Even though conflicts are so common, thinking about conflict in theoretical terms only

became a recognised field of scholarship after the Second World War. In recent decades,
many theories have emerged to describe the phenomenon of conflict that is so much a part
of human life. The understanding one has of a conflict is strongly influenced by the way one
thinks about the nature of conflict. Definitions of conflict move backwards and forwards
between conflict being perceived as a negative or as a positive process. Some present conflict
as a natural phenomenon, others as an alien or abnormal happening in social life, and yet
others consider it as a necessary condition for the development and growth of individuals and
societies. Young people are faced with the whole range of conflict types: they meet it from
intrapersonal to international situations; they deal with conflict at home, in educational
institutions and at work; they deal with it as it takes place in the social environment around
them.

The word conflict comes from the Latin word conflictus, which means collision or clash.
Nevertheless, considerable disagreement exists over how to define conflict.
Defining conflict also depends on the concept one has of the nature of conflict as something
that takes place in society and between people. For example, conflict is commonly
understood as:
a form of opposition between parties;
an absence of agreement between parties;
a way to solve social contradictions;
a natural process in human social interaction.

Views of Conflict
Over the years three distinct views have evolved about conflict in projects and organizations)
The traditional view (dominant from the late nineteenth century until the mid-1940s)
assumes that conflict is bad, always has a negative impact, and leads to declines in
performance as the level of conflict increases. Conflict must therefore always be avoided. In
this view conflict is closely associated with such terms as violence, destruction, and
irrationality. The response to conflict in the traditional view is to reduce, suppress, or
eliminate it. The manager was responsible for freeing the project of any conflict, often using
an authoritarian approach. Although that approach worked sometimes, it was not generally
effective; when they are suppressed, the root causes cannot be identified, and the potentially
positive aspects of conflict cannot emerge. This traditional view of conflict is still widely held
because industrial and business institutions that have a strong influence on our society concur
with it. This negative view of conflict played a role in the development of labour unions.
Violent or disruptive confrontations between workers and management led people to
conclude that conflict was always detrimental and should therefore be avoided.
The behavioural or contemporary view, also known as the human relations view, emerged in
the late 1940s and held sway through the 1970s. It argues that conflict is natural and
inevitable in all organizations and that it may have either a positive or a negative effect,
depending on how the conflict is handled. Performance may increase with conflict, but only
up to a certain level, and then decline if conflict is allowed to increase further or is left
unresolved. This approach advocates acceptance of conflict and rationalizes its existence.
Because of the potential benefits from conflict, project managers should focus on managing
it effectively rather than suppressing or eliminating it.
The newest perspective, the interactionist view assumes that conflict is necessary to increase
performance. While the behavioural approach accepts conflict, the interactionist view
encourages conflict based on the belief that a harmonious, peaceful, tranquil, too-
cooperative project organization is likely to become static, apathetic, stagnant, and unable to
respond to change and innovation. This approach encourages managers to maintain an
appropriate level of conflictenough to keep projects self-critical, viable, creative, and
innovative.

In the context of the workplace, the term conflict refers to a difference of opinions caused by
opposing attitudes, behaviours, ideas, needs, or goals. The word conflict is usually associated
with negative thoughts, unpleasant situations, or unpleasant memories.
Everyone has his or her own likes, dislikes, ideas, habits flaws, needs and personality. While
it is certain that there will be conflict in your life, the good news is that there are many ways
to cope with conflict, avoid conflict, and sometimes change a conflict to a positive situation.
Conflict forces choice and making a choice can help you test the merits of the specific
attitudes, behaviors, needs or goals that are in conflict.

Types of conflict

Simple conflict: These are usually over a fact, for instance, what is the tallest mountain in
India? A conflict over facts can easily be resolved by consulting a source of information that
is considered expert on the part of those involved in the conflict. When you find yourself in
conflict over a fact, end the conflict by checking a source immediately. If youre right, do not
gloat. If you are wrong, simply say, Well, you were right. Thats a fact I wont forget. Do not
allow a simple conflict to harm a relationship or the flow of communication.

