Architects4 th Scientific November 9-11, 2015 Towards Sustainable Urban

Conference Khartoum, Sudan Development

CRITICAL REGIONALISM: STUDIES ON CONTEMPORARY

RESIDENTIAL ARCHITECTURE OF KHARTOUM SUDAN

Maha Omer Bani

B. Sc. Arch. University of Khartoum, Sudan

M. Sc. in Architecture, University of Khartoum, Sudan
Email: mahoyaob@hotmail.com

Dr. Tallal Abdalbasit Saeed

Assistant Professor, Faculty of Architecture - University of Khartoum, Sudan

Email: saeetal@iit.edu

Keywords: Critical Regionalism, Regionalism, Contemporary Architecture, Residential

Architecture, Khartoum

Abstract

Contemporary Architecture in Khartoum have been affected by modernization and globalization,

which lead to an architecture that has little attention to the existing local and regional architecture.
Globalized architecture resulted in buildings that do not adapt to the changed environmental,
social, cultural, economic or/and political context, and so is most of the emerging contemporary
Architecture in Khartoum

This study was conducted in order to find out if an appropriate context-related regionalistic
architecture can be created by the integration of local architectural traditions and universal
architectural realities through a Critical perspective; as well as, to gain a better understanding to
contemporary residential Architecture in Khartoum using Framptons theoretical concept of
Critical Regionalism. Five main points were derived by the author from this concept and were
used as an analysis tool and criteria that guided the study.

This concept was chosen because it had been a successful worldwide tool, especially in the Third
World Countries, which had been used to give a sense of a genuine, authentic, and modern
architecture to people, as well as helping in creating architecture that is specifically relevant to
their context and environment whilst being part of the world of modern architecture.

The study proved that a context-related contemporary residential architecture does exist in
Khartoum, and that Critical Regionalism is an applicable approach to be followed by architects in
Khartoum. The case studies, although not designed with Critical Regionalism in mind, expressed
the five points of Critical Regionalism successfully. The study also showed that the points can
provide guidance to develop the existing architecture, as well as help architects understand and
evaluate what has been built, and to help what is yet to be built here in Khartoum.

*This Paper was extracted from the Masters Thesis Critical Regionalism: Studies on
Contemporary Residential Architecture of Khartoum Sudan
 First M. Bani, Second T. Saeed

1. Introduction
In todays age of Globalization, the revival of a cultures heritage through architecture is
considered a means to revive local identities and create a sense of belonging [1]. Globalized
architecture resulted in buildings that do not adapt to the changed environmental, social, cultural,
economic or/and political context, and so is most of the emerging contemporary Architecture in
Khartoum.

Contemporary Architecture in Khartoum have been affected by modernization and globalization,

which lead to an architecture that has little attention to the existing local and regional architecture.
Although there have been efforts to apply regional and local architecture, yet the multi-ethnic and
multi-cultural reality of the country have been ignored and Architectural diversity has been
damaged.

Residential architecture watched rapid changes due to the dominance of architecture by the
private sector. Architects started to sacrifice environmental and tradition aspects for an
appearance of modernity, which interrupted the evolutionary process of residential designs and
replaced the Khartoum Style with Foreign Culture [2]. Architectural production in the country
is today characterized by imitation and a rootless character because with the discovery of oil and
aspirations for images of Dubai, glass towers and aluminium cladding came to dominate the
architecture style [3].

One possible approach was to draw influences from architectural heritage and tradition and apply
them in a contemporary context. Critical Regionalism is one such approach that puts Regionalism
and revival of architectural heritage in perspective and makes it contextually appropriate.

Critical Regionalism is different from Regionalism which tries to achieve a one to one
correspondence with vernacular architecture in a conscious way without consciously partaking in
the universal. It involves the Critical combination of a regions traditions and history, their
reinterpretation and their expression in modern terms. Hence, the essence of the concept is to
mediate the impact of universal civilization with elements derived indirectly from peculiarities of
a particular place [4] Page 21.

Kenneth Frampton created six points (that later became ten) that leads to an architecture of
Resistance (Figure 1), which were a reaction for the architecture created by globalization and
modern civilizations. These six points were inspired from a passage from Paul Ricoeurs History
and Truth that Frampton quoted as a starting point in his article [4] Page 16.

