ECOLOGICAL FACTORS THAT CONTROL THE NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS IN A

HABITAT

CLASSIFICATION, DISTRIBUTION AND SUCCESSION

Succession is an orderly process of community development that involves changes in species structure
and community processes with time. In other words, succession is the birth of an ecosystem and
subsequent ageing process of its abiotic and biotic features. It is community-controlled since it results due
to modification of the physical environment by the community. For example, when a lake fills with silt, it
changes gradually from a deep to a shallow lake, then to a marsh, and eventually into a dry-land forest.
Likewise, when a crop field is abandoned or a forest is burnt down, a series of plant communities grow up
there and replace one another first annual weeds, then perennial weeds and grasses, then shrubs and
trees leading to the formation of a woodland. Such an orderly and progressive replacement of one
community by another until a stable community or climax community is reached is called ecosystem
development or ecological succession.

Various physical factors determine the survival and distribution of organisms in their habitats. Such abiotic
factors include temperature, light, wind, water availability, salinity, water movements, oxygen concentration
etc. Biotic factors such as predation, competition, parasitism involve the effects of other living organisms,
including humans, on the survival and distribution of organisms.

A sound knowledge and understanding of classification is important to study and describe the distribution of
organisms in their natural habitats. Taxonomy is the study of organization of groups of organisms, called
taxa, into hierarchies. A taxon is a group of organisms which share common features. There are seven
major levels of taxon namely, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. A species is a
group of individuals with large number of features in common and can interbreed and produce fertile
offspring. Based on their external or morphological characteristics, organisms must be classified and
placed in their respective taxonomic groups. For correct identification to genus and species level keys are
used which give identifying characteristics arranged in a logical fashion.

There are many different schemes of classification, but the presently recommended scheme is the Five
Kingdom System, based on R.H.Whittakers (1959) proposals.

Each species of organisms has only one officially accepted name, by international agreement. This system
provides for precise communication. If an organism were to be called Escherichia coli in one country

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and Coprobacterium intestinale in another, chaos would result. In order to avoid confusion, an
internationally accepted system of naming, the binomial [two words] system of nomenclature is used.
This is based on the scheme devised by the Swedish naturalist, Linnaeus. Each organism is given a
generic and a specific name. The generic name is always capitalized and refers to a group of closely
related organisms. The specific epithet starts with a lower case letter and is unique to a particular organism
and descriptive of one of its characteristics. For example, Fucus spiralis (sea weed flat wrack) , Lumbricus
terrestris (earth worm) and so on. It is conventional to underline the names when hand written and in italics
when printing the names.

KINGDOM CHARACTERISTICS REPRESENTATIVE

ORGANISMS

PROKARYOTAE

PROTOCISTA

FUNGI

PLANTAE

ANIMALIA

The most reliable method of classification is based on the degree of genetic relatedness between
organisms. This method is the most objective of all and is based on the most fundamental aspect of
organisms, their hereditary material, the DNA. The schematic diagram below illustrates the basic principle
behind DNA homology experiments in bacteria. This method is most useful in species level of
classification.

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Another way of establishing genetic relatedness in species is by means of RFLP [Restriction Fragment
Length Polymorphism]. In this technique, the DNA from two or more species is digested by a restriction
enzyme and run on an agarose gel or using PAGE [Polyacryalamide gel electrophoresis]. Since the
electrophoretic mobility depends on the fragment lengths of DNA, smaller ones wriggle through the gel
faster towards the anode than the larger ones giving rise to characteristic banding patterns of DNA. A
comparison of the DNA pattern reveals their relatedness.

EFFECTS OF ABIOTIC FACORS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS .

The environment in which an organism lives is determined by a range of physical or abiotic factors such as
light, temperature and moisture. For example, a beetle living on a fallen tree trunk, it is the moisture and the
temperature on the log is important for its survival. Its environment may be modified or determined by
biotic factors such as competitors, predators, or lack of preferred food, nesting materials and so on. Thus,
an organisms habitat is determined by both biotic and abiotic factors.

ABIOTIC FACTORS

CLIMATIC EDAPHIC [SOIL] TOPOGRAPHIC

CLIMATIC FACTORS .
1. Temperature.
The principle source of heat is the solar radiation. It depends on latitude, altitude, season of the year, time
of the day and aspect of the slope. An organism will survive only within a temperature range called the
limits of tolerance within which it is metabolically and structurally adapted. If the temperature of a living cell
falls below zero, the cell becomes physiologically damaged and killed due to freezing of protoplasmic water.
At the other extreme, if the temperature is too high, proteins become denatured. Aquatic environments

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provide more stable habitats than terrestrial habitats owing to high heat capacity of water. Birds and
mammals living in cold regions attain a greater body size than those living in warmer regions. Humming
birds, for example, are larger in temperate regions than their counterparts living in the tropics. Arctic foxes
have a dense fur and smaller ears compared to African foxes which live at an average environmental
temperature of about 25 C have less fur and larger ears to radiate heat.

Many migratory birds undertake their epic journeys across

the world to reach an area where the temperature is
optimum for their reproductive pattern.

The higher temperatures on the south side of a tree trunk

affect the growth of mosses and algae colonizing the bark.
The populations are more successful on the cooler, damper
north side. Careful observations in a woodland will show
that all tree trunks show a similar pattern of colonization,
the result of the temperature and light differences.

2. Light
The intensity, quality [wavelength] and duration [photoperiod] of light have a profound influence on the
distribution of both plants and animals. Since light is the source of energy for photosynthesis, it influences
primary productivity, upon which every other organism depends directly or indirectly for a supply of food.
Incidence of solar radiation depends on latitude, season of the year, time of the day and aspect of the
slope. Plants and animals of higher latitude show photoperiodic responses such as flowering and
germination in plants, migration, hibernation and reproductive behaviour in animals etc.

The red algae, in the aquatic systems, have different light intercepting pigments and can survive in
locations of dim light where green algae would find light quality limiting.
Availability of light also affects the structure of the communities. In aquatic habitats, the hydrophytes are
confined to the surface layers of water or to the shallow water at the margins. A woodland in terrestrial
habitat, for example, shows different layers of vegetation leading to stratification. Competition for light
favours certain strategies such as gaining height through growing tall or climbing, and increasing leaf
surface area. Shade loving plants are found below the canopy of trees and with a ground flora consisting of
herbaceous plants such as grasses.

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Some plants living in shaded habitats have larger leaves. Nettles, for example, growing in a shady
woodland have a much larger average leaf surface area than nettles in open sunlight, and this allows the
population to thrive in both habitats as shown in the graph below.

The bell-shaped normal distribution curves

show the ranges of leaf areas which might
be expected in two different nettle populations.

