The Mathematics of Exterior Ballistic Computations

Author(s): L. S. Dederick
Reviewed work(s):
Source: The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 47, No. 9 (Nov., 1940), pp. 628-634
Published by: Mathematical Association of America
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2304113 .
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628 MATHEMATICS OF EXTERIOR BALLISTIC COMPUTATIONS [November,

THE MATHEMATICS OF EXTERIOR BALLISTIC COMPUTATIONS*

L. S. DEDERICK, AberdeenProvingGround

1. Introduction.The mathematicaltheoryupon whichballisticcomputations

are based is subject to change depending upon two very differentconditions.
One is the kind of weapon and the consequent type of trajectorywhich is com-
mon at the time in actual gunnery,and the other is the available method of a
strictlycomputational character. As a result of changes in these things it has
happened that there are two theories which have formedbases for ballistic
computations,and which have in turn become obsolete, and then returnedto
actual or prospectiveusefulness. One of these is the Siacci methodfortrajecto-
ries; the otheris the adjoint systemfordifferentialvariations.
2. The Siacci method. Previous to 1914, the common type of trajectorywas
one which nowheredeparted very far fromthe horizontal. For a trajectoryof
this sort the Siacci methodt constitutesan excellentapproximationto the solu-
tion of the differentialequations which formulatethe commonlyused physical
hypotheses.These include the assumption that the forceexerted by the air on
the projectileconsistsonlyof the drag,that is, a forceactingin a directionexactly
opposite to that of the projectilevelocityreferredto the air. Thus if thereis no
wind the problem becomes two-dimensional;and the differentialequations of
motionforthe projectilemay be written

x" =-Ex',
y" =-Ey'-g,

whereprimesdenote time derivatives,and g is the accelerationof gravity.It is

furtherassumed that we may write
GH
(2) E=-,

whereG is an empiricalfunctionof the velocityv and is called the dragfunction,

H is the ratio of the air densityto its standard value at sea level, and C is a con-
stant forthe trajectoryand is called the ballisticcoefficient. For different shapes
of projectile there may be differentdrag functions.If such a drag functionis
used as correspondsreasonablywell to the shape of the projectileunderconsider-
ation, then equations (1) and (2) representthe motion of the projectilesuf-
ficientlywell formost purposesconnectedwith the computationof firingtables,
and the value of C will show little variation between trajectoriesforthe same
projectile. Equations (1) may be writtenmore explicitly
* Presented at the Hanover meetingof the Mathematical Association of America on Septem-
ber 9, 1940.
t F. Siacci, Balistique Ext6rieur,Paris, 1892.

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1940] MATHEMATICS OF EXTERIOR BALLISTIC COMPUTATIONS 629

dx dv
- =v, - = - Ev ,

dy
dy dvt,
= v, dv- -Evz,-g.
dt dt

If in these we introducethe new variable u = vxsec 0, called the pseudo-velocity,

wheretan 0 =vy/vxand 0 is the initialvalue of0, the equations of motionbecome
dt -1 dm g secOo
du Eu du Eu2
(3) dx -cos 6o dy -m cos 00
du E du E
where m=tan 0=vyl/vx.
The essential featureof the Siacci method in its originalformis the use of
two approximationswhich are valid if the trajectoryremainsin all parts nearly
horizontal.From the definitionof u it followsthat v= u cos 0 sec 0. Since 0 and
Ooare both small and since G is always an increasingfunctionof its argument,the
errormade is small if in (2) we replace G(v) =G(u cos 0 sec 0) by G(u) cos Oo
sec 0. This is the firstSiacci approximation.The second consists in omitting
both sec 0 and H as factorsof E. This also is a valid approximationsince each
varies slightlyfromunity,sec 0 upward and H downward. By these approxima-
tions we get E= G(u) cos Oo/C,and the equations of motionbecome
dt -C sec 00 dm gC sec2 00
du u G(u) du U22G(u)
(4) dx -c dy -Cm
du G(u) du G(u)
All of these have separable variables except the equation fory. The other three
can be immediatelysolved in termsof quadratures, and then the equation for
y can also be solved in termsof a quadrature involvingthat already used form.
For example, if we let
rU du
S (u) = ~
JuG(u)
where U is a constant largerthan any velocitylikelyto be used, then
x = C[S(u) - S(vo)].

If thereforeS(u) is computed and tabulated fora given drag functionG(u), x is

expressiblein termsof u merelyby an entryin the table. In like mannereach of
the variables t,m, and y may be foundin termsof u froma tabulated functionof