Ricoeur mentioned how universalization, although an advantage, is considered a subtle

destruction to traditional cultures. And how this is considered a crucial problem for developing
nations, because in order for a nation to be modernized, it is confronted by a paradox; in one
hand, rooting itself in the past and forging a national spirit different from that created by the
colonists personality, and in the other hand, it has to take part in scientific, technical, and
political rationality and this requires to abandon its cultural past [4] Page 16.

There is the Paradox: how to become modern and return to sources; how to revive an old,
dormant civilization and take part in universal civilization [4] Page 16.

(Paul Ricoeur)
 Architects Fourth Scientific Conference, Nov. 9-11, 2015, Khartoum, Sudan

Critical Regionalism and

Culture and Civilization Vernacular Form

Frampton's Ten Points

The Rise and Fall of the The Modern Movement
Frampton's Six Points

Avant-Garde The Myth and the Reality of

Critical Regionalism and the Region
World Culture Information and Experience
The Resistance of the Place- Space/Place
Form Typology/Topography
Culture Versus Nature Architectonic/Scenographic
The Visual Versus the Artificial/Natural
Tactile Visual/Tactile
Post-Modernism and
Regionalism

Figure 1: Framptons Six and Ten Points (Source: Adapted by Author)

That is why Critical Regionalism was chosen for this study, because architecture in Khartoum
needs to be thought of and viewed from a Critical perspective in order to be able to bridge the
gap between the modern, the global, and the traditional. Also, it is a suitable tool to analyse the
designs of contemporary residential buildings in Khartoum by looking into their forms and Critically
analysing them to draw lessons from them. Their Socio-Cultural aspects, as well, Globalization,
and their response to the Climate were addressed to see how the results can be used to try get
to an Appropriate and/or Context-related Architecture for Khartoum.

2. Architecture of Khartoum
The architecture of Khartoum, although mostly affected by environmental aspects expressed by
colour and materials, is represented by a combined Arabic-African character. Enclosures of
Private houses are derived from the social structure of Muslim Arabs, while their design details
and use of local materials, such as mud, sun-dried and burnt bricks were more African [5]. The
houses were built of mud and brick and their totally closed prismatic shape acted as a
response to the desert nature of the city.

In the 1950s, residential architecture was influenced by the design approaches established by
the colonial period, which were all emerging from traditions and environmental aspects. They
were mainly single storey veranda houses. According to Bashier, in the 1960s, three types of
residential designs evolved, a developed version of the veranda house called the Modern
Vernacular type which had a first floor added on load bearing walls, a Modern Mediterranean
Villa type, and a Tropical Modernism type [2].

Ricoeur explained how Universalization destroys the tradition and the creative nucleus of
cultures, and how as a result these cultures became mediocre; and according to Frampton,
 First M. Bani, Second T. Saeed

todays architecture seems to be polarized between a so-called high-tech approach and the
provision of a compensatory faade [4]. Which is what is happening here in Khartoum.

Khartoum is aging and becoming a nightmare of a city. Though modern buildings have
often been planted here and there, several show cases of landscaped zones and attempted
beautification adorn its central parts, new luxurious housing estates emerging, sometimes
in complete dis-resemblance to their context, roads widened and in some cases palm trees
planted, problems of the city as a whole are intensifying and are calling for serious
immediate attention.

El Kheir [6]

The centre of Khartoum still houses the remains of the colonial buildings, in addition to new
emerging buildings that are either just trying to imitate the colonial style, or are designed with a
modern style that looked out of place and irrelevant to the area.

3. Critical Regionalism
Critical Regionalism is a theoretical concept that was first introduced by Alexander Tzonis and
Liane Lefaivre in the early 1980s and later by Kenneth Frampton.

According to Frampton, Architects became addicted to change which led them to severe the past
from the future, and architecture became reduced to just an aesthetic skin that facilitates
marketing. Critical Regionalism was proposed as a tool to resolve the conflict between universal
civilization and local culture; a consideration of local and direct experiences, but at the same
time criticizing sentimentality [8].

Critical Regionalism is not a style and does not include universal design attributes, it is an
approach that draws its elements from the context within which its building is erected. In Ten
Points on an Architecture of Regionalism Frampton defined Critical Regionalism as a
recuperative, self-conscious, and Critical endeavour. Frampton also explained how it is not
a style; it is an analysis to establish a bound to resist the dissolution of the late modern world
[9].