3. Wind
Air movements can accelerate dissemination of spores of fungi and seeds of plants resulting in colonization
of plants in favourable habitats. Moving air speeds up transpiration in terrestrial habitats and in temperate
regions increases the likelihood of freezing in buds resulting in frost damage. Strong winds can affect flight
of birds and hence their migration.

4.Water Availability
Plants vary widely in their tolerance to water shortage. Xerophytes show high tolerance, mesophytes show
medium tolerance and hydrophytes show low tolerance to water shortage. Xerophytes have thicker cuticle,
reduced leaf area and sunken stomata to minimize water loss and can survive in regions where water is
scarce. Hydrophytes with no cuticle, supporting tissues, and with aerenchyma to provide buoyancy are
adapted to live in waterlogged or submerged conditions. Mesophytes are plants that can survive in regions
where there is adequate water so any water lost in transpiration could be replaced by water absorbed from
the soil.

Fresh water animals, whose body fluids are more concentrated than that of the surrounding water, have a
tendency to take up water by osmosis. Such organisms possess adaptations to counteract the inward
movement of water. Like wise the marine species have adaptations to prevent the loss of water from their
bodies since the concentration of sea water is higher than that of their body fluids.

5. Salinity
If evaporation exceeds precipitation, soils may become saline. Plants which live in saline soils, estuaries
[tidal mouth of river], and salt marshes are referred to as halophytes. The mangrove vegetation found in
salt marshes accumulates high salt content in their cell sap to encourage the entry of water needed for their
physiological functions. Animals can tolerate salinity but as they are motile they usually migrate to areas
where they could find optimum conditions.

6. Water Movement
The churning action of water contributes to turbidity and aeration of water. Moving water is better
oxygenated than still water. A strong current will dislodge organisms not well adapted by having a strong
attachment or by being extremely good swimmers.

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Fucus is a large and complex brown alga commonly found on the rocky shores. There are three common
species found at three different zones on the shore. They are principally zoned according to their ability to
withstand exposure to air. F. spiralis, the flat wrack towards the high tide mark, F. serratus, the serrated
wrack in the mid zone and F. vesiculosus, the bladder wrack towards the low tide mark.

Being intertidal, those species which are found towards high tide mark usually possess a cylindrical thallus,
with a reduced S.A / Vol ratio, a greater proportion of parenchyma tissue in their thalli, possess tough hold
fast and stipe, thicker cell wall, thicker and leathery epidermis, an increased lipid content in cells than those
found below the low tide level in order to protect them against desiccation, the surge and tug of tide and
the pounding action of the waves etc.

F. vesiculosus from sheltered shore F. vesiculosus from exposed shore

Mean length of Mean diameter of Mean length of Mean diameter

frond / cm hold fast / cm of frond / cm of hold fast /cm

59.0 0.57 36.7 0.76

The thallus of Fucus vesiculosus shows a dichotomous branching to minimize resistance to the flow of
water which can pass between the branches. It also possesses air bladders for buoyancy thus orienting the
fronds for maximum interception of light. The chloroplasts are located in the surface layers. The solute
potential of the cells is higher i.e., more negative than that of sea water to encourage the entry of water.
The thallus also exudes mucilage to prevent desiccation.

7. Oxygen Concentration
There is never a shortage of oxygen in the air, but it can be in short supply in both in and the soil. When
water is cold, or fast flowing , sufficient oxygen dissolves in it to support life. If the temperature of the water
rises or it becomes still and stagnant, then the oxygen content drops and this affects the survival and
distribution of populations within it. One of the effects of organic pollution in aquatic habitats is the
increased biological oxygen demand due to the activity of aerobic bacteria. Only those organisms such as
the invertebrate members, Tubifex, Choronomids and and Peria species which can tolerate low oxygen
levels are populated in such oxygen deficient waters.

EDAPHIC FACTORS
A third of the Earth surface is covered by land and soil covers a large part of the land surface. The Earth
consists of the following components.

o Rock particles [46 60%] formed as a result of weathering process

o Humus, the organic material [10%]
o Soil water [25 35%]
o Soil air [ 15 25%]
o Soil inhabiting organisms [ bacteria, fungi, protozoa, insect larvae, earthworms, moles
depending on the soil type and location.

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PARTICLE TYPE DIAMETER / mm
Clay < 0.002
Silt 0.002 0.02
Fine sand 0.02 - 0.2
Coarse sand 0.2 - 2.0
Gravel >2.0
The table below shows the mineral particle sizes in soils. The proportion of the different sized
particles determine the texture and properties of soil. Water drains more easily through sandy soil due to
the presence of large pore spaces.The water that infiltrates this way is called the gravitational water.
But some water molecules remain adhering to the soil particles and this is referred to as the capillary
water.When a soil becomes water - logged, it is said to be at saturation. A soil that contains
all the capillary water it can hold against gravity under ideal management practices is called the field
capacity.

The type of soil has an influence on the habitat, since it determines the type of vegetation it could support,
which In turn determines the number and diversity of organisms. A soil profile shows characteristic layers
called horizons. A soil profile of podzol is shown below.

A 0 The litter layer

A 1 The humus layer

A 2 The leached layer

B 1 iron pan layer in which minerals are deposited by leaching but impermeable to
plant roots

B 2 The subsoil which tends to collect minerals leached out of horizon A

C Consists of weathered parent material

D The parent rock or bedrock

pH

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The pH is the measure of hydrogen concentration in aqueous solution and indicates the level of acidity or
alkalinity. Brown forest soils are associated with temperate deciduous woodland at low altitudes and have a
pH range between 4.5 to 8.0. It can support large number of soil microbes which can breakdown the litter
into humus.
The podzols on the other hand are associated with coniferous woodland at higher altitudes in temperate
regions and have pH range between 3.0 to 6.5. Due to low pH, fewer soil microbes survive. Earthwoms are
scarce but fungi flourish and bring about the break down of litter into humus.

Many plants are sensitive to calcium ions in the soil. An acid soil has low calcium ions and those plants
which can flourish in low calcium soils are referred to as calcifuges. The alkaline soils contain more
calcium ions and the plants living in such calcium rich soils are referred to as calcicoles or calcicolous

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE FIELD TECHNIQUES

Autecology deals with the ecology of a single species, such as the distribution of limpets
on a rocky shore
Synecology deals with organisms and their environment, for e.g., investigating the whole of
the rocky shore community.

Random Sampling

It is seldom possible to count all the individual plants or animals within a given population. This would not
only be laborious and time consuming, but would certainly involve disturbance and damage to the habitat.
When sampling we aim to select for study a small representation of the total population.

Suppose we want to determine the number of dandelions present in a field or the number of limpets on a
rocky shore, a quadrat frame is used for the random sampling. It is assumed that the area within the
quadrat frame is representative of the entire area.