Ego conflict: Ego is your feeling of self-worth. Conflicts involving egos are probably the most
damaging to relationships. This is because, in an ego conflict, the individuals view winning
or losing the conflict as a measure of their expertise and personal worth.
Ego conflict escalates when one or both parties introduce personal or judgemental
statements. When conflict is tied to your personal worth, the conflict becomes an ego
conflict. Once your ego is involved in conflict, your ability to behave in a rational manner is
jeopardized. Ego conflict is difficult to resolve without bringing in emotions. You must be
careful to separate the content of a conflict from your potential ego involvement.

False conflict: There are situations when you think a conflict exists, but in reality, it does not.
This type of conflict is called a false conflict. For example, suppose you are a supervisor and
one of your staff does not appear for work on Monday morning. You are concerned and angry
because you were counting on this person to help you with a special project. A few minutes
later you see this person walk into her office with a set of papers. The employee says, I came
to work a few minutes early this morning so I could use the quality copy machine on the fourth
floor. I thought that would give us a head start on the day. This situation is an example of
false conflict.
The first thing to do when you feel a conflict coming into place is to determine whether the
conflict is real. Do not jump to conclusions. The energy devoted to getting upset over a false
conflict is wasted. In the example given, what do you think might have happened if the
supervisor spoke first?

Value and belief conflict: This arises when people differ in their thoughts about life in general
(or an aspect of life) and these differences are brought into focus on a particular issue. You
have determined what is important to you.
The values you cherish may be different from others. For example, a co-worker feels there
should be a welfare scheme for the unemployed. You feel that each one should be
responsible for earning his livelihood and not depend on the Govt. If you and your co-worker
are to get along, you should probably talk about topics that do not include welfare,
unemployment, or such topics. Do not risk unnecessary conflict with someone who has
different values or beliefs from yours.
Can values and beliefs conflicts be resolved? Perhaps over a long period of time. Our values
may change some from one period of life to another- these changes do not come quickly. It
is not bad for people with differences in values to discuss those thoughts, provided that each
person recognizes that he or she is not likely to change the other person. It is often said, You
can change no one but yourself. Recognize that you are not likely to change the values or
beliefs of others. Perhaps you can agree to disagree. Learn to respect the values and beliefs
of others.

Conflict Outcomes
Win-win, win-lose, and lose-lose are game theory terms that refer to the possible outcomes
of a game or conflict involving two sides, and more importantly, how each side perceives their
outcome relative to their standing before the game. For example, a "win" results when the
outcome of a negotiation is better than expected, a "loss" when the outcome is worse than
expected. Two people may receive the same outcome in measurable terms, say 100 Rs, but
for one side that may be a loss, while for the other it is a win. In other words, expectations
determine one's perception of any given result.
Win-win outcomes occur when each side of a dispute feels they have won. Since both sides
benefit from such a scenario, any resolutions to the conflict are likely to be accepted
voluntarily. When the outcome is exactly what is expected or better than expected, it is said
to be Win Win situation.
Win-lose situations result when only one side perceives the outcome as positive. Thus, win-
lose outcomes are less likely to be accepted voluntarily.
Lose- Lose situations occur when both or all the parties involved face a loss of resources or
fail to achieve the expected outcome. Negotiations fail to reach agreement, both parties may
end up in worse positions than they began. War is an example of a Lose-lose situation. In
World War II, US and USSR threatened each other with nuclear destruction which would have
ensured mutual destruction!

Styles of Conflict Management

1. Avoid
A person who avoids conflict does not deal the issue at hand when it arises. This means that
neither his own concerns nor those of the other person are addressed. Avoiding conflict
involves one of the conflicted parties avoiding communicating about or confronting the
problem, hoping it will go away. By not participating in the problem-solving process, she is
effectively removing herself from it. When employing this approach, the conflict might go
away if the other party doesn't press for a resolution. The underlying differences between the
parties are never resolved. Avoiding should be used when diplomatically sidestepping an
issue, postponing an issue until a better time, or withdrawing from a threatening situation.

2. Compromise

Bargaining is the hallmark of the compromise approach to conflict resolution. The conflicting
parties can identify some interests they are willing to compromise on to bring about a
resolution. While the emotional level might still be high, the compromise style sometimes
results in interim solutions when a full resolution is not immediately possible. Parties might
reach a settlement to prevent further escalation of the conflict. Compromising might mean
splitting the difference, exchanging concessions, or seeking a quick middle-ground position.
3. Force/Confront

The confrontation style to conflict resolution entails the party placing his desires above those
of all others involved in the conflict. Assertiveness is the hallmark of this approach, and those
employing this style of negotiation aim to address the conflict head-on. It might involve high
levels of emotions as the parties establish positions in what can sometimes evolve into hostile
communications. It could also mean an individual who competes or pursues his or her own
interests without regard to the other persons goals and seeking to impose his power in order
to win his position.