In Tzonis and Lefaivres Critical Regionalism, Critical Regionalism is defined as a Regionalism

that is self-examining and self-questioning; it is an approach that is achieved by the employment
of defamiliarization, and that is what distinguishes it from other forms of Regionalism. Critical
Regionalism is interested in specific elements from the region; elements that act as agents of
contract and community; place defining elements, and uses them strangely rather than
familiarly [10].

Tzonis and Lefaivre distinguished regionalist architecture from regional architecture; where a
regional architecture is established by a craft tradition that conforms to local ecological
conditions, and a regionalist architecture is both reactive and liberative and implicitly criticizes
an architectural order that claims universal application. In the other hand, Framptons Critical
Regionalism is thought of as an attitude rather than a set of motifs; a set of ever evolving
tectonic practices [11].

In Khartoum, post-independence, the gap between the traditional architecture and the
architecture formed by foreign influences became larger with the introduction of new technologies
and ideas that created new physical and cultural environments. The commonly built architecture
now no longer expresses the same meaning as the vernacular doesthe vernacular having been
largely suppressed by the foreign. In rural areas of Sudan, where the traditional craftwork and
local material are available, vernacular architecture is still the major form of building construction.
 Architects Fourth Scientific Conference, Nov. 9-11, 2015, Khartoum, Sudan

Whereas in the three cities of Greater Khartoum, architecture that utilizes both the technological
means and the formal language of the West, is starting to dominate the built environment.

Frampton proposed Critical Regionalism for removing gaps such as that mentioned above, by
creating vital regional cultures that allow foreign influences at both culture and civilization levels
as Ricoeur suggested [12].

In his Modern Architecture: A Critical History, Frampton summarized seven main points that
guides Critical Regionalism; the author summarized them into five points (for reasons to be
explained later) and used as a criteria to structure the analysis of the case studies. Framptons
seven points [13]:

i. Critical Regionalism must be Critical of modernization and doesnt abandon the

aspects of the modern architectural legacy, at the same time distance its self from
normative optimization and utopianism of the Modern Movement.
ii. Critical Regionalism manifests itself as a consciously bounded architecture; places
stress on the territory to be established by the structure erected on the site.
iii. Critical Regionalism views architecture as a tectonic fact rather than a series of
scenographic episodes.
iv. Critical Regionalism must respond to the specific conditions imposed by the site, the
climate, and the light.
v. Critical Regionalism emphasizes the tactile as much as the visual; it stresses on
experience rather than information.
vi. Critical Regionalism opposes the sentimental simulation of local vernacular, but
inserts reinterpreted vernacular elements, derived from foreign sources, as
disjunctive episodes within the whole.
vii. Critical Regionalism tends to flourish in places that are able to escape the optimizing
thrust of universal civilization.

Critical Regionalism acts as a middle ground between the local and the modern. It offers a Critical
basis for creating a contemporary architecture of resistance or as Frampton put it, an
architecture of place rather than space [13].

That is why its principles were chosen as an analysis and design tool for contemporary residential
architecture in this study. Because it will highlight new extents for architects to foresee their
designs from a Critical perspective. It will help in creating residential buildings that are rooted in
cultural, traditional, and contemporary aspects.

4. Adopting Critical Regionalism for Application

Framptons seven points mentioned above were summed up to five points; the seventh point got
dropped off and the third and sixth point were merged into one. [14]

The seventh point was dropped because it focuses on an environment for creating Critical
regionalist architecture; it is not concerned with design choices, unlike the other six points that
focus on particular aspects of architecture which can be seen as potential choices for the
designer. As for the third and sixth point that were merged, the reasons were that both points are
concerned with visual aesthetics and formal issues [14]

That leaves us with five points that will be used in this thesis, and they are:

4.1 Point One: A Preference for Regional Intentions over Normative Optimization

Critical Regionalism is viewed as a practice that is Critical of modernization but at the same time
does not desert liberal aspects of modern architecture. In this point, Frampton seeks an adequate
use of modernist concepts and technologies, as well as an adequate analysis and critique of
 First M. Bani, Second T. Saeed

modern architecture in a way that promotes regional identity. In other words, Critical Regionalism
should be concerned with attributes that are associated with a specific region, such as local
architectural fabric and cultural values, rather than responding to normative optimization [13, 14,
and 15].

4.2 Point Two: A Consciously Bounded Architecture

Critical Regionalism emphasizes the establishment of a territory by the structure erected on the
site. In this bounded architecture, a spatial boundary should be created, and the territory should
be defined by the building. The spatial layout of the building should be examined to understand
how the spaces are enclosed, various areas are connected, circulation is distributed, access is
allowed, exits are created, and how the structural composition is managed. Also, there should be
an integration between the building and the cultural values, and the design should be based on
local fabric and regional culture; a sense of place [13, 14, and 15].

4.3 Point Three: More than Scenographic Episodes or Sentimental Historicism (point
three and six merged)

Critical Regionalism encourages architectural forms that support modern architecture but relevant
to current context at the same time. The two points merged together are concerned with forms
and aesthetics. In his third point, Frampton suggests that architecture should be understood and
viewed as a tectonic fact; emphasizing on the activity that rises this tectonic fact to an art form,
rather than the re-presentation of a faade. While in his sixth point, Frampton seeks the
reinterpretation of vernacular forms and combining them to foreign influences; he argues for an
openness to western influences but requires a focus on the local. Frampton also stresses on the
importance of architecture to be appreciated as a structural form rather than just an aesthetic
sequential scenes [13, 14, and 15].

4.4 Point Four: A Responsiveness to Local Conditions and Climate

Critical Regionalism opposes the optimization of the universal civilization and emphasizes the
response to the site, the climate, and the light conditions. Frampton proposes that architecture
should have a dialogue with the place and responds to the physical features of the region; that a
balance between universal civilization techniques and rooted cultural forms that address climatic
conditions should be created to enhance our experience of place [13, 14, and 15].

4.5 Point Five: An Emphasis on the Tactile

Critical Regionalism is aware that experience of architecture should not be by sight alone, but
also by tactile. Experiences such as heat and cold, humidity, air movement, aromas, and sounds
are important aspects that create a possible strategy for resisting the domination of universal
technology that replaced such crucial factors by media and information experience. Therefore,
creating an architecture of depth and uniqueness because according to Frampton, bodily
experiences create deeper relationships with built environments. Critical Regionalism promotes
use of materials that have certain local affinities, structures that provide bodily response, and
seasonal changes that allow emotional reactions [13, 14, and 15].

The five points above are aimed to help us understand and evaluate what has been built, and to
help what is yet to be built here in Khartoum. The ideas of Critical Regionalism will suggest a
Critical perspective that will guide architects throughout their analysing and designing processes.

5. Case Studies Summary

A Critical regionalist architecture stresses on the integration between the built form and the
regional and cultural values. The residential built environment is the production of regional
features such as climate and topography and social and cultural values such as lifestyle
 Architects Fourth Scientific Conference, Nov. 9-11, 2015, Khartoum, Sudan

[14]. Thats why, the residential built environment was chosen and used to understand and
evaluate Critical regionalist contemporary architecture.

Four case studies were chosen and analysed; two designed by the Architect Jack Ishkanes; The
Wagdi Residence (Figure 2) and Dar Mabruka (Figure 3), and two by the Architect Abdel Moniem
Mustafa; His own Residence (Figure 4) and the Abashar residence (Figure 5). The analysis
criteria was based on the five points derived from Framptons seven points of Critical Regionalism.

Figure 2: The Wagdi Residence, Khartoum 2, 21/04/2015 (Source: Author)

Figure 3: Dar Mabruka, Kahrtoum-Al Taif (Source: jackishkanes.com)

Figure 4: Mustafas Residence, Khartoum 2, 10/11/2014 (Source: Courtesy of Eng. Hassan

Mahmoud)
 First M. Bani, Second T. Saeed

Figure 5: The Abashar Residence, Khartoum 2, 23/02/2012 (Source: Courtesy of Eng.

Hassan Mahmoud)

In the examination of the four case studies, the five points of Critical Regionalism was seen to
appear irregularly. These houses were not built to satisfy Framptons theory, but nonetheless the
five points were reflected in each case study.

Point One: A preference for regional intentions over normative optimization

Although each architect followed a different style of design, the case studies showed that both
architects have put efforts to respond to regional influences. All case studies were designed using
regional motives and values; Ishkanes emphasized in deriving his regional language from Nubian
architecture, and Mustafa emphasized in using traditional features from vernacular architecture
of the region, such as traditional colonial veranda houses, but managed to apply them in a more
modern way. Both architects were concerned with the local architectural fabric and the cultural
values of the region.

As for Ishkanes, he reinterpreted the Nubian design considerations in the Wagdi Residence and
Dar Mabruka. In Nubian architecture, the courtyard was the main feature in the house and the
spaces inside the house were spacious and accommodated few pieces of furniture [16]. Which
are all features present in Ishkanes designs (Figure 6 and 7).

Figure 6: Interior of the Wagdi Residence, Khartoum 2, 21/04/2015 (Source: Author)

Figure 7: Interior of Dar Mabruka, Khartoum-Al Taif (Source: jackishkanes.com)

 Architects Fourth Scientific Conference, Nov. 9-11, 2015, Khartoum, Sudan

The lessons that can be derived from these case studies regarding this point, is that if architects
considered and appropriately engaged the available local techniques and traditional craftwork,
they will create a successful regionalist architecture like the works of Ishkanes and Mustafa.

Architects should link their work to traditional and vernacular aspects, such as garden porticoes
and courtyards, to maintain regional identity and use desirable tools to serve their designs. Also,
they should not be dominated by the needs of optimization, such as efficiency and utility.

Point Two: A Consciously Bounded Architecture

A consciously bounded architecture creates a relationship between the building and the site; it
also shows the continuity and authenticity of living tradition. The case studies explored the
possibility and feasibility of using traditions to create a bounded architecture. Both architects
succeed in creating a sense of bounding by the choice of form to their buildings, and the applying
of cultural values in their designs.

Both architects emphasized the use of courtyards in their design, which has a big cultural value
here in Sudan and designed buildings that claims territory instead of being a free-standing object.
For example as seen in Ishkaness Wagdi Residence (Figure 8) and Mustafas own Residence
(Figure 9); both these designs were good examples of buildings that claims territory and have
cultural values as well; they generated the awareness of bounded space.

Figure 8: Courtyard of the Wagdi Residence, Khartoum 2 (Source: jackishkanes.com)

Figure 9: Courtyard of Mustafas Residence, Khartoum2, 10/11/2014 (Source: Courtesy of Eng.

Hassan Mahmoud)

The lessons that can be learnt from these case studies regarding this point, is that tradition and
culture can provide different perspectives for contemporary residential architecture in Khartoum.
In order to create an identity to the place, architects should integrate their designs with the
traditional and cultural identity of the context; such as the ways traditional vernacular design dealt
with the delegation of spaces from public to private, the use of courtyards to create a spatial
boundary, and the choice of a building form according to the site presented. Architects should
 First M. Bani, Second T. Saeed

also seek environmental and socio-cultural factors that represent the context of the place, and by
doing so, they will successfully create a bounded architecture.

Point Three: More than Scenographic Episodes or Sentimental Historicism

Contemporary residential architecture in Khartoum should not copy traditional forms only for their
appearance. Forms should be a product derived from relevant aspects, such as structure,
function, as well as tradition, social, and cultural issues, rather than being a product of imitation
such as the case in Dar Mabruka.

The Wagdi residence is a good example for this point. Ishkanes reinterpreted the Nubian shapes
used for openings as part of the composition of the form; he abstracted the use of the shapes.
Ishkanes also derived the columns from colonial architecture and used them in a bigger scale to
define the main faade and gives it the sense of authenticity (Figure 10).

Figure 10: Ishkanes abstraction of Nubian elements, Khartoum 2, 21/04/2015(Source: Author)

As for Mustafa, both his designs were interpreted as a tectonic fact. He managed to make the
structure of his buildings be part of the design and he also re interpreted the porticoes in a
developed way (Figure 11 and 12).

Figure 11: Structural features incorporated in design, Khartoum 2, 23/02/2012 (Source:

Courtesy of Eng. Hassan Mahmoud)

House

Portico

Figure 12: Mustafas reinterpretation of Porticoes in the Abasher Residence (Source: Author)
 Architects Fourth Scientific Conference, Nov. 9-11, 2015, Khartoum, Sudan

The lessons that can be learnt in this point, is that architects should make sure that their designs
presents authenticity rather than sentimental imitation. When reinterpreting a tradition or a culture,
they should combine it with alien influences. Also, architects should produce their designs as an
architectonic; the structure of the building should be considered as a design factor, rather than
just hiding it within the form.