Positioning the Quadrat

Two tape measures are set out at right angles to each other to form a pair of axes. Using pairs of random
numbers, to indicate the directions in the X and Y axes. For e.g., 6,9 would be 6 metres along X axis and 9
metres perpendicular to X axis. When random sampling with a quadrat, the left-hand bottom corner of the
quadrat is always positioned at the point where the two co-ordinates meet.

Quadrat Size
Large quadrats can be laid out using string and pegs
when sampling grassland or woodland communities.
More commonly used are the 1m2 and 0.25m2 frame
Quadrats. To determine the optimim quadrat size for
A particular type of vegetation, a series of quadrats
Of increasing size are laid out. The cumulative mean
density of the plant species counted after each
successive increase in quadrat size is then recorded.
Eventually a point is reached where a further large
Increase in quadrat size results in only a few extra

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Species. The optimum quadrat size produces no
more than a 1% increase in quadrat size produces
no more than a 0.5% increase in the number of
species present

Number of Quadrats in each Sampling Area

The optimum number of quadrat is reached when all
The common species have been identified and a
Further increase in quadrat number will not merit the
time and effort required. A satisfactory minimum
number of quadrat is reached when a 1% increase in
number of quadrats produces no more than 5%
Increase in the # of species found.

Belt Transect

The use of transect is a form of systematic sampling where the samples are arranged in a linear fashion. A
belt transect is useful for recording changes in the species composition of plant communities where some
sort of transition exists, e.g. from water to land or from one soil type to another. The stages of plant
succession are well highlighted by transect. For e.g.

Estuary Salt marsh Land community

Bog Wet heath Heathland

Beach Fore dunes Yellow dunes Grey dunes

Belt Transect
A belt transect is a strip of chosen width through the habitat, made by setting up two line transects, 0.5m or
1m apart located across the study area in such as way as to highlight any transition. A quadrat of 0.25m 2 is
placed immediately after each other percentage cover of plant species is estimated.
A complex community consisting of a large number of different species but relatively few individuals of
each species is more stable than a community containing relatively few species [Polluted fresh water
contaioning fewer species of invertebrates but a larger population of each is an example].

SUCCESSION
The long term changes in the composition of a community are known as succession. It is the result of the
modifying activities of living organisms on the environment over a period of time. The early colonists on a
bare rock of newly erupted islands, sand dunes which are devoid of any organic matter are the algae and
lichens forming the pioneer community. Their activities result in the formation of organic matter and the
weathering process of rock leads to soil formation. Mosses. Ferns and herbs replace the pioneer
community and become established next. Finally these smaller plants are replaced by larger plants such as
shrubs and trees until the climax community , a woodland or forest is formed. A succession from bare
rock to forest is called a sere and each different community in the succession is called a seral stage or
seral community. A succession that begins in dry conditions where water is scarce is called a xerosere

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A succession developing on newly emerged land or water is termed primary succession. A succession
developing on an area of burnt forest or cleared woodland which has previously had vegetation on it is
termed secondary succession. Secondary successions are much more common.

The climax community is the most complex, diverse and productive community a given area can sustain. It
may vary seasonally or fluctuate slightly but is stable and is in equilibrium with the climatic conditions. For
these reasons it is known as climatic climax. If humans or other animals interfere with this climatic climax,
a different equilibrium may be reached and this is called the biotic climax. A community where human
intervention has led to the long-term establishment of a community very different from the original climax is
termed a plagioclimax and the succession is said to have been deflected.

The Major Trends and Causes of Succession

o The kinds of plants and animals change continuously with succession.

o Succession is always associated with increased biomass of living and decomposing plant
and animal material.
o The diversity of species tends to increase with succession. The diagram below shows a
succession in a ploughed grassland community and a subsequent increase in bird species
diversity.

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 o The two most striking and important trends in succession are a progressive decrease in
net community production and a corresponding increase in community respiration. For growth to
occur, total production [P] must increase more rapidly than total energy expenditure [R], i.e., P > R.
At the theoretical climax, P = R, while when degeneration has set in (post climax) P < R. But the
number of species present, the biomass of living and the dead material and the P / R ratio continue
to remain in a fluid state long after a locality has achieved its maximum primary production.

If succession starts in shallow water, a hydrosere is formed. If an open stretch of water is left alone
undisturbed for a period of time plant material, mud and other debris accumulate. Rain water brings silt
and nutrients leached due to surface run off into the lake. Slowly this material builds up from the bottom of
the pond or lake and the substratum becomes built up. As the bottom of the pond becomes raised, it finally
becomes raised above the original level of the water. As the habitat becomes less watery, the type of plant
communities changes the plants and animals associated with open water disappear as succession
progresses from open water to dry land and eventually to woodland.

Photograph showing a newly formed beach pond less than one year old on Presque Isle at Erie,
Pennsylvania.

A beach pond about fifty years later.

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Zonation

Zonation may resemble succession, but in zonation, species are distributed spatially where as in
succession species vary with time, temporarily. Plant succession can be observed in the zonation seen in
the sand dune systems. All the seral stages of a primary succession could be observed in sand dune
systems.

Near the edge of the water, young dunes with their characteristic plant species such as Ammophila and
holly are found. Both plants have adaptations to live in dry conditions.Next to the young dunes are found
the yellow dunes partially colonized by Marram grass ( Ammophila) Beyond the yellow dunes, grey dunes
with more stable soil are found. Grey dunes support a greater diversity of plants. Slacks are ridges that
separate dunes. Further beyond the grey dunes grassland , heathland or a scrub bramble, elder, salis may
become established. may become established.

Vertical Zonation.

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For every 100m rise in height, there is a drop in temperature by 0.5 oC. This abiotic factor affects the spatial
distribution of plants on mountains giving rise to a vertical zonation. Since there is less soil on the top of
mountains, only lichens and mosses could grow. Further down the mountain there is a gradation of
grassland, scrub and eventually wood land at the bottom could be seen. A climax community may develop
within each zone due to variation in temperature and rain fall.

A composite diagrammatic representation of the zonation of flora on a rocky shore.

a. Shre profile
b. Stations A to Y at 10m intervals
c. Shore zonation according to tidal ranges
d. Presence-absence graph of plant species

e. bar chart showing total number of species at each station.

CENTRE FOR HIGHER SECONDRY EDUCATION.

FIELD TRIP TO KUDA BANDOS ISLAND

Grade 12 Biology

Objectives : 1. Random sampling of a grassland area for producers and herbivores and to calculate the
Simpsons Diversity Index (DI) of producers.

2. Systematic sampling using a line transect to study the spatial distribution of plants from the
sea towards the land. (A sketch of the plant community with abiotic factors should be
included overleaf).

3. To familiarize with quantitative field techniques such as the use of pH meter, temperature
and salinity probe, light meter, sweep nets and the pooter.