4.Accommodate
Someone who accommodates the other person in a conflict prefers to satisfy the concerns of
the other person, thereby neglecting his own concerns. Accommodation carries with it an
element of self-sacrifice. This mode might involve selfless generosity or charity or yielding to
anothers point of view.

5. Collaborate
In collaboration, the individual prefers to work with the other person to find a solution that
fully satisfies the concerns of both. This is the best way to achieve the win/win solution: one
where each party feels that he or she achieved his or her goals. It involves exploring an issue
to identify the underlying interests of the parties in order to arrive at an outcome that meets
both sets of concerns. Collaborating might take the form of exploring a disagreement to learn
from each others insights, or looking for a creative solution to an interpersonal problem.
Key Conflict Resolution Skills

Quickly relieve stress

The capacity to remain relaxed and focused in tense situations is a vital aspect of conflict
resolution. If you dont know how to stay centered and in control of yourself, you may become
emotionally overwhelmed in challenging situations. The best way to rapidly and reliably
relieve stress is through the senses: sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell. But each person
responds differently to sensory input, so you need to find things that are soothing to you.

Recognize and manage your emotions.

Emotional awareness is the key to understanding yourself and others. If you dont know how
you feel or why you feel that way, you wont be able to communicate effectively or smooth
over disagreements. Although knowing your own feelings may seem simple, many people
ignore or try to sedate strong emotions like anger, sadness, and fear. But your ability to handle
conflict depends on being connected to these feelings. If youre afraid of strong emotions or
if you insist on finding solutions that are strictly rational, your ability to face and resolve
differences will be impaired.

Use humor and play to deal with challenges

You can avoid many confrontations and resolve arguments and disagreements by
communicating in a playful or humorous way. Humor can help you say things that might
otherwise be difficult to express without creating a flap. However, its important that you
laugh with the other person, not at them. When humor and play are used to reduce tension
and anger, reframe problems, and put the situation into perspective, the conflict can actually
become an opportunity for greater connection and intimacy.

Tips for managing conflict

Make the relationship your priority. Maintaining and strengthening the relationship, rather
than winning the argument, should always be your first priority. Be respectful of the other
person and his or her viewpoint.
Focus on the present. If youre holding on to old hurts and resentments, your ability to see
the reality of the current situation will be impaired. Rather than looking to the past and
assigning blame, focus on what you can do in the here and now to solve the problem.
Pick your battles. Conflicts can be draining, so its important to consider whether the issue is
really worthy of your time and energy. Maybe you don't want to surrender a parking space if
youve been circling for 15 minutes. But if there are dozens of spots, arguing over a single
space isnt worth it.
Be willing to forgive. Resolving conflict is impossible if youre unwilling or unable to forgive.
Resolution lies in releasing the urge to punish, which can never compensate for our losses
and only adds to our injury by further depleting and draining our lives.
Know when to let something go. If you cant come to an agreement, agree to disagree. It
takes two people to keep an argument going. If a conflict is going nowhere, you can choose
to disengage and move on.
Deal with only one issue at a time. Don't introduce other topics until each is fully discussed.
This avoids the "kitchen sink" effect where people throw in all their complaints while not
allowing anything to be resolved.
No "hitting below the belt." Attacking areas of personal sensitivity creates an atmosphere of
distrust, anger, and vulnerability.
Avoid accusations. Accusations will cause others to defend themselves. Instead, talk about
how someone's actions made you feel.
Don't generalize. Avoid words like "never" or "always." Such generalizations are usually
inaccurate and will heighten tensions. Avoid clamming up. When one person becomes silent
and stops responding to the other, frustration and anger can result. Positive results can only
be attained with two way communication.

Clarify the real issues, rather than making assumptions. Ask questions that allow you to gain
this information, and which let the other person know you are trying to understand.
"Can you say more about that?"
"Is that the way it usually happens?"

Restate what you have heard, so you are both able to see what has been understood so far it
may be that the other person will then realize that additional information is needed.
"It sounds like you weren't expecting that to happen."

Reflect feelings be as clear as possible.