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630 MATHEMATICS OF EXTERIOR BALLISTIC COMPUTATIONS [November,

u and hence in termsof x. This gives a practical method forfindingtrajectory

resultsfromfourreadilycomputed tables correspondingto any particulardrag
function.
All this depends on the condition that the trajectorydeparts only slightly
fromthe horizontal.The increasinguse of high angle fireboth foranti-aircraft
and groundimpact emphasized the need of a methodnot subject to this restric-
tion. This was furnishedby the method of numericalintegration,which is per-
fectlygeneraland givesany solutionof the equations (1) and (2) withany desired
degree of accuracy. In 1918 numerical integrationwas adopted as the stand-
ard trajectorymethod; but the very laborious computation involved in this
methodmade it necessaryto supplementit in certaindirections.In one of these
the Siacci method continued in use as an auxiliary until about 1935. It then
was dropped completely.
3. Modificationsofthe Siacci method. Shortlyafterthis,however,a general-
ization of the Siacci methodto trajectoriesthat are nearly flatbut not near the
horizontal was developed by R. H. Kent* of the Aberdeen Proving Ground.
Trajectories of this sort are of the kind needed for guns mounted on aircraft.
In this methodthe firstSiacci approximationis made but instead of the second,
the factorsec 0 is canceled against cos Oo,since they are nearly reciprocal,and
H is treated as a constant. If this is combined with C by writingC11= C/H, we
get instead of equations (4) the following:
dt -CH dm gCH sec Oo
du uG(u) du H2G(u)
dx -CH cosGo dy -CHm cos 00
du G(us) du G(u)
These have solutionsexpressiblein termsof the Siacci functionsin exactly the
same manner as in (4). If the trajectoryinvolves enough variation in altitude
to requirea considerationof variable density,we may retain H and expressit in
the usual exponential formH= e-h. From the flatnessof the trajectorythis is
closely approximatedby ehmox, which gives an equation forx in the form
du
=
e-hmoxdx C11
cos Oo I
'
G(u)
of which the integralis
1 --e-e-h mox
o
= CH cos Go[S(u) - S(vo)]I

From this point on, the Siacci functionsare not applicable and the quadratures
must be performedin each case; but this is much less laborious than numerical
integrationof the differentialequations. A similar method can be applied if
* Cf. also, K. Popoff,Das Hauptproblem der aiusserenBallistik, Leipzig, 1932.

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1940] MATHEMATICS OF EXTERIOR BALLISTIC COMPUTATIONS 631

there is an initial yaw which is damped out. The increased resistance due to
this can also be expressedas an exponentialin x or in t.
4. Differentialvariations. Just as the Siacci method for trajectories was
threatenedwith extinctionby the advent of numerical integration,so the use
of the adjoint systemfordifferential variations was abandoned with the advent
of mechanical integration.When numericalintegrationis used, trajectoriesare
computed only forstandard conditions.These include:
a) standard muzzle velocity,
b) standard air densitystructure,
c) standard air temperaturestructure,
d) standard projectileweight,
e) no wind,
f) no rotationof the earth,
g) a particularselectionof a fewangles of departure.
The variation in range due to replacing one of these by a correspondingnon-
standardconditionis called a differentialvariation.The adjointsystem*furnishes
a method by which one single piece of numericalintegrationyields the differ-
ential variationsfroma given standard trajectorydue to all kinds of non-stand-
ard conditions.
The general theoryof this is as follows.Let x and y be the coordinates of
the projectile at any instant t on a standard trajectory,and let x+t and y+7
be its co6rdinatesforthe same value of t on a disturbedor non-standardtrajec-
tory.The differential equations of the disturbedtrajectorywill be
x" + t" = - (E + AE)(x' + i') + ax,
y" + X" = - (E + AE)(y' + n') - g + ay,
whereAE is the change in E due to the disturbingcause as well as to the changes
in the coordinates and componentsof velocity,and ax and a, are any new ac-
celerations due to the disturbingcause, and where the initial conditions may
also be altered. If the equations forthe normal trajectoryare subtracted from
these and if all the variations are regardedas small quantities in the sense that
the productof any two small quantities may be omitted,these equations become
t"= -Et' - x'AE + a,
77= -En'- y'AE + o.
If now AE is evaluated, it turnsout to be a linear expressionin i', 7', and 7.
5. Adjoint system. If then we include the identical relationsdi/dt= t' and
=77', the equations for the variations may be seen to constitutea special
dcq/dt
case under the general form,
* Cf.,G. A. Bliss, Functions of lines in ballistics,Transactions of the American Mathematical
Society,vol. 21, 1920,pp. 93-106.

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632 MATHEMATICS OF EXTERIOR BALLISTIC COMPUTATIONS [November,

d= alt + biq + cit' + d1t1'+ el,

dt

= a2t + b2-q+ c2t' + d2q' + e2,

dt
(5) d!
b377+ CWt'+ + ez,,
d377'
dtdt=
a3t +

- = a4t + b47l + C41' + d4q' + e4.

dt

In the case considered many of the coefficientsare zero. This system of linear
firstorderequations has an adjoint systemin fournew variables X, IA,v, and p,
dX
= -al'X- a2A -a3 - a4P,
dt
d,g
- = - bl- -
b2-b3v - b4p,
dt
(6) dv
- = - ClX - C2I - C3V - C4p,
dt
dp
d = - dlX - d2u - d3P -d4p.
dt

A well known theorem,which may be easily verifiedby direct substitution,

states that any solution of the adjoint and any solution of the originalsystem
satisfythe relation,
d
- (Xt + ,un + vP' + pg') = ejX + e2,A + e3v + e4P,
dt
or
T rT