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 NUMBER OF PRODUCERS / m 2

SAMPLE # Sp A Sp B Sp C Sp D Sp E

10

----
X

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SPECIES NUMBER (n) n ( n 1 )

TOTAL (N)

.
SIMPSONS DIVERSITY INDEX IS A
MORE ACCURATE MEASURE OF
THE NUMBER AND ABUNDANCE OF
SPECIES.

N ( N --- 1 )
D = ----------------- = ------------------ =
n(n1)

A high value of D indicates a stable and

ancient site, such as a species rich
meadow or an old woodland.

A low value of D may suggest agricultural

management, a recently colonized site or
polluted area.

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 PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants trap light energy from the sun and transform it into
chemical energy stored in molecules of carbohydrates. All life is directly or indirectly dependent on this
fundamental process, as it provides the food we eat, air we breathe and the fossil fuels we use.

Algae, green plants and certain bacteria obtain energy from the sun to synthesise complex organic
molecules using inorganic form of carbon such as carbon dioxide. These autotrophic organisms [ auto-'self';
trophic - 'feeding'] are referred to as photosynthetic and possess pigments to trap light energy and to drive
the process.

SITE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The leaf is the main site of photosynthesis, although stems, sepals and other green parts may also
photosynthesise. The leaves are adapted as photosynthetic organs in the following ways.

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 A large, flat surface to harvest maximum light
A thin leaf reduces the diffusion distance across which gases have to travel
An extensive net-work of veins and the midrib support the thin lamina
The extensive network of veins also provides a ready supply of water and minerals to the cells and
translocate sugars made by photosynthesis
The photosynthetic tissue consists of palisade and spongy mesophyll cells with numerous chloroplasts
The palisade cells are at right angles to the leaf surface so that light can penetrate deep within the cells
without being absorbed by any intervening cross-walls.

TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE LEAF

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 TISSUE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Upper epidermis

Palisade mesophyll

Spongy mesophyll

Vascular tissue

Collenchyma

Sclerenchyma

Lower epidermis

SAQ 1. The diagram below shows part of a leaf.

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(a) (i) Name the cells A,B, C and D
(4)

A .. B

C .. D

(ii) Name a structure present in cell B but absent from cell A

...(1)

(b) Name two substances which diffuse out through the stomata in the light.

2..(2)

(c) State two ways in which the shape of the leaf is adapted for its functions in a leaf.

1.

2.

...(2)

(Total 7 marks)

SAQ 2

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ABSORPTION AND ACTION SPECTRA

White light is a mixture of light of different wavelengths. Light of short wavelength has more energy than
light of long wavelengths. Thus there is more energy in blue light at 450nm wavelength than there is in red
light at 750nm. So the pigments absorb more energy at the blue end of the spectrum. But green plants do
not use energy from all of the components of white light for photosynthesis. This was demonstrated by the
German physiologist, T.W. Englemann, in 1882, by his bacterial method for studying photosynthesis. He
placed filaments of green alga, Spirogyra, on a glass slide containing a suspension of motile aerobic
bacteria, Pseudomonas. The filaments were illuminated with light of different wavelengths.

Left - the aerobic bacteria migrated towards higher oxygen concentrations and clustered around
illuminated areas of chloroplasts but not around similarly illuminated region of colourless

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 protoplasm.

Centre- the distribution of bacteria when the whole cell is illuminated, and,

Right - the upper spot is of red light, the lower green, showing that bacteria are not attracted by green
light which has been transmitted by chloroplast

Englemanns experiment with alga Cladophora and the distribution of aerobic bacteria

The bacteria congregated near the filaments when blue light at 450nm or red light at 650nm was used. The
The bacteria congregated near the filaments when blue light at 450 nm or red light at 650 nm was used.
Englemann deduced that blue and red light are most effective for photosynthesis. An action spectrum is
produced when the rate of photosynthesis is plotted against wavelength of light. An absorption spectrum
is a graph showing the relative absorbance by various pigments against different wavelengths of light.

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The reason why light from the blue and red parts of the spectrum is effective is that it is absorbed efficiently
by the pigments contained in the chloroplasts of green plants.

PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS

All green plants and photosynthetic bacteria possess at least one pigment which can absorb light to drive
the reaction. These pigments can be readily extracted by grinding up chopped leaves in an organic solvent
such as propanone. The pigments in the extract can then be separated by paper chromatography.The
photosynthetic organisms possess three different pigments.

o Chlorophylls
o Carotenoids
o Phycobilins

The chlorophyll pigment has a polar, porphyrin head attached to a long hydrocarbon chain, the phytol tail,
which is non polar. The porphyrin head has a tetrapyrrole ring containing nitrogen with a central
magnesium ion [Refer to nutritional requirements of plants]. This structure enables electrons to wander
freely over the surface of chlorophyll molecules.

When light of the correct wavelength strikes the molecule, an electron can be temporarily displaced to a
higher energy level, i.e., chlorophyll molecule is said to become excited by absorbing light energy.
Chlorophylls are green because they reflect the green light. The porphyrin part of the chlorophyll molecule
is bound to the protein molecule of the lamella and the hydrocarbon tail extends into the lipid layer.
Carotene and xanthophylls are long-chain hydrocarbons. Their colours indicate that they reflect orange and
yellow light respectively.

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 DESCRIPTION PIGMENT
A blue-green pigment present in all photosynthetic organisms
with an absorption peak between 420nm and 660nm
A yellow green pigment found in green plants and green alga
with an absorption peak between 435nm and 643nm
An orange-yellow pigment usually masked by chlorophylls and
absorb blue-violet light between 425nm and 480nm.
A red pigment which enables red marine algae to photosynthesise
in dim light under water

ROLE OF OTHER PIGMENTS

Chlorophyll a utilizes light from only limited parts of the spectrum where as other pigments utilize other
parts of the spectrum. This effectively increases the range of wavelengths from which the plants can obtain
energy.

Carotenoids transfer the light energy absorbed to chlorophyll a and shield chlorophylls from too much
oxidation in intense light.
SAQ 3.

23
SAQ 4

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THE PHOTOSYNTHETIC MACHINERY

The chloroplasts are bi-convex organelles measuring about 4 - 10 m in diameter and 1 m thick. It is
bounded by a double membrane within which are numerous structures called thylakoids. The lamellae or
thylakoids develop from extensions of inner membrane of the envelope. Each thylakoid consists of a pair of
membranes close to each other with a narrow space called lumen in between them. They are embedded in
a colourless matrix called stroma. In places thylakoids are arranged in neat stacks, like a pile of coins,
called granum with a diameter of about 600 nm. The stacked regions are known as grana lamellae and the
unstacked regions are known as stroma lamellae. A typical chloroplast contains approximately 60 grana,
each consisting of about 50 thylakoids. The grana are connected to each other by inter-granal thylakoids.
The thylakoid membranes, within the chloroplasts, are continuous enclosing an inter-connecting space.
The function of the thylakoid is to hold the chlorophyll molecules in a suitable position for harvesting the
maximum amount of sunlight. Further, the chlorophyll molecules are arranged with considerable economy
of space in the grana.

