EN 1991-1-4 Notes

Page Clause LS comments BMB Comments

16 2.0 Design Situations
2(2) Temporary state of structures shall be considered as they can be
more onerous than during complete state.
2(4) Where assumed that structure is to be closed during storm
conditions, the effect of them being open should be considered as
accidental load.

17 3.0 Modelling of Wind Actions

3.1 Wind acts as pressure on external faces of structures and internal if
openings are present. Pressure acts normal to the surface. However,
for large areas friction forces can occur as well.
3.3(1) Wind is to be taken as variable fixed load.

18 4.0 Wind velocity and velocity pressure

4.1 Basis of Calculations:

Wind velocity and velocity pressure are composed of a mean and a

fluctuating components.
Mean wind velocity vm is determined through basic wind velocity vb
(wind climate, terrain roughness and orthography refer to National
Annex)
Fluctuating component refer to 4.4
4.2 Basic Values:
Basic wind velocity is determined through fundamental wind velocity
vb,0( measured by 10min mean wind velocity at 10m height on
country side with low vegetation and obstacles)

= ,0

Vb,0 determined as stated above or from National Annex.

Cdir directional factor. National Annex. Recommended 1.0
Cseason seasonal factor. National Annex. Recommended 1.0
,0 = ,

Calt is the altitude factor given in NA.2.5

(3) Cseason can be used for temporary structures. Can reduce value of
mean wind velocity. Important to know period of use of scaffolds.

The probability of the wind velocity pressure to be exceed is taken

into account by multiplying cprob by vb (cprob is give in equation (4.2))

NA.2.4 NA.2.9

19 4.3 Mean Wind

4.3.1 Variation with height:

Mean wind velocity at height depends on terrain roughness,

orography and the basic wind velocity:

() = () ()

Cr(z) is the roughness factor in 4.3.2

Co(z)- is the orography factor, taken as 1.0, to determine use process
in A.3 NA.2.9

4.3.2 Terrain roughness:

 Accounts for variability of the wind due to height above ground and
ground roughness before the structure
To be assess using National Annex and not expressions 4.4 and 4.5
NA.2.11

(3) When pressure is determined to be the highest at a set angle

(e.g.46) then the lowest roughness within 30 should be taken.
(4) In between two terrains the one with the lowest roughness to be
used.

21 4.3.3 Terrain Orography:

(1)Where orography increases wind velocity by more than 5% needs

to be taken into account (hills, cliff, etc.). To calculate follow
procedure in A.3
(2)The effect may be neglected if average slope is less than 3.
Distance = 10 x structure height

NA.2.13 and Figure NA2

A.3 Procedure to be used for shaded areas in Figure NA.2. Outside
shaded areas to be taken as 1.0 or calculated. When taken as 1.0, the
altitude to be taken as the site altitude.
4.3.4 Large and considerably higher neighbouring structure:

(1)If structure is located next to a twice as high structure then it could

be exposed to higher velocity winds for certain direction. Need to be
taken into account

NA.2.14 use process in A.4

4.3.5 Closely spaced buildings and obstacles:

(1)Note: procedure in A.5 to be used for approximation. If rough and

closely spaced the buildings modify the mean wind flow as if the
ground is raised. Use displacement height hdis

NA.2.14 use process in A.5

4.4 Wind Turbulence:

(1)gives expression to find the I(z).

Use of NA.2.16 to determine I(z) through Figure NA.5. Non-significant

orography

I() = () [ ]

In towns
() = () , , [, . 6]

Where orography significant (hills, cliffs, etc.) then

()
() =

Appropriate values of hdis to be used in Figure NA.5 and NA.6. hdis is

defined in A.5 (EN 1991-1-4)
4.5 Peak Velocity Pressure:

According to NA2.17 Expression 4.8 from EN 1991-1-4 is not to be

used.

When orography not significant as stated in Figure NA.2 (co=1.0):

() = () [. 3, ]
 () = () , [. 3, ]

For significant orography:

()+0.6 2
NA.4a () = () [ ] < 50
1.6

NA.4b () = [1 + 3.0 ()]2 0.5

2 > 50

NA.2.18 air density to be taken as 1.226 kg/m3

24 5.0 Wind Actions

5.1
General:

(1)P Note: Table 5.1 gives summery procedure for determining wind
actions

5.2 Wind pressures on surfaces:

(1) Wind pressure on external surfaces Expression (5.1)

= ( )

(2) Wind pressure on internal surfaces Expression (5.2)

= ( )

(3) Net pressure is the difference of external to internal pressure

taking count of the signs. Applied to surface positive, away
from surface negative

25 5.3 Wind forces:

(1) Forces can be calculated by either using surface pressures or

force coefficients
(2) Wind force to be determined using Expression (5.3)

= ( )

(3) Wind loads can be obtained through a summation of forces:

= , + , +
 , =

, =

, = ( )

(4) Frictional forces can be disregarded if Afr 4 Aref

(5) NA.2.19

28 6.0 Structural Factors cscd

6.1 General:

(1) Cs non simultaneous occurrence of peak wind on surface

Cd effect of vibration of structure due to turbulence

6.3 Detailed Procedure

6.3.1 Structural Factors cscd

(1) Expression (6.1)

1 + 2 ( )2 + 2
=
1 + 7 ( )

To determine coefficients kp B and R Annex B to be used NA.2.21

(2) Expression (6.1) to be used if only:

- Structure is one of the shapes in Figure 6.1
- Only the along wind vibration in the fundamental mode is
significant
 6.3.2 Serviceability assessments:

(1) To determine the along-wind displacement and the standard

deviation of the along wind acceleration Annex B to be used
(NA.2.22)

31 7.0 Pressure and force coefficients

7.1.1
1. Internal and external pressure coefficients:
- Buildings 7.2
- Circular Cylinders 7.2.9 internal pressure and 7.9.1 external
pressures
Note: local coefficients local area of 1m2 (for small elements and
fixings). Overall coefficients 10m2 (can be used for larger areas).