"I can imagine how upsetting that must have been."

Validate the concerns of the other person, even if a solution is elusive at this time. Expressing
appreciation can be a very powerful message if it is conveyed with integrity and respect.
"I really appreciate that we are talking about this issue."
"I am glad we are trying to figure this out."
Teamwork
A group of individuals with different skills and different tasks, who work together on a
common project, service, or goal, with a meshing of functions and mutual support.

In todays world, almost everything is accomplished by teams. Large companies often use
project teams that span the globe. Small companies use teams to ensure that their products
and services reach their customers. Nonprofit organizations put teams together to
accomplish goals. Instructors teach and develop curriculum in teams, and work in teams with
counsellors, administrators, and other academic employees. Government workers from local
to national levels work in teams. Aware of the importance of working with others, academic
institutions have increased the teamwork component of many courses, and students work
together both in person and online to create documents, put together presentations, and
complete projects. The prime advantage to working in teams is the ability to combine skills
and talents. An academic or work team benefits from a wide array of skills that no single
student or employee could possess alone, from analytical skills to marketing skills to technical
skills and everything in between. Complex projects at school
or in the workplace demand all of these skills, especially when things need to get done in a
specific time frame.

Teamwork is an essential part of workplace success. Like a basketball team working together
to set up the perfect shot, every team member has a specific role to play in accomplishing
tasks on the job. Although it may seem as if one player scored the basket, that basket was
made possible by many peoples planning, coordination, and cooperation to get that player
the ball. Employers look for people who not only know how to work well with others, but who
understand that not every player on the team can or will be the one who gets the ball. When
everyone in the workplace works together to accomplish goals, everyone achieves more.

Teamwork involves building relationships and working with other people using a number of
important skills and habits:

Working cooperatively

Contributing to groups with ideas, suggestions, and effort

Communication (both giving and receiving)

Sense of responsibility

Healthy respect for different opinions, customs, and individual preferences

Ability to participate in group decision-making

When employees work together to accomplish a goal, everyone benefits. Employers might
expect to see this in action in different ways. For example, team members in the workplace
plan ahead and work cooperatively to assign tasks, assess progress, and deliver on time. They
have professional discussions during which differing approaches and opinions might be
shared and assessed in a respectful manner. Even when certain employees end up with tasks
that were not their first choices, jobs get done with limited complaints because it is in the
spirit of teamwork and with the overall goal in mind. A leader or manager may often serve as
the teamwork facilitator. In this case, team members participate respectfully in discussion,
carry out assigned tasks, and defer to the leader in the best interest of the goal. Consensus is
wonderful, but not always possible, and an assigned leader will often support and facilitate
the decision-making necessary for quality teamwork to exist.
The Cs of teamwork
1. Co-operation
Cooperation is when two or more people share information and resources in pursuit of
individual goals. The old Ill scratch your back if you scratch mine. This implies a tit-for-tat
arrangement with no shared purpose or interdependence. New things may result, but only
because of each persons efforts.
2. Collaboration
When different groups/teams work together for brainstorming, idea sharing to accomplish a
common goal, it is called collaboration. Even when project teams are not large or global,
collaboration is essential. Collaboration is the act of working effectively with others to achieve
a common goal. It needs to be built on trust, which can only be achieved through honesty,
openness, consistency, and respect. The International Space Station, a 100-billion-dollar
space laboratory is an example of collaboration of 15 countries working together.
Collaboration becomes necessary when interdependences are so great that without a shared
purpose, the goal could not be achieved. And just to make things more complicated,
collaboration can occur among strangers, and even competitors. Who, by the way, may also
have competing goals. Collaborations also dont have one supreme leader.
In a network environment, where there is not interdependence, collaboration is not essential
to the creative process. Through cooperative sharing of information and resources, creativity
emerges through individuals and is hopefully recognized and supported. However in an
interdependent organization, collaboration is the bedrock of creative solutions and
innovation. If Yahoo is to reinvent itself, collaboration will be essential.

3. Co-ordination
In a team task, the activities involved in making sure that the right things happen at the right
time is known as coordination. Co-ordination is sharing information and resources so that
each party can accomplish their part in support of a mutual objective. It is about teamwork in
implementation. Not creating something new.
4. Complementation
Complementary skills are dissimilar skills that, when combined, become more useful than
individual skills in accomplishing a goal due to coordinated efforts of individual team
members. For example, Ricky Griffin writes in Organizational Behavior: Managing People and
Organizations that while some team members may have technical or functional skills
necessary to complete tasks, others may possess decision-making and problem-solving skills.
Still other team members may possess the skills necessary to discuss issues, resolve conflict
and control the flow of communication within the team and between the team and its
external environment or stakeholders.
Using a team consisting of individuals with complementary skills to organize a companys
work is not a new idea. For decades, individuals have joined together and used their
complementary skills to achieve a projects objectives. For example, Thomas Edison, Charles
Batcheldor, John Kruesi, Frances Upton and Ludwig Boehm combined machining, clock
making, mathematics and glassblowing skills to develop the electric light bulb, the
phonograph and other products. In turn, in 1943, engineers employed by Lockheed Martin
formed a team referred to as the Skunk Works to create a proposal for the first U.S. jet fighter.

Advantages of Teams

Generates multiple ideas for solving problems, making it easier to resolve issues.
Provides wide pool of talents, letting members work together to complete tasks.
Strengthens bonds between employees and improves their job satisfaction.
Disadvantages of Teams

Slows down the problem-solving process because of discussion and disagreements.

This is particularly true when teams grow larger. As a result, deadlines may be
compromised.
Potentially challenging for employees who prefer working alone or are not
comfortable working with people with widely divergent skills and backgrounds.
Allows some team members to do less work than others and not participate as much.

Stages of Team Formation

In 1965, a psychologist named Bruce Tuckman said that teams go through 5 stages of
development: forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning. The stages start from
the time that a group first meets until the project ends.

Forming
The first stage of group development is known as the forming stage. The forming stage
represents a time where the group is just starting to come together and is characterized with
anxiety and uncertainty. Members are cautious with their behavior, which is driven by the
desire to be accepted by all members of the group. Conflict, controversy and personal
opinions are avoided even though members are beginning to form impressions of each other
and gain an understanding of what the group will do together. Some believe this cautious
behavior prevents the group from getting any real work done. However, the focus for group
members during the forming stage is to become familiar with each other and their purpose,
not on work.
Typical outcomes of the forming stage include things like gaining an understanding of the
group's purpose, determining how the team will be organized and who will be responsible for
what, discussion of major milestones or phases of the group's goal (including a rough project
schedule), outlining general group rules (including when they will meet) and discovery of what
resources will be available for the group to use.

Storming
The second stage of group development is known as the storming stage. The storming stage
is where conflict and competition are at its greatest. This is because now that group members
have an understanding of the task and a general feel for who they are as a group and who
group members are, they feel confident and begin to address some of the more important
issues surrounding the group. Such issues can relate to things like the group's tasks, individual
roles and responsibilities or even with the group members themselves.
The storming stage is where the more dominant of the group members emerge, while other,
less confrontational members stay in the comfort and security of suppressing their feelings
just as they did in the previous stage. Even though these individuals stay quiet, issues may still
exist. All members have an increased need for clarification. Questions surrounding leadership,
authority, rules, responsibilities, structure, evaluation criteria and reward systems tend to
arise during the storming stage. Such questions must be answered so that the group can move
on to the next stage. Consequently, not all groups are able to move past the storming stage.

Norming
Once a group receives the clarity that it so desperately needs, it can move on to the third
stage of group development, known as the norming stage. The norming stage is the time
where the group becomes a cohesive unit. Morale is high as group members actively
acknowledge the talents, skills and experience that each member brings to the group. A sense
of community is established and the group remains focused on the group's purpose and goal.
Members are flexible, interdependent and trust each other. Leadership is shared, and
members are willing to adapt to the needs of the group. Information flows seamlessly and is
uninhibited due to the sense of security members feel in the norming stage.

Performing
The team reaches the performing stage, when hard work leads, without friction, to the
achievement of the team's goal. The structures and processes that you have set up support
this well. As leader, you can delegate much of your work, and you can concentrate on
developing team members.

It feels easy to be part of the team at this stage, and people who join or leave won't disrupt
performance.

Adjourning

Many teams will reach this stage eventually. For example, project teams exist for only a fixed
period, and even permanent teams may be disbanded through organizational restructuring.
Team members who like routine, or who have developed close working relationships with
colleagues, may find this stage difficult, particularly if their future now looks uncertain.