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The stalked particles attached to the thylakoid membrane contain enzymes ( ATPase / ATP synthase ) for
catalyzing the synthesis of ATP. The thylakoids are surrounded by the protein rich matrix, the stroma, which
contains enzymes responsible for the reduction of carbon dioxide (RUBISCO and NADP reductase)
together with starch grains, 70S ribosomes, a single circular DNA and oil droplets. The presence of 70S
ribosomes and circular DNA suggests that chloroplasts, like the mitochondria, may be the descendents of
cyanobacteria. This theory is known as endosymbiont theory [Refer to Edexcel AS Biology, Topic 4,
Biodiversity and Natural Resources, Page 231]

SAQ 5

26
SAQ 6

27
SAQ 7

28
SAQ 8

29
30
MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

In photosynthesis, the radiant energy of the sun is trapped by chlorophyll and used for the synthesis of
carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. The oxygen evolved as a by-product of photosynthesis
comes from water and not from carbon dioxide. It has been calculated that 2880 kJ of solar energy is used
in synthesizing each mole of glucose. The following equation summarises the process.

6CO2 + 6H2O G + 2880 kJ > C6H12O6 + 6O6

Photosynthesis takes place in three steps and can be studied under two main
stages, the light-dependent reactions and light-independent reactions.

o Light harvesting
o Electron transport
o Reduction of Carbon dioxide

STAGE I. LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTIONS

The first two steps of light harvesting and electron transport in stage I, require
light and take place in the thylakoids of the chloroplast. The second stage takes
place in the stroma and does not require light. These three steps take place
simultaneously, although they are studied separately. The primary event
in photosynthesis is the light capture.
,
Step 1. Light Harvest

The pigment molecules arranged in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts forms the light harvesting
system. It acts as a funnel collecting photons of light and transfer the energy to special molecules of
chlorophyll a in a reaction centre . There are two kinds of reaction centre called, Photosystem I or
PS I with an absorption peak 700nm and Photosystem II or PS II with an absorption peak at 680nm.
When a chlorophyll molecule absorbs light, the energy is passed on to an electron and this raises the
energy level. The chlorophyll molecule goes from the reduced state to an oxidised state. An excited
chlorophyll molecule can immediately pass its energy to a neighbouring chlorophyll molecule which
becomes excited while the original one returns to the ground state. In this way energy is transferred from
one chlorophyll molecule to another while the other pigments called the accessory pigments act like
antennae, collecting energy and transferring it to the special forms of chlorophyll a, called the primary
pigments. The accessory pigments include all other forms of chlorophyll a with different absorption peaks,
chlorophyll b and carotenoids. In PS I, the smaller primary pigment molecule is P700 associated with
stromal thylakoids and, in PSII, the larger primary pigment molecule is P680 associated with granal
thylakoids.

Step 2. Electron Transpor

The Z-scheme of Robin Hill and Bendall explains what happens to the excited electrons displaced from
chlorophyll molecules when light is absorbed. According to the scheme the two photosystems PS I and PS
II are interconnected by an electron transport chain in which cytochromes are the main electron carriers.
As the electrons pass through the chain they provide the energy for the generation of ATP from ADP and
inorganic phosphate.
When light is absorbed by the chlorophyll molecule in PS I, an electron is displaced and transferred to
an electron acceptor which in turn donates the electrons to a protein called ferredoxin. The latter
passes the electrons to Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (NADP) which is there by
reduced to NADPH by NADP reductase. Having given electrons to NADP+, chlorophyll molecules of PS
I are in an electron-deficient or oxidised state. To replace the electrons displaced from PS I, the
electrons come from PS II. That is when light strikes the chlorophyll pigments in PS II an electron is
displaced from it and are passed along a chain of electron carriers called cytochromes to PS I so that
chlorophyll molecules in PS I return to their stable or reduced state. During this non-cyclic transfer of
electrons, two ATP molecules are generated. Since ATP is produced as a direct consequence of
absorption of light during this non-cyclic transfer of electrons, it is called non-cyclic
photophosphorylation .

Since ATP is made by adding a phosphate group to ADP, the reaction is called phosphorylation. ( addition of a phosphate
group to a substrate ) ATP, adenosine tri phosphate, is the biological currency of the cell because it can be readily mobilized
from energy-producing reactions to energy-requiring reactions within the cell and it can be easily hydrolysed to liberate
energy whenever the cell demands. ATP is made of an organic nitrogen base, Adenine, a 5-carbon ribose sugar and three
phosphate groups.
When the terminal phosphate group bond is hydrolysed, 30.6 kJ mol --1energy is liberated and ATP becomes ADP. ATP is
resynthesised from ADP and inorganic phosphate. To make ATP, phosphate must be torn away from water molecules and
this reaction requires energy. ATP in water has higher energy than ADP and phosphate ions in water. So ATP in water is an
efficient way of storing the chemical potential energy

ATP in water ATPase enzyme

ADP + hydrated Pi+ Energy

For the next process to continue, chlorophyll molecules from in PS II must be restored to their reduced
state This is brought about by photolysis (photon=light, lysis= to split). Water is a weak electrolyte and
could dissociate into H+ and OH-. When electrons are removed from the OH -- by oxidised chlorophyll,
oxygen gas is given off as a by-product and chlorophyll molecules in PS II return to their reduced state.

The photolytic splitting of water is called the Hill reaction after the scientist who discovered it, and it is
one of the principal events in photosynthesis. As a result of electron flow from PS II to PS I in the
thylakoid membranes, there is an accumulation of H + in inside the thylakoid setting up a gradient. The
diffusion of H+

out of the thylakoids provides the energy for ATP to be synthesise during energy provided by the H +
diffusing out of the thylakoids. Since ATP is synthesised as a direct consequence of light
absorption during the cyclical transfer of electron it is called cyclic photophosphorylation.
The important products of light-dependent reaction are ATP, NADPH with the evolution of oxygen gas
as a by-product.

