continuous fermentation

is a method of converting wort into beer in a continuous process,

whereby wort is fed into one end of the process and beer is discharged
at the other without recourse to holding the beer in a static holding
vessel (batch fermentation). The advantages claimed for continuous
methods include efficient plant utilization, improved carbohydrate
utilization, increased throughput, and consistency. However, microbial
contamination, flavor differences with batch fermented beers, and the
requirement for continuous processes upstream and downstream from
fermentation, particularly in wort production, are major disadvantages
this method. Additionally, continuous fermentation is somewhat inflexible
in that it does not allow the brewer to respond to fluctuations in demand.
In situations where a standard base beer is required before secondary
adjustments for different strengths, colors, and flavors, the method has
been found viable. Various methods of continuous fermentation have
been attempted over the past 100 years or so but with limited success.
By far the most successful is the so-called Coutts system which has
operated in New Zealand for over 30 years. Beer and recycled yeast are
mixed with aerated wort and, after yeast growth occurs, the fermenting
beer is passed to succeeding vessels in a cascade system. The total
residence time in the fermentation system is about 30 hours. An
alternative approach using a single vessel only was pioneered by the
British brewer Bass in the 1970s. Known as the tower continuous
fermenter, this method generated a fermentation gradient within a single
tank within which a body of yeast was retained within the tower, enabling
rapid fermentation rates. However, it was prone to microbial infection
and blow-outsloss of the yeast that was effectively washed out of the
fermenter. The principle of retaining a mass of yeast within a tower was
developed by applying the process of immobilization of the yeast within
the fermenter. In this method, the brewing yeast is immobilized on
woodchips in a one-stage reactor, thus preventing possible blow-out.
This method has been used to brew both stouts and lager beers in
Finland, with production times of 2030 hours and consistent flavor
development.

immobilized yeast reactor

is a device for continuous beer fermentation or
processing. See continuous fermentation. In conventional batch
fermentation, yeast ferments wort while it is in mobile suspension. In
immobilized yeast reactors, by contrast, yeast is kept stationary, while
wort passes by it. Beer can emerge from this fermentation essentially
clear and yeast free. There are two common types of yeast immobilizers.
In a fluidized bed reactor, porous glass beads harbor the yeast and float
through the beer, whereas in a loop reactor, a fixed, porous silicon
carbide (or other ceramic) cartridge contains the immobilized yeast.
Because wort flows continuously past the yeast cells, the rate of
fermentation is not dependent on the distribution of live yeast cells
throughout the fermenter. And attenuation can be rapid, with
fermentations requiring half the time they do in conventional batch
processing. There are drawbacks, including an elevated level of vicinal
diketones and their precursors in the finished
beer. See diacetyl andvicinal diketones. These can be reduced by
raising the beer temperature to convert the precursors to diacetyl and
then reprocessing the beer through the reactor again.

In the commercial world, although much research has been done,

immobilized yeast reactors have not been made efficient enough to
supplant normal batch fermentation. Much research, therefore,
concentrates on ethanol production. However, some large breweries do
use immobilized yeast reactors for fast diacetyl reduction. During the
summer months, when demand is high and tank space is at a premium,
some large European breweries process green beer by heating it to
force diacetyl from precursors and then using the reactor to absorb the
diacetyl. By this method, diacetyl reduction that would normally take
weeks is achieved within hours, allowing the breweries to produce
acceptable lager beer within 14 days from brewing. Immobilized yeast
reactors can also be used to conduct partial fermentations used to make
certain types of low-alcohol beers.

immobilized yeast reactor

is a device for continuous beer fermentation or
processing. See continuous fermentation. In conventional batch
fermentation, yeast ferments wort while it is in mobile suspension. In
immobilized yeast reactors, by contrast, yeast is kept stationary, while
wort passes by it. Beer can emerge from this fermentation essentially
clear and yeast free. There are two common types of yeast immobilizers.
In a fluidized bed reactor, porous glass beads harbor the yeast and float
through the beer, whereas in a loop reactor, a fixed, porous silicon
carbide (or other ceramic) cartridge contains the immobilized yeast.
Because wort flows continuously past the yeast cells, the rate of
fermentation is not dependent on the distribution of live yeast cells
throughout the fermenter. And attenuation can be rapid, with
fermentations requiring half the time they do in conventional batch
processing. There are drawbacks, including an elevated level of vicinal
diketones and their precursors in the finished
beer. See diacetyl andvicinal diketones. These can be reduced by
raising the beer temperature to convert the precursors to diacetyl and
then reprocessing the beer through the reactor again.

In the commercial world, although much research has been done,

immobilized yeast reactors have not been made efficient enough to
supplant normal batch fermentation. Much research, therefore,
concentrates on ethanol production. However, some large breweries do
use immobilized yeast reactors for fast diacetyl reduction. During the
summer months, when demand is high and tank space is at a premium,
some large European breweries process green beer by heating it to
force diacetyl from precursors and then using the reactor to absorb the
diacetyl. By this method, diacetyl reduction that would normally take
weeks is achieved within hours, allowing the breweries to produce
acceptable lager beer within 14 days from brewing. Immobilized yeast
reactors can also be used to conduct partial fermentations used to make
certain types of low-alcohol beers.

immobilized yeast reactor

is a device for continuous beer fermentation or
processing. See continuous fermentation. In conventional batch
fermentation, yeast ferments wort while it is in mobile suspension. In
immobilized yeast reactors, by contrast, yeast is kept stationary, while
wort passes by it. Beer can emerge from this fermentation essentially
clear and yeast free. There are two common types of yeast immobilizers.
In a fluidized bed reactor, porous glass beads harbor the yeast and float
through the beer, whereas in a loop reactor, a fixed, porous silicon
carbide (or other ceramic) cartridge contains the immobilized yeast.
Because wort flows continuously past the yeast cells, the rate of
fermentation is not dependent on the distribution of live yeast cells
throughout the fermenter. And attenuation can be rapid, with
fermentations requiring half the time they do in conventional batch
processing. There are drawbacks, including an elevated level of vicinal
diketones and their precursors in the finished
beer. See diacetyl andvicinal diketones. These can be reduced by
raising the beer temperature to convert the precursors to diacetyl and
then reprocessing the beer through the reactor again.

In the commercial world, although much research has been done,

immobilized yeast reactors have not been made efficient enough to
supplant normal batch fermentation. Much research, therefore,
concentrates on ethanol production. However, some large breweries do
use immobilized yeast reactors for fast diacetyl reduction. During the
summer months, when demand is high and tank space is at a premium,
some large European breweries process green beer by heating it to
force diacetyl from precursors and then using the reactor to absorb the
diacetyl. By this method, diacetyl reduction that would normally take
weeks is achieved within hours, allowing the breweries to produce
acceptable lager beer within 14 days from brewing. Immobilized yeast
reactors can also be used to conduct partial fermentations used to make
certain types of low-alcohol beers.

maturation
includes all transformations between the end of primary fermentation
and the removal of yeast from the beer in preparation for packaging.
Although most beer fermentations are technically complete within 3 to 10
days, the vast majority of beers are not yet ready to drink when the yeast
finishes its primary work of metabolizing sugars. This is because
fermentations tend to produce flavors that are considered undesirable in
finished beer. For this reason, beer must undergo some form of
maturation to become palatable. Maturation is also referred to variously
as conditioning, lagering, and aging.

In traditional brewing practices fermentation and maturation are

considered separate steps, but in reality there is significant overlap
between the two. Maturation involves many biochemical, chemical, and
physical reactions, many of which are not completely understood and
elucidated. Vicinal diketones (VDKs, such as buttery-tasting diacetyl and
honey-like pentanedione), hydrogen sulfide (rotten eggs), and
acetaldehyde (green apples) are primarily responsible for undesirable
flavors at the end of primary fermentation. Immature beer is often
referred to as green beer because it sometimes has the aroma of
green apples, the result of elevated levels of acetaldehyde. See green
beer. During maturation, all of these undesirable compounds are
reduced, either by the continuing action of the yeast or by other organic
chemical pathways.

In a traditional two-vessel process, lager beers are transferred following

primary fermentation and cooling (to approximately 0C4C (32F
29.2F]), into a separate vessel, where residual sugars (maltotriose and
sometimes maltose) are slowly fermented. At the same time, off-flavors
are reduced, and the beer becomes carbonated as the yeast continues
to give off carbon dioxide. Sometimes krusening, the addition of a small
proportion of fermenting beer, is performed before the beer is transferred
to a lagering (cold storage) vessel. See krusening. The introduction of
active yeast during this process can help the beer mature more quickly
and produce vigorous natural carbonation. Cold-fermented beers tend to
show more green flavors at the end of primary fermentation than do
warm-fermented beersthus the need for the weeks of cold maturation
referred to as lagering.

Ales are traditionally conditioned by relatively warm storage, usually by

holding the beer at 10C20C (50F68F). Because most ale yeasts
act quickly at warm temperatures, this storage period can be quite short,
and many warm-fermented beers are ready to package within 14 days of
brewing. In the UK cask-conditioned ales are traditionally matured
(conditioned) unfiltered in the cask in the cellar of the retail outlet (bar or
public house). Continuing fermentation in the cask gives the beer a light
natural carbonation. Isinglass (collagen) is used to adsorb the yeast and
other solid material (proteinpolyphenol complexes) and settle them to
the bottom of the cask, clarifying the beer before service. Bottle-
conditioned beers undergo a secondary fermentation in the bottle. This
produces carbonation, but these beers normally require further
maturation in the bottle before the beer can be released for sale.

The use of secondary maturation vessels can be expensive and

cumbersome, and many breweries now ferment and mature beer in the
cylindroconical vessels widely known as Unitanks. These tanks employ
their own chilling jackets, obviating the need to send beer into another
vessel in a cold cellar. The cone-shaped bottoms of the tanks allow easy
removal of the sedimented yeast.

There have been a number of attempts by large breweries to develop

continuous systems for the brewing process, including continuous
maturation. A continuous maturation process has been developed using
immobilized yeast cells for accelerated beer maturation. Yeast cells are
immobilized on DEAE cellulose particles or glass beads. To achieve
rapid reduction of diacetyl in the immature beer, the original fermentation
yeast is removed by centrifugation. This clarified immature beer is heat
treated (90C [194F] for 7 to 8 min) to convert all of the diacetyl
precursor (alpha acetolactate) to diacetyl. Care must be taken to prevent
oxygen uptake. After the beer is heat treated, it is rechilled and then
slowly flowed through a packed bed column containing immobilized
yeast cells. See immobilized yeast reactor. These yeast cells complete
the conversion of buttery diacetyl into flavorless acetoin and butanediol.
In addition, other flavor maturation processes occur in a series of
undefined reactions. Although brewers have debated whether this
practice produces the highest beer quality, it does reduce maturation
times from a matter of weeks to a mere 2 h. Some large breweries use
their immobilized yeast systems only during the warm summer months
when demand is high. By this method commercially acceptable lager
beer can be produced in as little as 10 days.

See also fermentation.

Munroe, J. H. Aging and finishing. In Handbook of brewing, ed. F. G.

Priest and G. G. Stewart, 52550. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2006.

David, Quain, and Smith Ian. The long and short of

maturation. Brewers Guardian 138 (2009): 5661.

Graham G. Stewart

fermentation
is the process whereby sugars are converted by yeast to alcohol,
carbon dioxide, and heat. In the brewing of most traditional beer, the
sugars are derived mainly from malted barley, although other cereal
sources and other plant sugars can also be used. These materials also
contribute proteinaceous substances, which in concert with the sugars
and added flavoring agents, notably hops, generate the alcohol, flavors,
and aromas that we know and love as beer. The fermentation process
has been practiced over many thousands of years, with the predilection
for consuming alcohol as a common feature of practically all civilizations
throughout history. In ancient societies, drinking beer had obvious
physiological and psychological benefits (at least with moderate
consumption) and also public health advantages; it was safe to drink,
unlike many sources of water. Aside from this, the apparently mysterious
nature of fermentation lent itself to exaltation in various religious, cult,
and ritual ceremonies. Beverages that we can broadly classify as beers
have been produced throughout the world for thousands of years.
Despite the important place of beer in so many cultures for thousands of
years, the nature of the fermentation process remained a mystery until
the second half of the 19th century. The role of yeast in the
biologicaltransformation of sugars to beer was not fully recognized until
microscopists were able to associate their observations with both the
production of alcohol by yeast and the spoilage of beer by other
microorganisms. However, for centuries before, it had been recognized
that what was called Godisgood in early Englisheffectively yeast
was important in the brewing of beer. Nevertheless, despite these
empirical observations, the prevailing scientific view was that
fermentation was an inanimate, strictly chemical process. Indeed, the
word fermentation is derived from the Latin fevere, meaning to boil,
with the implication that the vigorous carbonation arising from
fermentation, visually akin to boiling, caused the production of the
intoxicating nature and flavors of beer. Louis Pasteur was decisive in
persuading the sceptical scientific community of the mid to late1800s
that fermentation was the result of the action of yeast on sugars,
although by that time many practicing brewers and scientists involved in
brewing were already well aware of the role of yeasts, even if they did
not entirely understand the process. Furthermore, Pasteur was able to
show that other microorganisms were the cause of diseased
fermentations and that hygienic conditions were essential in the
production of beer (and wine) of sound quality. Pasteurs work stimulated
a surge in the scientific investigation of fermentation in Europe. At the
Carlsberg Laboratories in Copenhagen, the pioneering studies of Emil
Hansen on pure culture brewing techniques were quickly adopted by
brewers throughout the world. In England, and most notably in Burton-
on-Trent, leading scientists of the time including Cornelius OSullivan,
Johann Peter Griess, and the half-brothers Adrian John and Horace
Tabberer Brown were developing the understanding of the scientific
basis of brewing and fermentation, much of which underpinned the new
science of biochemistry. Throughout the 20th century, research on
yeasts at a biochemical and genetic level continued at pace, with the
characterization of the type species, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, being of
economic importance in brewing, baking, and winemaking. Although it is
a single-celled organism, S. cerevisiae is a simple form of a eukaryotic
cell in that it has a nucleus enclosing genetic material as chromosomes,
which is defined by a membrane. Animal cells, including our own, are
also eukaryotic, albeit of greater sophistication. However, the eukaryotic
relationship was exploited in that the S. cerevisiae genome was the first
eukaryote to be gene sequenced in 1996, paving the way for the
sequencing of the human genome 10 years later. It is remarkable that
from observations relating to the fermentation of beer, our understanding
of our own genetic makeup and biochemical functioning at cellular and
molecular level has developed to its current levels, directly impacting our
medical well-being. In that context, we should also note that the
developments of industrial scale fermentation used in brewing beer were
utilized and adapted to the production of antibiotics from the 1940s
onward. It is fair to argue that fermentation, and that of beer in particular,
has profoundly influenced our physical well-being more than any other
development in our social history, perhaps with the exception of the
provision of safe water supplies and public health sanitation.