Point Four: A Responsiveness to Local Conditions and Climate

Critical regionalist architecture tends to treat all openings as delicate transitional zones that
responds to conditions imposed by the site, the climate, and the light. Both architects emphasized
the response of their designs to the local conditions and climate. Both of them presented the
courtyard space, each in his own way, which is a key response to Khartoums regional climate.

Mustafas two design are the best example regarding the responsiveness to the climate. Mustafa
emphasized on the presence of vegetation in his designs which have a big effect in reducing high
temperature and restoring humidity (Figure 13). Also his choice of wall materials in his own
residence can set an example for the feasibility of creating a modern design using local cost
efficient methods, as well as its ability to insulate the indoors from the heat radiation.

Figure 13: Vegetation in the Abashar Residence, Khartoum 2, 23/02/2012 (Source: Courtesy of
Eng. Hassan Mahmoud)

As for site related conditions such as orientation, light and topography, Ishkanes designs are the
best examples. As we see in the Wagdi residence, every feature in the design responded to the
site; from the L-shape form of the building to the distribution of openings. The house didnt need
any artificial lighting during the day, it naturally ventilated and lighted all the time (Figure 14). In
the Dar Mabruka, Ishkanes also succeeded in reinterpreting the Nubian longitudinal windows,
and the other types of openings, as well as the presence of a wind catcher that was a very
traditional ventilation method.

Figure 14: Natural Lighting in the Wagdi Residence, Khartoum 2, 21/04/2015 (Source: Author)

The lessons that can be learned from this point is that architectural responses to conditions of
climate and light must be according to the specific site. Architects should always include
 First M. Bani, Second T. Saeed

vegetation in their design, because trees and plants responds to the climate and has an aesthetic
value. Architects should also put in mind the importance of natural lighting and natural ventilation
in their designs, because these factors respond to the local conditions, also it will help in reducing
the costs of air-conditioning and artificial lighting.

Point Five: An Emphasis on the Tactile

Tactile experiences in buildings can be applied in different ways. One way is to use different kind
of paving materials in different areas of the house, which helps in creating a varying experience
of architecture. Another aspect is the use of outdoor spaces associated with buildings and making
them integrated with nature.

Both architects focused in expressing a design that gives the user a tactile experience. Both of
them used different paving materials and integrated their buildings with nature.

Mustafas designs had the bigger emphasis on the tactile experience. Both his designs were fully
integrated with nature and indoor spaces were integrated with outdoor spaces (Figure 15). As
well as the presence of a variety of trees and plants.

Figure 15: integration of spaces in Mustafas Residence, Khartoum 2, 10/11/2014 (Source:

Courtesy of Eng. Hassan Mahmoud)

As for Ishkanes, his Dar Mabruka expressed the tactile in a very strong way. The presence of the
Nubian decorations and the diverse types of Nubian elements designs used in the indoors and
outdoors made the house feel unique (Figure 16).

Figure 16: Nubian decorations in Dar Mabruka, Khartoum-Al Taif (Source: jackishkanes.com)

The lessons that can be learned in this point is that architects should focus on the value of
experience in their designs; experiences such as visual and tactile.
 Architects Fourth Scientific Conference, Nov. 9-11, 2015, Khartoum, Sudan

6. Conclusion
In conclusion, conducting this study showed that a context-related architecture does exist in
Khartoum, and that Critical Regionalism is an applicable approach to be followed by architects in
Khartoum. The case studies, although not designed with Critical Regionalism in mind, expressed
the five points of Critical Regionalism successfully.

The points are intended to provide some guidance to develop the existing architecture; they are
aimed to help architects understand and evaluate what has been built, and to help what is yet to
be built here in Khartoum.

Critical Regionalism opens and a expands the horizon of architectural design in Khartoum; if
followed, architects will start viewing their design and guiding their design process through a
Critical perspective that will result in an architecture that is rooted in its context and culture; an
architecture that is responsive to its climate and favours human experience; a Critical Regionalist
Architecture.

Acknowledgements

If appropriate, I would like to acknowledge the insight and guidance of Dr. Tallal Saeed in the
preparation of this Paper. His knowledge and understanding encouraged me to pursue this work.

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