STAGE II. LIGHT-INDEPENDENT REACTIONS

Step 3. Reduction of Carbon Dioxide

The light-independent reactions of photosynthesis require far more ATP than NADPH. So both cyclic
and non-cyclic photophosphorylations are essential for the light independent reactions, by providing the
energy and reducing power, to build up CO 2 to form glucose. The reduction of CO 2 and the subsequent
synthesis of carbohydrates take place in a series of small steps, each catalysed by a specific enzyme.
The light independent chain reactions are cyclical and are now known as Calvin Cycle or C3
pathway. The ultimate CO2 acceptor in photosynthesis is a 5C (pentose) sugar called Ribulose bi-phosphate
(RuBP) which fixes the CO2 into an unstable 6C intermediate compound with the enzyme Ribulose bi-phosphate
carboxylase. The unstable 6C compound splits immediately into 2 molecules of 3C (triose sugar) compound
called glycerate-3- phosphate (PGA - Phosphoglyceric acid)

PGA is reduced to form a 3C sugar, Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (PGAL- Phosphoglyceraldehyde).The

hydrogen for the reduction comes from NADPH which also supplies most of the energy, and the rest comes from
ATP. Of the total amount of PGAL formed, a sixth (1/6) is used for the synthesis of polysaccharides and glycerol.
The remaining 5/6th is used for the regeneration of the carbon dioxide acceptor, RuBP. The simplified annotated
diagram below shows the Calvin cycle in great detail.

LINK BETWEEN LIGHT AND DARK STAGE.

INTERACTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS CONTROLLING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

In 1905, F.F. Blackman, a British plant physiologist formulated the principle of limiting factors. It
states: At any given moment, the rate of physiological process is limited by the one factor
which is in short supply, and by that factor alone. In other words it is the factor that is in short
supply and is nearest its minimum value which determines the rate of a reaction. Any change in the
level of this factor, called the limiting factor will affect the rate of the reaction. Changes in the level of
other factors have no effect.

Effect of Light Intensity.

The rate of photosynthesis is measured by the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed or by the volume of
oxygen gas evolved by a plant.

As light intensity increases, photosynthesis begins, and some carbon dioxide from respiration is used in
photosynthesis and less carbon dioxide is released. With further increase in the light intensity, a point is
reached where carbon dioxide is neither used nor evolved. At this point the carbon dioxide produced in
respiration exactly balances that being used in photosynthesis. This is called the compensation point.
Further increase in light intensity results in a linear increase in photosynthesis, until light saturation is
reached beyond which the rate of photosynthesis levels out. If more carbon dioxide is made available, a
further rise in intensity of light does increase the rate of photosynthesis until light saturation is reached.
At this point carbon dioxide or temperature may be limiting factor. The graphs below show how the rate
of photosynthesis could be influenced by intensity of light, concentration of carbon dioxide and
temperature of the surroundings.
Mineral Nutrition in Plants

Plants need ten major elements in large amounts and five minor elements in traces to grow and
complete their life cycles. The major elements include C,H,O,N,S,Ca,Mg,P,K, & Fe and the trace
elements are Cu, Mn, Zn,B, & Mo.

ELEMENT WHY NEEDED DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

Nitrogen

Magnesium

Phosphorus

SAQ 9
SAQ 10
SAQ 11
SAQ 12
 Energy Flow through an Ecosystem

0.5 X 106 LOST IN

REFLECTION
0.49 X 106 LOST IN
INCIDENT SOLAR ENERGY HEAT OF EVAPORATION,
1 X 10 6 kJ m--2 yr1 TRANSMISSION & CONDUCTION

TROPHIC LEVEL 1 TROPHIC LEVEL 2

TROPHIC LEVEL 3 TROPHIC LEVEL 4
PRIMARY PRODUCERS PRIMARY CONSUMERS
SECONDARY
CONSUMERS CONSUMERS
20% GREEN PLANTS HERBIVORES
CARNIVORES TOP CARNIVORES
2000 kJ
PLANT RESPIRATION 10, 000 GPR

8, 000 NPP 800

80 8

ACTIVE
UPTAKE
OF MINERAL CELL DIVISION
IONS BY LEADING TO
ROOT HAIR GROWTH 55% EGESTION 35% RESPIRATION 70%
RESPIRATION 20% EGESTION 70% RESPIRATION 20%
CELLS

EGESTION

TRANSLOCATION SYNTHESIS
THROUGH THE OF BIOMOLECULES ACTIVE SYNTHESIS CELL
NERVE
PHLOEM SIEVE UPTAKE OF PROTEIN DIVISION
TRANS
TUBES OF IONS
MISSION

DECOMPOSER COMPONENT
After the death of the producers and consumers, the
decomposers, namely bacteria and fungi act on the dead
tissues and liberate the locked up energy as heat.
So, the energy enters an ecosystem in the form of light, gets transformed into chemical energy, to be passed from one trophic level to the
next, and eventually lost as heat energy, on death and decomposition of the producers and consumers. ENERGY FLOW
THROUGH AN ECOSYSTEM AND THE FATE OF ENERGY WITHIN THE TROPHIC LEVELS

The principal source of energy for all biological systems comes from the sun. It is the green plant that is
able to transform this radiant energy of the sun into chemical form during the process of photosynthesis.
Of the total amount of sunlight that is incident upon Earth, only about 1 - 5% is captured by green plants
for photosynthesis. (C4 plants can capture about 5% of the sunlight compared to C3 plants) This is
because the green plants can capture the light that directly falls on their chlorophyll pigments and only
some of the wavelengths are absorbed. The latter is evident from the fact that the leaves appear green in
colour since green wave length is reflected.

The amount of light that is incident upon Earth depends on season, aspect, latitude and altitude . In
Britain, on average, the amount of incident radiation is 1 X 10 6 kJ m--2 yr1. Of this total amount of energy,
about 99% is lost in conduction, convection, reflection, heat of evaporation and transmission to the soil
through the leaves. The rate at which this chemical energy is stored by plants is known as gross
primary productivity (GPP), usually expressed as kJ m--2yr1 or MJ ha1yr1. The 1% energy captured
by green plants represents 10, 000 kJ m --2 yr1 that becomes locked in the bonds of the glucose
molecules. This is called primary production . With this fixation of energy, the energy flow through a
community begins. The percentage efficiency of photosynthesis is calculated by dividing GPP by the total
amount of energy striking the plant multiplied by 100.

About 20% of this captured energy, i.e. 2000 kJ, is lost in

respiration to provide energy for the vital activities of the
plant. This includes active uptake of mineral ions by the
root hair cells, translocation thro the phloem sieve tubes,
cell division leading to growth, synthesis of bio molecules
such as proteins, fats and pigments etc. The remainder,
8000 kJ, is stored as starch, converted into cellulose to
build a new cell wall or thicken the existing cell walls or
accumulated in the root hair cell vacuole, lowering the ()
water potential, thus encouraging the entry of water. This
energy that remains to be exported to the next trophic level,
after the respiratory losses, GPP R, is known as net
primary production, NPP, i.e., NPP = GPP -- R. More properly
the rate at which energy is transferred into the organic
molecules that make up the new plant biomass is called
net primary productivity.