Fermentation is the second of the three principal stages in the brewing of

beer and as such cannot be considered in isolation. The first stage
involves the preparation of wort, an aqueous medium comprising mainly
fermentable sugars derived usually from starch-rich cereals but also
assimilable nitrogen, oxygen, sources of sulfur and phosphates, the
vitamin biotin, calcium, and magnesium ions, together with trace
elements such as copper and zinc. The exact quantities of these
substances will vary depending on the source and proportions of the raw
materials used. For example, worts derived from grists with a high
proportion of nonmalted starch may need supplementing with sources of
nitrogen, biotin, and some trace elements to compensate for the dilution
of the malt material, which is usually rich in these components. These
supplements are called yeast food or yeast nutrients, a reflection of
the need to sustain growth of the yeast, at least during the early stages
of fermentation. Most worts would be expected to contain about 70%
75% fermentable sugars, glucose, sucrose, and fructose, but mainly
maltose and maltotriose. The remaining carbohydrate comprises
nonfermentable material, mainly longer chain and branched glucose
polymers. Nitrogen requirements for wort are usually measured in terms
of free amino nitrogen (FAN); for a wort of specific gravity 1.040 (10
Plato) a typical FAN level would be about 150 mg/l. In addition to
variations in raw material sources, the relative level of sugars and
nitrogenous materials is profoundly influenced by the conditions of
mashing and, to a lesser extent, wort boiling. Low temperatures during
mashing (45C50C [113F122F]) favor protein breakdown
(proteolysis) and therefore increases in FAN levels. On the other hand,
higher mash temperatures (60C65C [140F149F]) reduce
proteolysis but increase the activity of amylase enzymes, leading to an
increase in fermentable sugars. Thus, by manipulating raw material
content and processing conditions, the brewer can adjust wort
composition to produce a consistent material ready for the addition of
yeast and subsequent fermentation. However, the dissolved oxygen
content of the wort is a critical parameter in sustaining yeast growth in
the early stages of fermentation. To some extent different yeast strains
have differing requirements for oxygen, and worts of varying strengths
will also demand different levels. Too much oxygen results in particularly
vigorous fermentations, which not only affects beer flavor but also
causes excessive yeast growth at the expense of alcohol production.
Too little oxygen can cause limited yeast growth, which will result in not
only incomplete fermentation but also poor yeast vitality and viability, to
the detriment of subsequent repitching of that batch of yeast.
Traditionally worts of 1.040 specific gravity would be aerated prior to
yeast pitching, giving dissolved oxygen levels of about 6 parts per million
(ppm) at 20C. More modern fermentation systems use oxygen levels at
812 ppm, generated by direct injection of oxygen rather than air into the
wort stream. The wort prior to pitching should ideally be bright and clear,
although it is argued that small amounts of precipitated protein and
polyphenol material, called trub or break, can be beneficial in supplying
lipids for yeast growth. See trub. Brewers vary in their attitudes toward
bright worts, with some preferring extremely clear worts, whereas others
are content with a slight haze. At the end of the day, it is the success of
the fermentation and the stability of the resulting beer that will determine
the wort requirements.

Management of the fermentation process is dependent on a number of

factors, including the composition and oxygen content of the wort, the
quality and quantity of the yeast used for pitching, temperature control in
the fermenter, time, and the fermenter design.

Healthy yeast is at the heart of sound fermentation. Unlike traditional

winemaking, with the exception of relatively rare spontaneously
fermented beer styles, brewing depends upon the yeast added by the
brewer. The specific strain of yeast is critical to the outcome of the
fermentation, not only in the ability of the yeast to metabolize the wort
contents to produce alcohol and distinctive flavor characteristics but also
in the capacity of the yeast to tolerate its own products of metabolism,
most notably alcohol, and the particular attribute of aggregation
(flocculation) or otherwise that the yeast strain may normally
exhibit. See flocculation. Brewers jealously guard their yeast strains
although catalogs of so-called brewing strains are held in various
collections throughout the world and can be obtained commercially.
Some brewers, particularly traditional ale brewers in the UK, have used
the same brewing strain (or strains) unchanged for decades, relying on
serial repitching of the collected yeast at the end of fermentation.
However, with repeated repitching some yeast strains exhibit subtle
changes in character, particularly in flocculation characteristics, and a
decline in viability and vitality. Most commercial brewers will repitch for
up to 10 cycles or generations before replacing the yeast with a freshly
propagated culture of the yeast grown from a starter culture. Brewing
strains can utilize a wide variety of carbohydrate sources, although
individual strains will vary in their particular appetites. Ale strains of S.
cerevisiae are able to ferment glucose, sucrose, fructose, galactose,
raffinose, maltotriose, and occasionally trehalose. Lager strains of S.
cerevisiae (sometimes also called Saccharomyces carlsbergensis) are
also able to ferment the disaccharide melibiose, whereas S. cerevisiae
var diastaticus is also able to utilize some of the higher glucose
polymers, called limit dextrins, which are out of reach of the other
strains. Ale strains are generically described as top fermenters on
account of their tendency to form a head or crust on the top of traditional
open fermenters at the end of fermentation. Lager strains on the other
hand, tend to separate out at the bottom of the fermentation vessel and
hence enjoy the description of bottom fermenters. With modern
fermentation systems employing cylindroconical fermenters for both ales
and lagers, this traditional differentiation is these days less clear-
cut. See ale yeast andlager yeast.

Although the primary function of fermentation is to convert sugars into

alcohol, for the yeast to fulfill this requirement it must be present in
sufficient quantity to effect the transformation. The yeast used to ferment
is usually one or several generations old and, as a consequence of
storage prior to pitching and the physiological condition at the end of the
previous fermentation, it is depleted of nutrients for growth and
fermentation. It is said to be in a stationary phase of growth and requires
the stimulus of fresh wort nutrients, particularly oxygen, to rebuild its
nutrient store and recommence growth and multiplication. Pitched
brewing yeast will normally take several hours to adapt to its new
environment before growth begins. This period is known as the lag
phase and precedes a period of very active growth and metabolism,
known as the exponential or logarithmic phase. The yeast will multiply
four- or fivefold by a process of budding and build up its nutrient store,
while at the same time commencing the conversion of sugars in the wort.
The oxygen present at the start of pitching is rapidly used up by the
yeast and is not involved in the fermentative process. The sugars
present in the wort are taken in to the yeast cell and broken down into
smaller units, ultimately producing alcohol, carbon dioxide, heat, and a
vast range of other compounds, many of which contribute distinctive
flavors and aromas to beer. At the same time, the nitrogenous
compounds in the wort are also assimilated by the yeast, and as well as
being used in the growth of yeast, they are metabolized and contribute to
the rich flavor spectrum. When all available sugars have been utilized,
the yeast will begin to use its own carbohydrate reserves (glycogen and
trehalose) and effectively shut down its metabolism. This is known as the
stationary phase of growth.