(7) (Xt+ ,A7+ vt' + P?7')]= f (elX + e2ji + e3v+ e4p)dt,

where T is the time of flightto the point of fall. If now we select that particular
solution of the adjoint system which has X=1, u= cot c, and v=p =0, when
t= T, where X is the angle of fall, the left side has a value at the upper limit
equal to AX, the range variation on the level. In the figure,t =AB, l=BD, and
AX=AC. Equation (7) then becomes
I T

(8) AX = voto + pond' + (e3v + e4p)dt,

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1940] MATHEMATICS OF EXTERIOR BALLISTIC COMPUTATIONS 633

whereUo'and foo'denote the variationsin the componentsof the muzzle velocity,

and it is assumed that there is no variation in the position of the gun, so that
4o=fo=0. The quantities e1and e2 are always zero in this problem.Any varia-
tion is given by this formulaforAX. For variationsof the initialconditions,the
integral vanishes; for non-standard forces the two outside terms vanish. In

A B C

any case, values of v and p are required,which are a part of the solution ofthe
adjoint system. If the trajectoryis worked by numerical integration,the ad-
joint system may be solved by this method also; but the work proceeds back-
ward along the trajectoryfromthe point of fall to the muzzle, since the known
conditionsare at the point of fall.
6. Relation to mechanical integration.With the use of mechanical integra-
tion this method is not practical. For mechanical integrationprovides for the
rapid findingof numeroussolutionsof one systemof differential equations, but
not forrapid workwhenthereis a changein thedifferential equations themselves.
Now the coefficients in the adjoint depend on the particularsolution of the tra-
jectory equations. Apparentlythen the use of the adjoint would have no value
in connectionwith mechanicalintegration,wherethe variationsare obtained by
runningindependenttrajectoriesand noting the actual differences.
Recently,however,an application* forit has been found which may prove
usefuleven with mechanicalintegration.In any case, the adjoint admits of con-
siderable simplification.The firstequation in it becomes in the ballistic problem
dX/dt= 0, so that X -1. This reduces the system to the thirdorder. Moreover,
it is easy to show that the original system in the homogeneous case (where
e3=e4 =0) has a solution =x', 77=y'. If now we have found two solutions of
the homogeneouscase by mechanical integration(that is, as differences)we get
fromthese three solutions an algebraic solution of the adjoint by the identical
relation (7) whichhere becomes t +,ul +P<'+pqo'=constant. If the two mechani-
cal solutions are formuzzle velocity and angle, and are denoted by ((v, f7,)and
(to, 7io),we have the followingthree equations:
x' + y' - Ex'v- (Ey' + g)p = 0,
(9) (v + -vI + tv + X ' = AvX,
to + +
+ogA 'V++q'p = A0X,
* Suggestedby DunhamJackson,

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634 MATHEMATICS OF EXTERIOR BALLISTIC COMPUTATIONS [November,

where the three constants on the rightside are determinedby consideringthe

point of fall. These equations determinethe particularsolution of the adjoint
completely;but it so happens that fortwo importantapplications only the muz-
zle values /o and Po are needed. This is because in these cases the indicated qua-
drature in (8) can be performedexplicitly.In the case of a uniformrange wind
of velocity w,, the integrandbecomes w.(v'+I) and AX-=AwX=w (T-vo). In
the case of uniformrelative increase in density o0H/H,the integrandbecomes
A'8oH/hH,and
AX = AHX = (cot co-po).
IzH
The values of .ouand Po are obtained by solving (9) with the particularmuzzle
o =fl=, ~,'=Avo cos Go,-q'=Avo sin Go,~o'= -voAGosin Oo,
conditons,~, f,= =qo
,qo'=voAGocos Oo.The use of these gives
/ AvX i\OX \
A,\X = wJ T - cos Go+ -0 sin 9o
\ AVo vOAo J

and
boH F A7X / g AOX g cotGO
(10) AHX =-_ cotGo+ cotc*- EocscGo + )- 2
hH _Azvo vo0 G0o v2

The firstof these is a familiarresult which is commonlyobtained by referring

the motion to a set of axes fixedin the air. It has been in common use forwind
effects.The density effect,however, is less familiar.Having derived it in this
analytical way, we may seek a physical interpretation.To do this we may note
that on a trajectory,
dv g d -g cotG
-= -E csc0- - -
dy v dy 2

and dH/dy =-hH. This makes (10) become in the limit,

9X dH 3X dvo aX dGo
- + + - -= -cot 00-cot W.
aH dy avo dy 0Gody
The two sides of this equation may each be interpretedas the change in range
due to cutting offthe trajectoryat unit distance above the origin,the right
side being obtained geometricallyand the left side by means of the resulting
changes in density,velocity,and angle. This interpretationshows how the rather
surprisingresult is possible, that the effectof change of density can be ex-
pressed in termsof those of velocityand angle. The practical resultanticipated
is that density runs as well as wind runs may be omitted in preparinga firing
table and the data derived fromthe effectof variation in angle and muzzle
velocity. The improvement,however,is not yet in a practical stage since there
is so far no provisionforsecond ordereffects.

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