When a herbivore on the second trophic level feeds on the

green plants, the energy is transferred to the herbivores.
The plant biomass is digested and incorporated into the
body tissues of the herbivores.This production by heterotrophs
is called secondary production or energy of production .

Herbivores do not feed on the inedible structures like roots,

bark of trees etc. A leaf may fall down and undergo
decomposition without contributing to the biomass of a
herbivore. So there is loss of energy. Assuming that 8000kJ of energy remaining in plants is transferred to
the herbivore; it loses 55% in egestion and 35% in respiration. A herbivore is an inefficient utilizer of the
energy it consumes, since 55% of the energy they consume passes out as faeces without contributing to
its biomass. They harbour cellulolytic bacteria in the rumen fluid to increase the efficiency to deal with
cellulose diet. Of the remaining 45% of the energy, the herbivore spends about 35% in respiration to get
energy to power its vital

activities. The remainder, 10%, i.e., 800kJ, is incorporated into its tissues. This is the amount of energy
available to the next trophic level namely the secondary consumers, the carnivores.

So we see that, as energy passes from one trophic level to the next, i.e., as one organism is consumed
by the other, there is always, on average, 90% loss of energy. Only about 10% becomes incorporated
into their body tissues. This is the reason why a food chain does not support more than four or five links in
nature.

The carnivore is the secondary consumer in the third trophic level. Carnivores are more efficient and
better in utilizing the energy they consume, since their diet is animal flesh containing protein. Of the 800kj
they consume, about 20% is expelled as faeces. Even so they incorporate only about 10% of their food,
i.e., 80kj, into their body tissues. This is the same with the top carnivore which ends up with 8kJ in its
body tissues.

We gain energy efficiently by feeding on plants. It is a waste of energy to consume animal products when
there is plenty of energy remaining in the plant tissues. But we do not eat merely to gain energy. We need
to have certain essential amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins and minerals which are found more commonly
and abundantly in animal tissues. So our diet must me modified. That is it should consist of more plant
material such as cereals to gain energy efficiently and some animal products such as fish, meat, egg, or
milk to gain the essential amino acids. For e.g. maize is the staple diet in Africa. Maize lacks one of the
eight essential amino acids namely tryptophan. This is compensated by consuming animal products.

SAQ 13. The figure below shows the flow of energy through an ecosystem and the fate of energy within
a
trophic level.
a. Calculate the amount of energy transferred to new biomass. b. What percentage is this of the energy
consumed? SAQ 14 The figure below shows the energy flow through a small portion of a grassland
ecosystem. The
figures are given in kJ m-2 y-1.
Respiration
and faeces
59.2 x 10 3

60 x 10 3 Seed eating birds Respiration

Ingested and faeces
Incident solar 500
Radiation Respiration and faeces
1880 x 10 6 374.3 x 10 3

444 x 10 3 Common green 700 Spiders

ingested grasshoppers
1856 x 10 6

Death and
other
pathways
3
69 x 10

Grasses and NP 20.4 x 10 6 116 x 10 3 Apodemus sylvaticus

Herbs [ Field mice ] NP 2 000
Ingested

Respiration Death and other Respiration and faeces

36 x 10 5 Pathways 19.8 x 10 6

a. i. The amount of solar radiation that is incident upon Earth depends on altitude, latitude and aspect.
Name one other factor that could affect the amount of radiation received by the Earths surface.

..( 1 )

ii. Account for the large loss of energy, 1856 x 10 6 kJ m-2 y-1 , between the principal source of energy and
the producers.

..( 2 )

b. i. Give two autotrophs from the above diagram.

.........( 1 )

ii. Name one secondary consumer.

..( 1 )

c. What is the gross primary production of grasses and herbs? (1)

Answer : . kJ m -2 y-1

d. The efficiency of conversion of incident solar energy to gross primary production is referred to as the
photosynthetic efficiency. Calculate the photosynthetic efficiency. (2)

Answer : .....

e. What is the net production of seed-eating birds?

(1)

Answer : .....

f. How much energy is lost via respiration and faeces by field mice?
(1)

Answer : . kJ m -2 y-1

g. i. Name two groups of organisms that are involved in mineral recycling after the death of producers and
consumers. (1)

........

ii. Explain how the nitrogen compounds in the tissues of dead plants and animals are converted into a
form which most plants are able to absorb. (4)
.....
....
.
.

.
.

.
.
 SAQ 15. From the list of terms below, choose one that best fits each description in the table. A term may
be used
once, more than once or not at all.

predator trophic level decomposer secondary consumer prey habitat

niche

population ecosystem community primary consumer autotroph producer

biome

food chain detritivores biomass ecosphere species GPP

NPP

food web top carnivore atmosphere heterotroph omnivore energy

flow host

MOST
DESCRIPTION APPROPRIATE
TERM

The sum total of life on Earth together with the global environment

An aggregation or collection of similar ecosystems

A localized group of communities and their physical environment associated with

it

A localized group of several populations of different species.

A group of individuals of the same species within a community

A group of organisms that can inter-breed and produce fertile offspring

A place where an organism lives or the address of the organism

The role played by an organism in the ecosystem or the way of life that is unique
to that species.
The rate at which energy is incorporated into organic molecules by an
ecosystem

The mass of living material per unit area of land (gm-2) or unit volume of water (gm-3)

The rate at which energy is transferred into the organic molecules to make new
plant biomass
An organism that can transform light energy into stored chemical energy and

51
supply it to all organisms in the biological world
The position occupied by an or organism in the food chain of an ecosystem

A series of organisms through which energy passes in the form of food by eating
and being eaten
Organisms which are capable of synthesizing their own carbohydrates either
using light or chemical energy
Herbivores which feed upon green plants and occupy the second trophic level

An animal that feeds on both animal and vegetable matter

An organism which is not eaten by any other organism and occupies the highest
trophic level in the food chain
Macroscopic organisms like earthworms, woodlouse and springtails which feed
on dead remains
Organisms which are incapable of synthesizing their own carbohydrates and
depend on other organisms for a supply of food
Microscopic saprobionts which break down dead and decaying organic matter
and help in mineral recycling
Very often food chains criss-cross forming complex feeding inter-relationships in
nature

This is represented by arrow marks in the food chain

The name given to carnivores which occupy the third trophic level

An organism whose body provides nourishment and provides protection against

fluctuating environmental conditions to another organism

SAQ 16. The Table below refers to productivity in three ecosystems.

ECOSYSTEM GPP RESPIRATIO NPP

kJ m-2 y-1 N kJ m-2 y-1
kJ m-2 y-1

Tropical rain forest 23 140 17 820 i.

Young pine forest 5 100 1 960 ii.

Maize field iii. 8 000 26 000

52
 1. Using the information provided in the table, calculate the missing values i, ii and iii for each
of the ecosystems. Comment on the data.

