological dis-
placement and cement retardation by
spacer were suspected. Later, displacement
calculations using these well conditions
showed that the spacer-cement interface
was unstable and displacement efficiency
55
 MUDPUSH XS/SALTBOND
Cement Slurry MUDPUSH/Lead Slurry
100 100

Displacement
efficiency, %
Displacement
80

efficiency, %
80
60 60

40 40

20 20
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Normalized time Normalized time

9 5/8-in. casing

Gulf of Mexico case history. On this intermediate-casing primary

cement job, a bottom plug was run between mud and spacer. Lead/Tail Slurries
Since there was no plug between spacer and cement, cement could 100
mix with spacer while flowing down casing. Displacement effi-

Displacement
efficiency, %
80
ciency is less than 50% when cement reaches the bottom of the
60
string. The interfacial boundary shape highlights the magnitude of
the problem. There is a region of no spacer flow around the inside 40
diameter of the pipe as cement flows down through the center. This 20
plot assumes no interfacial mixing, but in reality, there is probably 0
a high degree of interfacial mixing between the two fluids. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Normalized time
was well below 50% (above left ). Running a
bottom wiper plug only between mud and
spacer allowed cement to fall through and
mix with spacer.
7-in. liner

Tail Bypassing Lead Slurry
In Balikpapan, Indonesia, Unocal cemented
a long, 7-in, liner with two slurries12.5
ppg lead and 15.8 ppg tail. The liner top
was at 2240 ft [683 m] and the bottom was
at 9844 ft [3000 m]. In liner applications, of
course, an added difficulty is dropping bot-
tom plugs, and in this case, the problem
was compounded because viscosities had to
be kept low to avoid fracturing the well due
to high friction pressures. During displace-
ment, high frictional pressures resulted in
the premature termination of the job, leav-
ing cement in the liner. Evaluation of dis-
placements for this liner cement job indi-
cated that lead slurry fell through spacer
and tail slurry fell through the lead.
Interfacial boundary shapes between
spacer and lead slurry, and lead and tail
slurries show a tendency for reverse flow of
lighter fluids at the interface in both cases,
indicating high likelihood of fluid mixing
between stages. Calculations also show
low displacement efficiencies10 and
20% (above right ). Tests on cement and
mud mixtures resulted in high viscosities
that correlated with high displacement
pressures during the actual job.
Balikpapan, Indonesia case history. Efficiency plots show very
low displacement10 and 20%, respectivelyfor interfaces
between lead cement and spacer, and lead and tail slurries for
cementing operations on this long liner. Interfacial boundary
plots also show a region of negative velocity, indicating high
likelihood of interfacial mixing between fluids.
Integrating Fluid Services
Quality cement jobs depend fundamentally to cooperate in designing structured fluid
on the ability to predict and manage fluids sequencesfluids trainsfor wells. At
and displacement performance over a wide wellsites, cementers should gain hands-on
range of conditions. Personnel training, fluids experience as backup mud engineers
from management through engineering to and act as mentors to mud engineers during
field operations, is high on the list of issues cementing operations. At offshore and
that must be addressed to properly integrate remote locations where engineers reside on
drilling and cementing fluids and imple- location, this approach can be formalized
ment total fluids management. Mud engi- with one service-line specialist acting as
neers do not have to run cement pumps team leader in addition to performing pri-
and cementers do not have to supervise mary product-line responsibilities. Effective
drilling fluids programs, but it is helpful if team leaders must be experts in their pri-
each understands the others needs. If the mary field, familiar with other disciples and
entire fluids process is to be optimized, be good communicators. With available
cooperation must develop through appreci- fluids technology, efficiencies can be found
ation of needs and intentions of the other in cooperation and interfacing between flu-
discipline. Formal crosstraining must be ids services, and between fluids teams and
supplemented by practical experience, with operators. By restructuring the approach to
the goal of establishing wellsite fluids- well construction fluids, savings are avail-
engineering teams dedicated to optimizing able with no up-front increase in either cost
all fluid operations. or risk. MET
Rather than view other services from afar,
drilling fluids engineers and cementers need

56 Oilfield Review