The fermentation temperature is critical in controlling the outcome of

fermentation and has a significant impact on the development of flavor.
Ales are generally fermented in the temperature range of 16C to 22C
(61F72F) using top-fermenting strains, whereas lagers are fermented
much cooler, 9C14C (48F57F), using bottom-fermenting strains.
Some beers, particularly Belgian styles, may be fermented very warm,
with temperatures reaching almost 32C (90F) for some farmhouse
ales. Seesaison. The combination of specific yeast strains and
temperature generates very distinctive flavor profiles in the beers, with
the ales and particularly stouts generally producing fruity/estery
characters, whereas the lagers feature much lower ester levels, enabling
more of the delicate pale malt characters and hop aromas to manifest on
the nose. Fermentation is an exothermic process in that heat is
produced and control of the heat generated is essential in fermentation
control. Brewing vessels are equipped with cooling equipment of varying
levels of sophistication, designed to effect cooling at the appropriate
times in fermentation. Cooling is important in moderating yeast
flocculation in that it tends to encourage yeast to flocculate. This is
necessary at the end of fermentation to facilitate yeast separation, but if
applied too early, it can cause incomplete fermentation and leave
excessive levels of diacetyl in the finished beer. Seediacetyl.

The progress of the fermentation is usually monitored by following the

specific gravity drop and/or increase in alcohol content. Yeast growth
and alcohol production deplete the sugar concentration and the pH falls
as nitrogenous materials are used up and the yeast secretes organic
acids. Flavor compounds are generated during yeast growth, although
some volatile components are lost with the exhaust carbon dioxide,
whereas other compounds (notably diacetyl) are absorbed and
metabolized by the yeast. Traditional ale fermentations at between 16C
and 20C (61F and 68F) will normally take about 4 days to complete,
whereas lagers at 12C will be up to 10 days.

There are many different types of fermentation vessels used in the

brewing of beer. This reflects the beer being brewed, the volume
required, tradition, the relative age of the equipment, and the type of
yeast being used, particularly in relation to the use of top- or bottom-
fermenting yeasts. The earliest fermenters were small and probably
reflected the availability of local materials, be it clay for earthenware
vessels, wooden barrels, or slate (stone) vessels used in Britain. As
brewing operations increased in size, metal, particularly copper, was
used although the vessels were generally shallow. At the end of
fermentation, the yeast was collected from the top of the fermenter and
used to pitch subsequent brews.
The introduction of taller, narrower vessels facilitated the selection of
bottom-fermenting yeast strains but taller vessels demanded more
efficient cooling systems and methods for cleaning. Additionally, tall
vessels generate differing hydrostatic pressures, which can impact yeast
performance and mitigate against homogeneity throughout the vessel.
Nevertheless, this type of vessel has developed into the cylindroconical
fermenter that is now used by most of the larger brewers throughout the
world and many smaller breweries as well. With facilities for in-place
cleaning, carbon dioxide collection, automatic temperature control
through cooling jackets, and yeast collection, these vessels can be
further adapted to store the beer at lower temperatures after primary
fermentation and yeast removal, a process known as conditioning or
maturation. These vessels are sometimes known as combined
fermentation and conditioning tanks and can have capacities up to
several thousand hectoliters.

However, despite the use of these larger fermenting vessels, many

brewers still use more traditional methods of fermentation. Rectangular
or circular shallow tanks are still used in many small and medium-size
breweries, particularly for traditional ales, wheat beers, and classic
lagers of central Europe. In Britain, two very distinctive fermentation
systems still operate, known as the Burton Union system and Yorkshire
squares. In the Burton Union system, now sadly operated in the UK only
by Marstons Brewery in Burton-on-Trent, a series of twelve 7-hl oak
casks are connected via a swan neck to a central trough. Wort is
pitched into an open square vessel on the floor above and run into the
casks. As fermentation continues, yeast and carbon dioxide are forced
through the swan neck and into the top trough. Most of the yeast
separates from the part-fermented wort, which is returned to the cask to
complete the fermentation. Seeburton union system. Yorkshire squares
are rectangular fermenters, traditionally made of slate but now mostly of
stainless steel construction, incorporate a false ceiling. Fermenting yeast
rises though a central hole (0.6-m [24 in] diameter with a 5-cm [2 in] rim)
and collects on the top of the ceiling, whereas fermenting wort flows
back into the fermenter via a series of narrow holes. At the end of
fermentation, the collected yeast is removed by suction. See yorkshire
square.

For more than a century, brewers have experimented with the principle
of continuous fermentation in which a fermenting vessel is fed
continuously with wort, with beer produced in a continuous stream at the
same rate as wort addition. Although this type of system has operated in
New Zealand for over 40 years, it is not widely used because of
difficulties in preventing infections and holding the yeast culture in a
steady state. Recently, however, holding yeast on a bed of wood chips
has proved to be effective in retaining the yeast. This process is known
as an immobilized yeast system and is now being used
commercially. See continuous fermentation and immobilized yeast
reactor.

Beer at the end of the primary fermentation process is sometimes

referred to as green beer. Before it can be packaged and dispensed,
the beer is usually subject to a further processing, which can include
secondary fermentation, conditioning, and maturation. In secondary
fermentation, the green beer is kept in contact with the yeast after the
primary fermentation has ended. This process is most commonly
practiced in the brewing of cask ales (also known as real ale or
traditional draught). At the end of the primary fermentation, most of the
yeast is removed but a small concentration, usually 0.5 to 2 million
cells/ml, is left. A small amount of additional sugar, known as priming
sugar or primings, either in the form of sucrose or glucose, is added,
which stimulates a secondary fermentation. Very little alcohol is
produced (about 0.1%) but the main reason for priming is the generation
of additional carbon dioxide, which gives the beer extra carbonation, or
condition, as it is known. Traditionally this primings addition would have
taken place in the cask itself but it is now usually added just prior to
filling the casks, in a vessel that is known as the racking tank. See cask
conditioning and cellarmanship, art of.

A similar process occurs in the production of bottle-conditioned beers,

where secondary fermentation takes place in the bottle. In addition to
giving the beer condition, the residual yeast also scavenges any small
amounts of dissolved oxygen picked up at the time of filling the bottle.
This antioxidant effect can help to extend the shelf life of the
beer. See bottle conditioning.

One traditional form of secondary fermentation practiced, particularly in

Germany, is known as krusening. A proportion of actively fermenting
wort is added to beer that is maturing in lager tanks to stimulate
secondary fermentation and remove diacetyl and aldehydes, as well as
provide additional carbonation. See krusening.

Chris, Boulton, and David Quain. Brewing yeast and fermentation. New
York: Blackwell Science, 2001.

Forget, C.Dictionary of beer and brewing. Denver, CO: Brewers

Publications, 1988.

Lewis, Michael J., andTom W.Young.GeorgeBrewing, 2nd ed. New York:

Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2001.

George Philliskirk,

fermentation vessels,
also known as fermenters or FVs (and occasionally spelled fermentors),
are the tanks, barrels, or other vessels where wort is held as it ferments
into beer.

Fermentation vessels have always been an essential part of even the

humblest home-based brewery. They have been almost infinitely varied
over time; almost anything that can hold liquid can be a potential
fermenter. That said, the technology used for fermentation vessels has
progressed considerably during the past 50 years.

Historical Development of Fermentation Vessels

Historically, the development of fermentation vessels has very closely
reflected the development of brewing methods and technology. The first
beers were probably fermented in animal-skin pouches and carved
wooden bowls. Starting in the early Sumerian and Egyptian civilizations
(circa 4000 bc), from whence we have the first written records of
brewing, the vessels used were ceramic amphora-like jars, probably up
to a few hundred liters in size. These ceramic jars remained the
fermentation and storage vessels for most beers (and also wines) for
thousands of years.

It is in the period between 500 and 1000 ad that we see the first
historical evidence of brewing methods in northern Europe. By this time
the preferred fermentation vessel was made of wood, usually oak, and
oak remained a preferred material well into the 1800s. See oak. Raw
unlined wood was used at first, but by the 1800s most wooden
fermentation vessels were lined with some sort of tar, pitch, or resin. The
lining acted as an inert surface that prevented the beer from coming into
direct contact with the rather soft, rough, and penetrable surface of the
wood. Lined wooden vessels could be cleanedmore effectively, thus
significantly increasing the stability of the beer against both
microbiological infection and off-flavors from the wood itself. Wooden
fermentation vessels were constructed in various dimensionssmall or
large, open or closed, upright or horizontal. Until quite recently, the
fermentation vessels at Pilsner Urquell were still a forest of open wooden
vats, each on its own pedestal. See pilsner urquell. By the time of the
Industrial Revolution, many wooden fermenting vessels were enormous
in size. The most famous (or infamous) of them was a fermenting vat at
the Meux Horse Shoe Brewery in London. See meux reid & co. This
wooden fermentation vessel was 22 ft tall and held over a half million
liters of fermenting beer. At 6:00 pm on October 17, 1814, one of the 29
giant iron hoops that secured the vessel snapped. The vat burst, causing
a chain reaction with surrounding vats, blowing out the wall of the
building, and flooding the street. Two houses were washed away and
nine people died in the London Beer Flood.
Cylindroconical tanks at the Paulaner Brewery in Munich. Cylindroconical tanks have a slanted,
cone-shape bottoms which, among other advantages, allows brewers to easily remove yeast for
disposal or repitching.roger putman

This incident, among others, spurred breweries to begin looking for other
materials than wood for large fermenting vessels. Later in the 19th
century most new and expanding large breweries would include square
concrete fermentation tanks lined with resin, asphalt, slate, or enamel.
Here is a description of a 19th centurystyle London brewery, as
described in 1911:

The next process is that of fermentation, which is carried on in a

splendid room below, the floor of which is constructed entirely of slate. It
is known as the Havelock Room, having been built at the time of the
Indian Mutiny, and is shaped like the letter L with dimensions of 210 ft.
and 132 ft. Here are contained fermenting vessels of slate and wood,
each provided with a copper parachute for skimming yeast,
communicating with the yeast tanks below. Each of the vessels holds
from 120 to 190 barrels and contains an attemporator to raise or lower
the temperature of the gyle at pleasure. This contrivance consists of a
series of pipes fixed within the tun and having its inlet and outlet on the
outside; by this means it is possible to run hot or cold water through the
pipes at any hour.

Active fermentations give off considerable heat, and fermentation

temperatures can rapidly rise to a point where flavors and yeast health
are adversely affected. The ability to cool fermenting beer was therefore
important, especially during the warm summer months. The introduction
of mild steel tanks coincided with the spreading use of industrial
artificial refrigeration. First introduced at Germanys Spaten Brewery in
1871, artificial refrigeration allowed fermentation vessels to be cooled by
means other than the natural cooling achieved by digging deep
fermentation cellars. These cellars had been cooled by vast quantities of
ice cut out of rivers and lakes in winter and then placed over the cellar
ceilings and below cellar floors. In the early days of refrigeration, cooling
of fermentation vessels was achieved either by circulating refrigerated
air in the fermentation cellars or by circulating cooled water or brine
through metal coils inside the tanks. Normally the coils were made of
copper or brass because these materials both conduct temperature
efficiently and are not corroded to a major extent by wort or beer. The
cooling coils would be placed along the sides or the bottoms of the
fermentation vessels. By manually opening and closing the valves on the
cooling coils, it was possible to rapidly chill beer, even during active
fermentation. However, this method remained primitive and the
temperature from vessel to vessel could vary greatly because the tanks
were both open and uninsulated.

Around the turn of the 20th century, rapid industrialization brought the
widespread use of mild steel for all types of construction. Mild steel
became the preferred material for building fermentation vessels.
Because mild steel is very susceptible to corrosion by acidic liquids such
as beer, direct contact with beer would cause the vessels to rust, giving
the beer a notable metallic flavor and aroma. Thus, mild steel tanks had
to be lined, and the preferred materials for this were enamel, glass, and
later epoxy-type polymer materials. As long as the enamel or glass lining
stayed intact, this was a perfectly sanitary and easy-to-clean inner tank
surface. However, both enamel and glass are very brittle materials that
eventual start to chip and crack, as does epoxy. Many brewery
operations remained manual, including tank cleaning, and men had to
enter these vessels and hand scrub them after every use. The linings
were easily damaged but very difficult to repair.

One thing was improving; although open fermentation was still practiced
by some large American breweries into the 1970s, the norm in the
United States slowly transitioned to completely closed fermentation. This
made fermentation more sanitary and eased the collection and reuse of
carbon dioxide created by the yeast.

Around 1920, aluminum became affordable, and many breweries started

installing fermentation tanks made of this much lighter metal. Aluminum
had the huge advantage of being resistant to corrosion by wort and beer
and could therefore be used without having to apply a brittle inner lining.
One major disadvantage of aluminum, however, is that it is corroded by
caustic soda (sodium hydroxide), which has for many decades been the
preferred detergent for cleaning brewery equipment.

Soon after the introduction of aluminum, stainless steel was introduced

as a construction material on an industrial scale. This material offered
many advantages when used in breweries in general and to this day is
the undisputed first choice of material for constructing fermentation
vessels. Also, piping, pumps, valves, and almost all other brewery
equipment that comes into direct contact with beer are made of stainless
steel.

Until the 1960s, whether constructed from mild steel, aluminium, or

stainless steel, most fermenters were cylindrical in shape and positioned
horizontally. Usually they were stacked in several layers in the
fermentation cellars, and it was uncommon to individually insulate the
tanks because this was relatively expensive. For this reason, all
fermentation vessels were used for primary fermentation only, so when
active fermentation had finished, the beer would be moved by means of
pumps and hoses to another tank in a separate cellar for the final
maturation. Bottom-fermented (lager) beers would be placed for
extended periods of time at low temperatures in the lagering cellars,
whereas ales would be usually be transferred into a third cellar full of
storage or racking tanks before being packaged.
Unitanks (Universal Tanks)
Developments continued during the late 1800s with upright cylindrical
vessels, some with sloping or conical bottoms. In 1960s a breakthrough
in technology advanced a new principleprimary fermentation and
maturation could be carried out in the same vessel. The breakthrough
was the modern cylindroconical tank, an upright cylindrical tank with a
slanted, cone-shaped bottom. These were dubbed universal tanks, or
unitanks for short. Unitanks became widespread in the 1970s, and over
the past 40 years the cylindroconical tank haswith a few important
exceptions related to the brewing of very traditional beer styles in
Belgium and on the British Islesreplaced all other types of
fermentation vessels. It has been commonly accepted in the brewing
industry that cylindroconical tanks have numerous advantages over all
older tank designs:

1. They eliminate the need to move beer while in process, which is a

huge advantage with respect to beer quality, process times, space
utilization, and production economy.

2. Cleaning, sanitization, and microbiological control are far superior in

cylindroconical tanks compared with older tank designs.

3. They can be individually and affordably insulated.

4. The degree of automation required in larger, modern breweries is

much easier and less expensive than with older tank designs.

5. Collection of CO2 during primary fermentation for regeneration (and

reuse/sale) is easy in cylindroconical tanks as opposed to the old open
fermenters.

6. Cropping yeast is efficient, more selective, and more sanitary in

cylindroconical tanks than in the older tank types.
Interestingly, the cylindroconical tank has roots back to patents dating
from 1908 and 1927, but the revolution in stainless steel fabrication was
necessary to make the manufacture and use of such tanks practical. The
proliferation of cylindroconical tanks began in Ireland in the early 1960s,
where vertical (i.e., cylindrical tanks standing upright) stainless steel
tanks of up to 11,500 hl (9798 US bbl) were in use. In 1965 the
Japanese brewery Asahi patented a large vertical tank with a sloped
bottom, allowing the yeast to be harvested from the low side. See asahi
breweries. The first large-scale brewery to install large numbers of
cylindroconical tanks was the Rainier brewery in Seattle, Washington,
around 1970. These tanks, dubbed Rainier tanks, did have a conical
bottom, but with a very shallow cone angle of only 25. Soon after, it was
discovered that a steeper cone angle (70 is the modern standard) gave
a more convenient cropping of the yeast that settled in the cone bottom
after fermentation. Further evolution and development of the technology
of cylindroconical tanks focused on the number and placement of cooling
jackets. Cooling jackets are hollow belts welded onto the outer surface
(but inside the layer of insulation and outer cladding) of the tank and
through which coolant (either glycol at subfreezing temperatures or
direct expanding ammonia) can be circulated, thus cooling the contents
of the tank. The placement and size of cooling jackets are critical to
ensure the optimal movement and mixing of the beer during
fermentation, thus ensuring the homogeneity that is particularly
important in large tanks. During fermentation, the evolution of CO2 can
create powerful currents in the fermenting beer. When jackets toward the
top of the tank are cooled, the cooled liquid drops toward the bottom of
the tank. At the same time, beer toward the bottom of the tank, warmed
by its own fermentation, rises toward the top of the tank, only to be
cooled again. This action helps create a circulation and mixing of the
liquid, promoting faster, healthier, more complete fermentations.
The overall geometry of tanks was also being explored in the 1970s and
1980s, resulting in taller and slimmer cylindroconical tanks, which saved
floor space. However, it was soon found that once these so-called rocket
tanks (in reference to their appearance) exceeded a height-to-diameter
ratio of 5:1, good mixing could not be achieved and the yeast suffered
from excessive hydrostatic pressure. Thus, today cylindroconical tanks
are generally built with height-to-diameter ratios between 1:1 and 5:1.

Modern cylindroconical tanks have more than one cooling jacket. This
serves two purposes: first, to give the aforementioned optimal thermal
movement of the beer during fermentation, and second, to allow the
brewer to operate the tank at less than full capacity. A cylindroconical
tank will also have a cleaning device permanently installed in the top,
allowing for easy and automated internal washing of the
tank. Seecleaning in place (cip). Further, there may be more than one
outlet from the tank bottom, allowing the brewer to draw off beer from the
tank without inclusion of yeast that has settled in the bottom of the cone.

Cylindroconical tanks were, from their introduction, well suited for being
placed outdoors, thus saving space and building costs for larger
breweries. Outside tanks are situated in so-called tank farms, where they
are placed very closed to each other. This is made possible by the fact
that no manual operations or servicing of the tanks take place in the tank
farm itself. Rather, all piping to and from the tanks comes from the tank
farm and through an adjacent wall to the beer-processing area inside the
brewery. All automatic pumps, valves, or swing arms that need to be
operated when using the tanks are placed here, largely eliminating the
need for long hoses.
State of the Art in Fermentation Vessels
The most modern breweries still use cylindroconical tanks. The next step
in process development could be the introduction of continuous
fermentation with immobilized yeast. The most recent developments in
the technology of these tanks involve what one could call the
accessories of the tanks in the sense of mechanical mixing
(recirculation by pumping from the bottom to the top) of the fermenting
beer, as well as advanced control systems that automatically measure
and control the progress of the fermentation. See continuous
fermentation and immobilized yeast reactor.
Traditions Maintained
Not all of the traditional tank types have vanished with the introduction of
the cylindroconical tank. The requirements of the process involved in
brewing traditional English ales have made many large breweries stick to
the traditional geometry of square tanks with a penetrable ceiling,
through which the traditional top-fermenting yeasts will accumulate at the
end of primary fermentation and from where the yeast can be
automatically harvested by a combination of valves and jets. This type of
tank is called Yorkshire Square, referring to its shape and the place
where they were invented and became widespread during the 20th
century. Modern Yorkshire squares can be as large in volume as
cylindroconicals and are also closed and fitted with CIP facilities, thus
making them just as easy to automate as cylindroconicals. But because
they are more complex, they are also expensive in terms of investment,
they take up more space, and they cannot normally be placed outdoors.

Many British breweries maintain the tradition of open fermentation. They

feel strongly that the method has positive effects on yeast health
and beer flavor. In Bavaria, open fermentation is sometimes used in the
production of weissbier and occasionally for lager. Many brewers there
believe that open fermentation tends to create a more intense aroma
profile in weissbier than does closed fermentation.

Marstons Brewery of Burton-on-Trent, England, is known for having

championed the once-common Burton Union system, where
fermentation takes place in oak vats and expelled yeast travels between
them in open troughs. It remains quite a thing to see, and Marstons
brewers claim that the flavor of their flagship beer would not be the same
without it.

See also burton union system, fermentation, and yorkshire square.

Hough, J. S., D. E. Briggs, R. Stevens and T. W Young.. Malting and

brewing science, 2nd ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press,
1982.

Kunze, Wolfgang. Technology brewing and malting, 3rd international ed.

Berlin: VLB Berlin, 2004.

University of London, Institute of Historical Research. A history of the

county of Middlesex, Vol 2. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1911.
Digitized October 12, 2010.

Anders Brinch Kissmeyer and

Garrett Oliver