2. Suppose that 2 x 106 kJ of sunlight energy falls on each square metre of the maize field
described in the table, what is the efficiency of photosynthesis by the maize crop? Show your
working.

3. Explain why so little of the sunlight energy is used in photosynthesis.

4. A desert was found to have a NPP of 836 kJ m -2 y-1. Suggest reasons why this value is so
low.
SNAB
A2, p 41

53
activities. The remainder, 10%, i.e., 800kJ, is incorporated into its tissues. This is the amount of energy
available to the next trophic level namely the secondary consumers, the carnivores.

So we see that, as energy passes from one trophic level to the next, i.e., as one organism is consumed
by the other, there is always, on average, 90% loss of energy. Only about 10% becomes incorporated
into their body tissues. This is the reason why a food chain does not support more than four or five links in
nature.

The carnivore is the secondary consumer in the third trophic level. Carnivores are more efficient and
better in utilizing the energy they consume, since their diet is animal flesh containing protein. Of the 800kj
they consume, about 20% is expelled as faeces. Even so they incorporate only about 10% of their food,
i.e., 80kj, into their body tissues. This is the same with the top carnivore which ends up with 8kJ in its
body tissues.

We gain energy efficiently by feeding on plants. It is a waste of energy to consume animal products when
there is plenty of energy remaining in the plant tissues. But we do not eat merely to gain energy. We need
to have certain essential amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins and minerals which are found more commonly
and abundantly in animal tissues. So our diet must me modified. That is it should consist of more plant
material such as cereals to gain energy efficiently and some animal products such as fish, meat, egg, or
milk to gain the essential amino acids. For e.g. maize is the staple diet in Africa. Maize lacks one of the
eight essential amino acids namely tryptophan. This is compensated by consuming animal products.

SAQ 13. The figure below shows the flow of energy through an ecosystem and the fate of energy within
a
trophic level.
a. Calculate the amount of energy transferred to new biomass. b. What percentage is this of the energy
consumed? SAQ 14 The figure below shows the energy flow through a small portion of a grassland
ecosystem. The
figures are given in kJ m-2 y-1.
Respiration
and faeces
59.2 x 10 3

60 x 10 3 Seed eating birds Respiration

Ingested and faeces
Incident solar 500
Radiation Respiration and faeces
1880 x 10 6 374.3 x 10 3

444 x 10 3 Common green 700 Spiders

ingested grasshoppers
1856 x 10 6

De
ath and other
pat
3
hways 69 x 10

Grasses and NP 20.4 x 10 6 116 x 10 3 Apodemus sylvaticus

Herbs [ Field mice ] NP 2 000
Ingested

Respiration Death and other Respiration and faeces

36 x 10 5 Pathways 19.8 x 10 6

a. i. The amount of solar radiation that is incident upon Earth depends on altitude, latitude and
aspect.
Name one other factor that could affect the amount of radiation received by the Earths surface.

..( 1 )

ii. Account for the large loss of energy, 1856 x 10 6 kJ m-2 y-1 , between the principal source of energy and
the producers.

..( 2 )

b. i. Give two autotrophs from the above diagram.

.........( 1 )

ii. Name one secondary consumer.

..( 1 )

c. What is the gross primary production of grasses and herbs? (1)

Answer : . kJ m -2 y-1

d. The efficiency of conversion of incident solar energy to gross primary production is referred to as the
photosynthetic efficiency. Calculate the photosynthetic efficiency. (2)

Answer : .....

e. What is the net production of seed-eating birds?

(1)

Answer : .....

f. How much energy is lost via respiration and faeces by field mice?
(1)

Answer : . kJ m -2 y-1

g. i. Name two groups of organisms that are involved in mineral recycling after the death of producers and
consumers. (1)

........

ii. Explain how the nitrogen compounds in the tissues of dead plants and animals are converted into a
form which most plants are able to absorb. (4)
.....
....
.
.

.
.

.
.
 SAQ 15. From the list of terms below, choose one that best fits each description in the table. A term may
be used
once, more than once or not at all.

predator trophic level decomposer secondary consumer prey habitat

niche

population ecosystem community primary consumer autotroph producer

biome

food chain detritivores biomass ecosphere species GPP

NPP

food web top carnivore atmosphere heterotroph omnivore energy

flow host

MOST
DESCRIPTION APPROPRIATE
TERM

The sum total of life on Earth together with the global environment

An aggregation or collection of similar ecosystems

A localized group of communities and their physical environment associated with

it

A localized group of several populations of different species.

A group of individuals of the same species within a community

A group of organisms that can inter-breed and produce fertile offspring

A place where an organism lives or the address of the organism

The role played by an organism in the ecosystem or the way of life that is unique
to that species.
The rate at which energy is incorporated into organic molecules by an
ecosystem

The mass of living material per unit area of land (gm-2) or unit volume of water (gm-3)

The rate at which energy is transferred into the organic molecules to make new
plant biomass
An organism that can transform light energy into stored chemical energy and
supply it to all organisms in the biological world
The position occupied by an or organism in the food chain of an ecosystem

A series of organisms through which energy passes in the form of food by eating
and being eaten
Organisms which are capable of synthesizing their own carbohydrates either
using light or chemical energy
Herbivores which feed upon green plants and occupy the second trophic level

An animal that feeds on both animal and vegetable matter

An organism which is not eaten by any other organism and occupies the highest
trophic level in the food chain
Macroscopic organisms like earthworms, woodlouse and springtails which feed
on dead remains
Organisms which are incapable of synthesizing their own carbohydrates and
depend on other organisms for a supply of food
Microscopic saprobionts which break down dead and decaying organic matter
and help in mineral recycling
Very often food chains criss-cross forming complex feeding inter-relationships in
nature

This is represented by arrow marks in the food chain

The name given to carnivores which occupy the third trophic level

An organism whose body provides nourishment and provides protection against

fluctuating environmental conditions to another organism

SAQ 16. The Table below refers to productivity in three ecosystems.

ECOSYSTEM GPP RESPIRATIO NPP

kJ m-2 y-1 N kJ m-2 y-1
kJ m-2 y-1

Tropical rain forest 23 140 17 820 i.

Young pine forest 5 100 1 960 ii.

Maize field iii. 8 000 26 000

 5. Using the information provided in the table, calculate the missing values i, ii and iii for each
of the ecosystems. Comment on the data.

6. Suppose that 2 x 106 kJ of sunlight energy falls on each square metre of the maize field
described in the table, what is the efficiency of photosynthesis by the maize crop? Show your
working.

7. Explain why so little of the sunlight energy is used in photosynthesis.

8. A desert was found to have a NPP of 836 kJ m -2 y-1. Suggest reasons why this value is so
low.
SNAB
A2, p 41