2. Net pressures:
- Canopy roofs 7.3
- Free standing walls, parapets and fences using 7.4
Note: give the resulting effect of wind on structure, structural element
per unit area.

3. Frictional Coefficients used for wall and surfaces in 5.3 (3) and (4)

4. Force Coefficient:
- Signboards 7.4.3
- Structural elements with rectangular cross section 7.6
- Structural elements with sharp edged section 7.7
- Structural elements with regular polygon sections 7.8
- Circular cylinders 7.9.2 and 7.9.3
- Spheres 7.10
- Lattice structures and scaffoldings 7.11
- Flags 7.12

A reduction factor depending on effective slenderness of the

structure may be applied using 7.13

Note: force coefficients give the overall effect on the wind of a

structure, structural element or structural component as a whole
including friction, if not specifically excluded.
7.1.2 Asymmetric and counteracting pressures and forces:

(1) Instantaneous fluctuation of wind can give rise to asymmetric

loadings (torsion) (e.g. free standing structures exposed to wind)
(2) Figure NA.10 to be used instead of Figure 7.1 (EN). This is stated
in NA.2.23
7.1.3 Effect of ice and snow:

(1) If it changes the shape and ultimately the reference area then
need to be taken into account.
7.2 Pressure coefficients for buildings:

(1) Pressure coefficients depend on size of loaded area. If 1m2 use

cpe1 if 10m2 use cpe10. In between use figure 7.2

(2) Values in Tables 7.1 to 7.5 should be used for the orthogonal
wind directions 0, 90 and 180. These values represent the most
unfavourable results in a range of wind directions of +/- 45
(3) The pressure on protruding roofs are given by the figure

7.2.2 Vertical walls of rectangular buildings

(1) The reference height ze depends on the aspect ratio h/b. The
reference height affects velocity pressure distribution. There are
three cases given in Figure 7.4. Use the method stated in EN as
the NA.2.26 supports it.
This load distribution will be helpful in high independent access
scaffold we will need more ties in the top lifts than we will need at
the bottom. Therefore, in weak brickwork we might need double at
 the top and single at the bottom.

However consider the effect that it will have on free standing

scaffolds as that load distribution will not affect the overturning of
the structure (sth. To consider and investigate)

(2) Values for A, B, C, D and E sides are given in Table NA.4 (Table
7.1 in EN 1991-1-4 not to be used).

NA.2.27 makes a note about including the funnelling effect of wind

between two structures depending on the e (b or 2h whichever is
smaller).

Also a net pressure can be used instead of summation the effect of D

and E sides. Refer to figure on page 19 NA. 2.27
7.2.3 - 8 Roofs:

NA.2.28 states that zones Identified in EN are to be used and all the
values from The National Annex
7.2.9 Internal pressures:

(1) Internal and external should be considered to act at the same

time and they should be considered for the worst combination
possible
(2) The coefficient depends on size and distribution of openings.
When at least 2 side with having more than 30 % openings on
each side the use 7.3 and 7.4
(3)

64 7.5 Friction Coefficient

(1) Should be calculated where wind parallel to surface BMB to comment on (3)
(2) Use Table 7.10 to determine coefficient for walls and roofs
based on roughness. Smooth 0.01 (e.g. steel, smooth
concrete), Rough 0.02 (e.g. rough concrete, tar boards), Very
rough- 0.04 (e.g. ripples, ribs, folds) refer to Figure 7.22 to for
distance from which to apply.
(3) Reference Area given in Figure 7.22
(4) Reference height ze = height of building above ground
65 7.6 Structural elements with rectangular sections:

(1) The force coefficient for wind blowing normally to a face to be

determined using Expression (7.9):

= ,0

Cf,0 to be determined using figure 7.23

r is a reduction factor for square section with round edges.
Depends on Reynolds number, Note 1 figure 7.24
l end effect for elements with free end flow defined in 7.13

(2) Reference are expression (7.10)

=
 Ze = max. height above ground

(3) For plate like sections (d/b <0.2) increase cf with 25%.

Boards can be considered as plate like section

67 7.7 Structural elements with sharp edged sections: BMB to comment on free
end flow
(1) Expression (7.11) to be used

= ,0

NA. 2.37 says that force coefficient cf,0 is to be taken as 2.0

(2) Reference area Expression (7.12):

(3) Ze = max. height above ground

7.8 Structural elements with regular polygonal section:

(1) Expression 7.13:

= ,0

Cf,0 to be determined using table 7.11

(2) For building h/d >5 may use expression 7.13

Figure 7.26 b = diameter of outer edge circle

(3) Reference area expression 7.14:

=
69 7.9 Circular cylinders: