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Introduction to Accounting
Concept of Accounting
Accounting:
-Identifies, records, measures and communicates information on the finances of a business.
-Provides general financial information which may be used for specific functions by relevant
entities in need of financial information.
-Has the intended effect of assisting the organization in reaching its objectives.
-Illuminates what is being measured, as well as providing summarized information for general
management decision making.
Internal users
-Owners of the business to assess the results of their investment in the business.
-Managers to plan, control, analyse, and evaluate activities and performance in order to
strengthen policies.
-Employees to look at the stability of the business, job security and adequacy of salary.
External users
-Government to ensure that legal conformity and tax obligations are met by businesses; to
assess impact of business activities on the economy.
-Competitors to make performance comparisons and strengthen weak areas.
-Suppliers to determine the credit history of potential customers before committing to supply.
-Customers To provide after-sales support.
A business is an economic entity that engages in activities for financial gain or profit. The
structure of a business in terms of the ownership and management is one of the important tasks
of the entrepreneur. Therefore, the form of organization must be chosen with careful thought.
Factors to be considered are:
The selection of a particular type of organizational structure is dependent upon the type of
business activity. A partnership or Sole Proprietorship is ideal for a service oriented business, but
a Company or partnership would be better for a manufacturing concern.
Scale of Operation
If the scale of operation is small, a sole proprietorship or partnership form is ideal. But a
company would be better if the scale of operation was very large.
Area of Operation
If the operation of entity is spread over a wide geographic area, the company structure is better,
but if it is confined to a specific region, other forms may be ideal.
Finance
If the initial capital outlay and daily operational costs are very large, a company structure may be
the best option.
One should go for a sole proprietorship or partnership when direct control over the business is
ideal, instead of company or co-operative Structure.
Liability
An individual who does not wish for unlimited liability, he may opt for a company but if he can
bear the unlimited liability of business can go for sole proprietorship or partnership.
Sole Trader
Advantages
-Easier establish and manage than a company
Disadvantages
-Problem in raising capital when needed sometimes due to scale of operation and capital outlay
-Lack of competitiveness
Partnership
A partnership is a form of organization where two to twenty persons are associated to operate a
business entity with a view to earn profit. Each member of such a group is individually known as
partner and collectively the members are known as a partnership firm.
In order to avoid misunderstandings about how profits/losses are shared, the responsibilities of
each partner, and other ownership, management, and operating decisions the partners usually
have a formal legal partnership agreement which sets out the rights and obligations of each
partner.
Advantages of Partnerships
-Easily formed
Disadvantages of Partnerships
-Membership limit of twenty partners may sometimes restrict the capital resources of the
business depending on the nature and scale of operations
Co-Operative Society
The co-operatives are formed primarily to render services to its members. Generally it also
provides some service to the society. When the purpose of business is to provide service than to
earn profit and to promote common economic interest, the co-operative society is the only
alternative.
On the basis of these objectives, various types of co-operatives can be formed with the objective
of providing different benefits to their members. Some types of co-operatives are outlined below.
Types of Cooperatives
Consumer co-operatives
These are formed to protect and strengthen the specific interests of ordinary consumers of society
by making consumer goods available at a fair price.
Producer co-operatives
These societies are set up to strengthen producers who operate on a small scale who face
challenges related to resources for raw material and available markets for finished goods.
Marketing co-operatives
Credit Co-operatives
Farming Co-operatives
These are formed by small farmers who carry on work together to operate on a larger scale and
thereby share the benefits of large scale farming.
Besides these types, other co-operatives can be formed with the objective of providing different
benefits to its members, like the construction co-operatives, transport co-operatives, co-
operatives to provide education etc.
Characteristics of Co-operatives
Individuals with common interest may come together to form a co-operative society. Any person
can become a member of such a co-operative.
Membership
The minimum number of individuals required to form a co-operative society is ten and the
maximum number is unlimited.
Body Corporate
Registration of a society under the Co-operative Societies Act is a must. Once it is registered, it
becomes a body corporate and enjoys certain privileges just like a joint stock company.
Service Motive
The main motive of any co-operative organization is to provide specific services to its members
in particular and to the society in general.
Democratic Set Up
Every member has a right to take part in the management of the society. Each member has one
vote. The Executive Committee, who is elected and responsible to members, look after the daily
operations of the organization.
Sources of Finances
Co-operative organizations have units of investments called shares which are contributed by
members It can also raise loans and obtain grants from the government.
Return on capital
The profit earnings on capital subscribed by the members is in the form of a fixed rate of
dividend after deduction from the profit of the co-operative.
Easy Formation
Limited Liability
The liability of the members is only limited to the extent of capital contributed by them.
Open Membership
State Assistance
Co-operatives may have the advantage of patronage in the form of exemptions and tax
concessions and financial assistance from the governments.
Consumers benefit and the profit is maximized. Through the co-operative the consumer members
control their own supplies and by this means the middlemans profit is eliminated.
Management
Decision making by members on specific terms are democratized.. Each member has only one
vote.
Winding up
A co-operative has a fairly stable life. The dissolution of a co-operative firm is quite difficult. It
does not cease to exist in the case of the death, or insolvency or resignation of any member.
Disadvantages of Co-operatives
Limited Capital
Due to the specificity of co-operatives the amount of capital that can be generated may
sometimes be limited. This is because of the membership remaining confined to a geographic
area or a particular group of people.
Lack of Motivation
Co-operatives are basically service oriented more than profit motivated. There might not be
sufficient motivation to manage the co-operatives effectively.
Corporations
A corporation is an organization that is made up of many owners who normally are not active in
the decision making and operations of the business. The capital of a limited liability company is
divided into shares which are certificates of ownership (stock) issued by the corporation. The
owners of these shares are called shareholders and the capital of the company referred to as share
capital. Corporations must have at least one shareholder. Corporations are incorporated
businesses, are considered as a separate entity, and this often provide a measure of legal and
financial protection for the shareholders. The shareholders of corporations have limited liability
protection, and corporations have full discretion over the amount of profits Suitability of Joint
Stock Company:
A Limited Liability Company may be suitable where the volume of business is quite large, the
area of operation is widespread, the risk involved is heavy and there is a need for huge financial
resources and manpower. It is also preferred when there is need for professional management
and flexibility of operations.
Artificial Person
A Joint Stock Company is an artificial person in the sense that it is created by law and does not
possess physical attributes of a natural person. However, it has a legal status.
Being an artificial person, a company has an existence independent of its members. It can own
property, enter into contract and conduct any lawful business in its own name. It can sue and can
be sued in the court of law. A shareholder cannot be held responsible for the acts of the
company.
Common Seal
Every company has a common seal by which it is represented while dealing with outsiders. Any
document with the common seal and duly signed by an officer of the company is binding on the
company.
Perpetual Existence
A company once formed continues to exist as long as it fullfils the requirements of law. It is not
affected by the death, lunacy, insolvency or retirement of any of its members.
Limited Liability
The liability of a member of a Joint Stock Company is limited by guarantee or the shares he
owns. In other words, in case of payment of debts by the company, a shareholder is held liable
only to the extent of his share.
Transferability of Shares
The members of a company are free to transfer the shares held by them to anyone else.
Formation
A Jamaican company for example, comes into existence only when it has been registered, after
completing the formalities prescribed by The Registrar of Companies of Jamaica.
Membership
A company having a minimum membership of two persons and maximum fifty is known as a
Private Limited Company. In the case of a Public Limited Company, the minimum is seven and
the maximum membership is unlimited.
Management
Limited Liability Companies have democratic management and control. Even though the
shareholders are the owners of the company, all of them cannot participate in the management
process. The company is managed by the elected representatives of shareholders known as
Directors.
Capital
A Limited Liability Company generally raises a large amount of capital through issue of shares.
Limited Liability
In a Joint Stock Company the liability of its members is limited to the extent of shares held by
them. This attracts a large number of small investors to invest in the company. It helps the
company to raise huge capital. Because of limited liability, a company is also able to take larger
risks.
Continuity of existence
A company is an artificial person created by law and possesses independent legal status. It is not
affected by the death, insolvency etc. of its members. Thus it has a perpetual existence.
It is only the company form of organization which can provide capital for large scale operations.
It results in large scale production consequently leading to increase in efficiency and reduction in
the cost of operation. It further opens the scope for expansion.
Professional Management
Companies, because of complex nature of activities and operations and large volume of business,
require professional managers at every level of organization. And because of their financial
strength they can afford to appoint such managers. This leads to efficiency.
Social Benefit
A company generally invests a lot of money on research and development for improved
processes of production, designing and innovating new products, improving quality of product,
new ways of training its staff, etc.
The formation of a company involves compliance with a number of legal formalities under the
companies Act and compliance with several other Laws.
Control by a Group
Companies are controlled by a group of persons known as the Board of Directors. This may be
due to lack of interest on the part of the shareholders who are widely dispersed; ignorance,
indifference and lack of proper and timely information. Thus, the democratic virtues of a
company do not really exist in practice.
The shares of a company are purchased and sold in the stock exchanges. The value or price of a
share is determined in terms of the dividend expected and the reputation of the company. These
can be manipulated.
A company is expected to comply with the provisions of several Acts. Non-compliance of these
invites heavy penalty. This affects the smooth functioning of the companies.
A company has to fulfill certain procedural formalities before making a policy decision. These
formalities are time consuming and, therefore, policy decisions may be delayed.
NonProfit
Nonprofit Organizations are corporations formed for a charitable, civic, or artistic purpose.
Nonprofits are generally exempt taxation on their income, and so they are often called exempt
organizations. Nonprofits have substantial responsibilities for reporting their activities, income,
and assets to ensure that they are in compliance with government laws governing charities.
Financial Statements
What is a financial statement? What does it tell us? Why should we care? These are good
questions and they deserve an answer.
Financial Statements are summary accounting reports prepared periodically to inform the owner,
creditors, and other interested parties as to the financial condition and operating results of the
business. The purpose of financial statements is to communicate the Groups financial
information to its stakeholders, especially shareholders, investors and lenders. Financial
Statements uses the summarized data contained in the Trial Balance to prepare the businesss
financial reports.
Financial Statements provide relevant financial information in a format that is useful in making
important business decisions. Each financial statement tells its own story. Together they serve
many purposes. They form a comprehensive financial picture of the company, the results of its
operations, its financial condition, and the sources and uses of its money. They also allow
comparison of different companies with each other, or to evaluate different years performance
within the same company. Evaluating past performance helps managers identify successful
strategies, eliminate wasteful spending and budget appropriately for the future. It can also help a
bank or creditor evaluate the company for a loan or charge account. And the Government will be
interested in collecting the appropriate amount of income tax. Armed with this information,
business managers will be able to make necessary business decisions in a timely manner.
Financial statements have generally agreed-upon formats. There are three main financial
statements:
-Balance Sheet
-The Profit and Loss Account reflects a Period of Time month, quarter and year. It shows
financial the activity of a business during that period and indicates any profit or loss earned.
-Revenue - the value of your goods and services which have been delivered to customers
-Expenses - costs incurred in earning these revenues.
-Net Profit - the excess of Revenue over Expenses, on the Profit and Loss Account.
-Net Loss - the excess of Expenses over Revenue, on the Income Statement.
The statement of financial position of a business sums up its economic resources, obligations
(debts and other non-current liabilities) and owners capital at a particular point of time. It also
shows how the economic resources contributed by lenders and shareholders are used in the
business.
Balance sheet items are classified as assets, liabilities, or capital, and the amount and nature of
these items are shown at a specific date in time.
Financial Position what you have/what you owe/what your stockholders have
The Accounting Cycle is a sequence of procedures used to record, classify and summarize and
processing accounting information to generate financial statements, on a regular basis. The
accounting cycle during each period starts from recording individual transactions in the books of
accounting and ends at the preparation of financial statements and closing processes.
Identify and analyze transactions that need to be recorded, journalize (record) the transactions in
the proper journal.
Post from the journals to the General Ledger and Subsidiary Ledgers.
Review accounts and other information to determine if any Adjusting Entries are necessary
Record our closing Entries in our General Journal Post our entries from our General Journal to
our General Ledger.
-These generally accepted accounting principles are a set of rules and practices that are
recognized as a general guide for financial reporting purposes.
-Generally accepted means that these principles must have substantial authoritative support.
Accruals Concept
The Accruals concept assumes that revenue and expenses are taken account of when they occur
and not when the cash is received or paid out. The purpose of this concept is to make sure that all
revenues and costs are recorded in the appropriate statement at the appropriate time. The accrual
concept under accounting assumes that revenue is realised at the time of sale of goods or services
irrespective of the fact when the cash is received. Similarly, expenses are recognised at the time
of services provided, irrespective of when cash is paid.
In brief, accrual concept requires that revenue is recognised when realized, and expenses are
recognised when they become due and payable without regard to the time of cash receipt or cash
payment. Thus, when a profit statement is compiled, the cost of goods sold relevant to those
sales should be recorded accurately and in full in that statement. Costs concerning a future period
must be carried forward as a prepayment for that period and not charged in the current profit
statement. For example, payments made in advance such as the prepayment of rent would be
treated in this way. Similarly, expenses paid in arrears must, although paid after the period to that
they relate, also be shown in the current periods profit statement: by means of an accruals
adjustment.
Matching concept states that the revenue and the expenses incurred to earn the revenue must
belong to the same accounting period. Therefore, the matching concept implies that all revenues
earned during an accounting year, whether received/not received during that year and all cost
incurred, whether paid/not paid during the year should be taken into account while ascertaining
profit or loss for that year. It guides how the expenses should be matched with revenue for
determining exact profit or loss for a particular period.
Accruals Concept
Revenue should be recognized in the accounting period in which it is earned.
Matching Concept
Expenses should be matched with revenues in the period in which the revenues are earned. (i.e.
the need for prepaid expenses)
Significance:
-It helps in knowing actual expenses and actual income during a particular time period.
It is this concept more than any other that has given rise to the idea that accountants are
pessimistic boring people!! Basically the concept says that whenever there are alternative
procedures or values, the accountant will choose the one that results in a lower profit, a lower
asset value and a higher liability value. The concept is summarised by the well known phrase
anticipate no profit and provide for all possible losses.
Revenue and profits are included in the balance sheet only when they are realized (or there is
reasonable certainty of realizing them) but liabilities are included when there is a reasonable
possibility of incurring them.
-The financial statements does not reflect overstatement or understatement of gains or losses but
neutral
Consistency Concept
Because the methods employed in treating certain items within the accounting records may be
varied from time to time, the concept of consistency has come to be applied more and more
rigidly. Because of these sorts of effects, it is now accepted practice that when an entity chooses
to treat items such as depreciation in a particular way in the accounts it should continue to use
that method year after year. If it is NECESSARY to change the accounting method being
employed then an explanation of the change and the effects it is having on the results must be
shown as a note to the accounts being presented.
The business entity concept states that a business and the owner(s) are two separate Legal
Entities.
Being an artificial person, a company has an existence independent of its members. It can own
property, enter into contract and conduct any lawful business in its own name. It can sue and can
be sued in the court of law. A shareholder cannot be held responsible for the acts of the
company.
The best example here concerns that of the sole trader or one man business: in this situation you
may have the sole trader taking money by way of drawings: money for his own personal use.
Despite it being his business and apparently his money, there are still two aspects to the
transaction: the business is giving money and the individual is receiving money. So, the
affairs of the individuals behind a business must be kept separate from the affairs of the business
itself.
This concept restrains accountants from recording of owners private/ personal transactions. It
also facilitates the recording and reporting of business transactions from the business point of
view.
Conclusions
These, then, are some basic concepts and conventions on which the accountant bases all of his
accounting work. We can see evidence of such work in the published annual reports and
accounts that all publicly quoted companies are required to prepare and publish. The concepts
and conventions also apply to the millions of businesses world wide that do not publish their
accounts.
Accounting Processes
All accounting information historically has been done manually. In modern society we now have
access to computers that actually performs the same tasks with much improvement.
Most accounting software has these common modules which can be used each by themselves or
combined with other modules in the same packages.
Accounts receivable where the business enters money receivable from activities
Sales Order the business records customer orders for stock items they need
Cash Book the business records money collected and paid out.
Accounting Softwares
As technology improves, software vendors have been able to offer increasingly advanced
software at lower prices.
There are different types of Accounting Software Packages that are designed to cater the
different needs of different businesses. Below are some of the popular and general types of
accounting software.
There are a wide range of accounting software for different needs. Below is a list of softwares
used.
-Vision Point
-QuickBooks Pro
-MYOB
-Account Edge
-Dac Easy
-Syspro 6.1
(1) Power failure, computer viruses and hackers are the inherent problems of using
computerized systems;
(2) Some accounting system may not be properly set up to meet the requirement of the business
due to badly programmed or inappropriate software or hardware or personnel problems can
caused more havoc.
(3) There is the constant threat of computer fraud or computer damage due to virus. It means
that appropriate types of monitoring and control and security features need to be constantly in
place.
Quiz
e. The individuals who own the partnership business are called collectively referred to as
.
Answers
(a) 20 persons
(b) Pay
(c) Legal
(d) Partnership
b. The interests of partners may not be used as future capital in the business.
Answers
(a) True
(b) False
(c) False
(a) The members of a co-operative get a fixed rate of dividend from profit.
(e) A member of a co-operative society may have voting power based the amount of shares
owned.
Answers
(a) True
(b) True
(c) False
(d) False
(e) False
(a) A co-operative society may not cease to exist with the of a member.
Answers
(a) death
(b) Voluntarily
(c) Service
(d) Unlimlited
(e) Capital
(c) The members of a company may transfer their shares through on the stock market.
Answer
(a) False
(b) False
(c) True
(d) True
(d) When the scale of operation of the business is a sole proprietorship form is preferred.
(e) The capital of a sole trader may not be in the stock market.
Answer
(a) Perpetual
(c) Partners
(d) Small
(e) not
(b) Goods of Rs.50000 are sold on 25th March 2006 but payment is received on 10th April
2007. It will be a revenue
(a) Revenue
(b) 2006
(d) Revenues
(e) Expenses
Balance Sheet
Assets
Assets are things that a company owns and are sometimes referred to as the resources of the
company.
Assets include tangible and intangible items. Tangible items can be physically seen and touched
such as vehicles, equipment and buildings. Intangible items are like pieces of paper (sales
invoices) representing loans to your customers where they promise to pay you later for your
services or product. Some examples of business type assets are cash, debtors, stock of goods,
land, and equipment.
Liabilities
Liabilities are obligations of the company; they are amounts the business owes to others as of the
balance sheet date.
Usually one of a businesss biggest liabilities is to suppliers where a business has bought goods
and services and charged them. Some examples of business liabilities are outstanding expense
accounts, creditors, and mortgages.
Capital
It represents the owners rights to the property (assets) of the business. Capital is the monetary
value of the part of the business which belongs to the proprietor. In other words what the
business owes the owner, that is the amount left for the owner after all liabilities (amounts owed)
have been paid.
The Balance Sheet is a statement of financial position of a business at a specific point in time
usually at the end of the month or year. By analyzing and reviewing this financial statement the
current financial health of a business can be determined.
The Balance Sheet sums up the economic resources (assets), obligations (debts and other long-
term liabilities) and the owners Capital at a particular point of time. It also shows how the
economic resources contributed by lenders and shareholders are used in the business. This
statement is called a balance sheet because at any given time, Assets must equal Liabilities
plus Capital, in other words, be in balance.
There are three main sections of a Balance Sheet: Assets, Liabilities, and Capital just like the
accounting equation. The balance sheet is derived from our accounting equation and is a formal
representation of our equation.
Items are listed in the Balance Sheet just as in the accounting equation:
The balance sheet heading contains the name of the company, the title of the statement, and the
date of the statement.
Entries in the balance sheet are made from transfers from the trial balance. A debit balance in the
trial balance must be transferred to the debit side in the balance sheet; similarly a credit balance
in the trial balance must appear only on the credit side of the Balance Sheet.
In this form the major categories are stacked on top of each other.
Balance Sheet Headings
Fixed Assets
These are items bought in the business not for resale but to be used over a period of several
years. These assets are of a long term nature. Examples of Fixed Assets would include
machinery, building and furniture.
Current Assets
These are items in the business which are used up and change daily in the normal operation of
the business. These are the revenue generating assets and they are of a temporary nature.
Examples of Current assets would include stock of goods for sale, debtors and business cash.
Liability Accounts
Liability Accounts are usually classified (put into distinct groupings, categories, or
classifications) on the balance sheet. The liability classifications and their order of appearance on
the balance sheet are:
-Current Liabilities
These represent money which the business owes and is obligated to settle within one year.
Examples of current liabilities would include Creditors for goods purchases, and unpaid utility
expenses
These represent money which the business owes and is obligated to settle within one year.
Examples of long term liabilities would include Loan to buy motor vehicle, Mortgage.
Capital
Capital is increased by money or property contributed and any profits the business earns from
operation.
Drawings represent amounts the owner withdraws from his business for personal use.
Arrangement of Assets and Liabilities
Assets may be listed based on how quickly they can be converted into cash which is called the
order of liquidity. In other words, theyre ranked. The asset most easily converted into cash is
listed first followed by the next easiest and so on. Of course since cash is already cash its the
first asset listed.
Assets may be listed based on the difficulty with which they can be converted into cash, called
the order of permanence. These assets are ranked in the opposite order of liquidity; they are
ranked from most difficult to convert to cash, to least difficult to convert to cash.
This means that a balance is always maintained in the records. This is also reflected in the
Balance Sheet where every transaction may affect two items, and a balance is always maintained.
Quiz
Question
Answer
A Journal is an accounting record that is used to record the different types of transactions in
chronological order or date order. Journals are often called or referred to as the books of original
entry. The reason is that this is the first place that business transactions are formally
recorded. You can think of a Journal as a Financial Diary.
Specialized Journals are journals used to initially record special types of transactions such as
sales and purchases. All these journals are designed to record special types of business
transactions and post the totals accumulated in these journals to the General Ledger periodically
(usually once a month).
The Journal is a textual record of events (Debit and Credit) that is characterized by the fact that
all the records it contains are in a sequential chronological order. The General Journal is used to
record unusual or infrequent types of transactions. Type of entries normally made in the general
journal include depreciation entries, correcting entries, and adjusting and closing entries.
The Cash Book is used to record the receipt and payment of money by the business in the form
of cash, or through the business bank account. It contains the cash and bank accounts.
Sales Journal
The Sales Journal is a special journal where Credit sales to customers are recorded. Another
name for this journal is the Sales Book or Sales Day Book.
Purchases Journal
The Purchases Journal is a special journal where Credit purchases from customers are recorded.
Another name for this journal is the Purchases Book or Purchases Day Book.
The Returns Inwards Journal is a special journal that is used to record the returns from debtors
and allowances of goods sold on credit. Another name for this journal is the Sales Returns Book.
The Returns Outwards Journal is a special journal that is used to record the returns to creditors
and allowances of goods purchased on credit. Another names for this journal is the Purchases
Returns Book.
This is just a fancy name that describes a special fund that is set up and used for minor and
unanticipated cash expenses where a cheque cant be written or the amount is so small that you
dont want to write a cheque. The petty cash account is based on the Imprest System which is a
system of cash disbursement, cash expenditure and reimbursement of that expenditure.
The person writing the cheque, the drawer, usually has a current account where their money was
previously deposited. The drawer writes the various details including the money amount, date,
and a payee on the cheque, and signs it, ordering their bank, known as the drawee, to pay that
person or company the amount of money stated. Cheques are a type of bill of exchange and were
developed as a way to make payments without the need to carry large amounts of gold and silver
Credit Cards
Think of credit as borrowed money. This money is made available to you, but it must be repaid
within an agreed amount of time. Credit cards provide a line of revolving credit. Credit cards
eliminate the need for carrying cash or checks. A typical plastic card includes the customers
name and a series of numbers that represent the applicable network, bank and account. The
numbers in aggregate are referred to as the account number or card number. The front also
features the cards expiration date and the issuers logo.
The back of the card has a horizontal magnetic strip and a signature box that must be signed by
the card holder. The account number and a three- to four-digit card identification number or
security number are often listed as well.
Credit cards enable you to reserve a hotel room, airline tickets and concert tickets, replace lost or
stolen items in person, over the phone or through email. They offer convenience and some
special perks for using them, such as travel insurance and gift certificates. They can be used
almost everywhere.
Credit card products come in a wide assortment these days. Some credit card programs will ease
their terms and conditions and offer perks for people with stellar credit, such as travel insurance,
concierge service and free entertainment. Other credit card program may help a person re-
establish their credit.
Not all cards are for everyone. The ability to get a credit card will depend on whether you
qualify. This is determined by whether you have a history of establishing credit and your ability
to pay bills on time.
Pros
-They can boost your purchasing power because they can be used to buy goods and services over
the phone, through the mail and online.
-They provide financial backup in the event of an emergency, such as an unexpected healthcare
cost, job loss or auto repair.
-They allow you to purchase items and pay them off in monthly installments. They offer
discounts at stores and rewards. For instance, when you make purchases using the credit card
you can collect points; these points accumulate and can be used to get free items, such as airline
tickets.
-Some cards may offer cash back as an incentive to use the card.
-They keep a record of your expenses, helping you to monitor your financial activities.
-They help raise your credit score, when you pay balances down by the due date. This improved
credit history paves the way for lower rates borrowing rates on other loans, including a
mortgage.
-Credit cards allow you the right to dispute billing errors and defective merchandise.
Cons
-Credit cards can have their disadvantages, though, especially when theyre used in an unwise
manner.
-Some consumers feel compelled to spend more money than they have.
-When you default on credit card payments, you are charged with late fees and interest,
increasing your debt load.
-Carrying a large amount of credit cards also isnt too favorable in the eyes of lenders.
-Acquiring too much credit card debt can ruin your credit score.
-Studies have indicated credit card debt as a significant factor in consumer bankruptcies.
Debit Cards
A debit card is a plastic card that provides the cardholder electronic access to his or her bank
account/s at a financial institution. Some cards have a stored value with which a payment is
made, while most relay a message to the cardholders bank to withdraw funds from a designated
account in favor of the payees designated bank account. The card can be used as an alternative
payment method to cash when making purchases
In many countries the use of debit cards has become so widespread that their volume of use has
overtaken the cheque and, in some instances, cash transactions. Like credit cards, debit cards are
used widely for telephone and Internet purchases.
However, unlike credit cards, the funds paid using a debit card are transferred immediately from
the bearers bank account, instead of having the bearer pay back the money at a later date.
Debit cards usually also allow for instant withdrawal of cash, acting as the ATM card for
withdrawing cash and as a check guarantee card. Merchants may also offer cashback facilities to
customers, where a customer can withdraw cash along with their purchase.
The widespread use of debit and check cards have revealed numerous advantages and
disadvantages to the consumer and retailer alike.
-A consumer who is not credit worthy and may find it difficult or impossible to obtain a credit
card can more easily obtain a debit card, allowing him/her to make plastic transactions. For
example, legislation often prevents minors from taking out debt, which includes the use of a
credit card, but not online debit card transactions.
-For most transactions, a check card can be used to avoid check writing altogether. Check cards
debit funds from the users account on the spot, thereby finalizing the transaction at the time of
purchase, and bypassing the requirement to pay a credit card bill at a later date, or to write an
insecure check containing the account holders personal information.
-Like credit cards, debit cards are accepted by merchants with less identification and scrutiny
than personal checks, thereby making transactions quicker and less intrusive. Unlike personal
checks, merchants generally do not believe that a payment via a debit card may be later
dishonored.
-Unlike a credit card, which charges higher fees and interest rates when a cash advance is
obtained, a debit card may be used to obtain cash from an ATM or a PIN-based transaction at no
extra charge, other than a foreign ATM fee.
-Use of a debit card is not usually limited to the existing funds in the account to which it is
linked, most banks allow a certain threshold over the available bank balance which can cause
overdraft fees if the users transaction does not reflect available balance.
-Many banks are now charging over-limit fees or non-sufficient funds fees based upon pre-
authorizations, and even attempted but refused transactions by the merchant (some of which may
be unknown until later discovery by account holder).
-Many merchants mistakenly believe that amounts owed can be taken from a customers
account after a debit card (or number) has been presented, without agreement as to date, payee
name, amount and currency, thus causing penalty fees for overdrafts, over-the-limit, amounts not
available causing further rejections or overdrafts, and rejected transactions by some banks.
Source Documents
Source Documents are the original sources of information that provide documentation (proof)
that a transaction has occurred such as sales invoices (tickets), invoices from suppliers, contracts,
checks written and checks received , promissory notes, and various other types of business
documents. These documents provide us with the information needed to record our financial
transactions in our bookkeeping records. If you recall, a transaction is any event or condition that
must be recorded in the books of a business because of its effect on the financial condition of the
business, such as buying and selling.
Source documents detail the particulars of transactions that include the date, name, address,
terms, and product description among other relevant pieces of information. Types of source
documents include cash receipts, canceled checks and invoices. Source documents may be paper-
based business forms or electronic documents.
-They are used for initial input to the accounting system. The transactions they record can be
entered into the first of the accounting records the journals.
-They assist internal control of the resources of the business making sure that there is
documentary evidence that a transaction took place such as the purchase or sale of items and the
receipt and payment of money (that is, it makes it more difficult for people to misappropriate or
steal cash or other items).
-They are part of the audit trail for as long as those documents are required to be kept by law or
policy. Of such, they are a part of the record keeping process.
Here is a summary of some types of sources documents and their uses:
Sales Invoice
This document is sent to request payment for monies owed, for goods that were delivered, or
services that were rendered.
Features of invoice
Invoices are numbered to keep track of sent invoices
-Date of sale
Purchases Invoice
This document is received in request payment for monies owed, for goods that were delivered,
or services that were rendered. It is identical to The Sales Invoice but is called a Purchases
Invoice when the purchaser receives it.
Credit Note
This document is sent by a supplier to a customer to reduce the liability of the customer. In
essence it is a negative invoice that is issued when goods are returned, when there was an
overpayment, or when some other event has occurred that has the effect of reducing the amount
that the customer owes to the supplier.
Debit Note
This document is sent from a customer to a supplier to request a credit note in respect to an
overpayment or return of goods.
Receipt
This is a written document that confirms that money has been received as a down payment,
account settlement or installment.
This Document records in numeric order the specific amounts paid out in petty cash, to whom
the payments are made and for what purpose.
Journals use the information from the source documents to create a chronological listing of all
business transactions and detailed information about each transaction.
Journals are preliminary records where business transactions are first entered into the accounting
system. The journal is commonly referred to as the book of original entry. Specialized Journals-
are journals used to initially record special types of transactions such as sales and purchases in
their own journal
-Groups and records transactions of a like nature. A familiar example is recording all cash
received by a business in one place.
-Saves time with summary and less frequent postings to the General Ledger.
-Allows a business to have different individuals responsible for different journals thereby
increasing internal controls and allocating the record keeping workload.
General Journal
The Journal is a textual record of events (Debit and Credit) that is characterized by the fact that
all the records it contains are in a sequential chronological order.
Entries are transferred (Posted) from the journal to the ledger pages on a regular basis.
All journal entries follow the rules of debit and credit. Remember the Accounting Equation?
2009 June 1, Bought furniture on credit from Kull dunne for $1 000.
-Return of Fixed Assets
-Transfer of Creditors
We owed Bee Bobby $500. On June 10 2009 Bee Bobbys business is taken over by Rune
Crumbe who we will know owe the $500.
-Settlement of Debt
2009 June 15 We receive machinery valued $250 from Carl reeves in settlement of his debt of
$500.
-Opening Entries
On July 1 2009 V. Nemhard Opens his books of accounting to start business. At that date His
records reflect:
Assets:
Premises $2 000
Machinery $600
Bank $40
Cash $50
Liabilities:
Capital:
$4 000
The Sales Journal is a special journal where Credit sales from customers are recorded.
2009
Purchases Journal
The Purchases Journal is a special journal where Credit purchases from suppliers are recorded.
2009
The Sales Return & Allowances Journal is a special journal that is used to record the returns and
allowances of goods sold on credit.
The Purchase Returns and Allowances Journal is a special journal that is used to record the
returns and allowances of merchandise purchased on account.
2009
The Cash Book is used to record the receipt and payment of money by the business in the form
of cash, or through the business bank account. It contains the cash and bank accounts.
-The Date
-Details
Entries are made for the other account to enter to complete double entry
-Folio
The reference is entered for the book and page number for the other account to complete double
entry
-Discount Allowed
This is an incentive for speedy settlement of credit sales. All Discount Allowed merely listed
here.
-Discount Received
This is an incentive for speedy settlement of credit Purchases. All Discount Received merely
listed here.
2009
May 1 Balances brought forward for Cash $100 and Bank $2 000
May 18 Received cheque of $90 from debtor B.Butler, Discount Allowed $10
May 24 Withdrew cash from the bank $20 for personal use
May 28 Cash of $20 was deposited to the bank account
Petty Cashbook
Another name that is sometimes used to refer to Petty Cash is an imprest fund. This is just a
fancy name that describes a special fund that is set up and used for minor and unanticipated cash
expenses where a cheque cant be written or the amount is so small that you dont want to write a
cheque. Some examples include buying pizza for the staff, postage stamps, minor office supplies,
paper towels, and cleaning supplies. A pre-numbered voucher or ticket should be filled out and
approved for each expenditure. When the balance in the fund becomes low a check from your
regular bank account should be issued and cashed to replenish the fund and the expenses
recorded in your accounting records. Surprise counts of petty cash should occasionally be done
to make sure that employees are not borrowing from this source of cash. Counting the fund is
very easy. The total amount of the tickets and the cash on hand should equal to the funds
established balance.
The petty cash (actual cash and all the supporting vouchers and receipts) is normally kept in a
locked drawer or box and one individual is assigned or designated as the custodian of the fund.
The custodian is responsible for all the petty cash activity. Individuals should also be designated
who have the authority to approve payments using petty cash. This could also be the custodian of
the fund.
Payment is made to the Petty cashier for the amount determined to be needed (The Cash Float),
who then places the funds in a locked drawer or box. The accounting records would be to
debiting Petty Cash and crediting Cash in the Cash Book.
All petty cash disbursements are made from this fund. A book or worksheet is maintained that
records all the payments made and why and what for they were made. Your chart of accounts is
used to determine what account(s) to charge the payment to.
A pre-numbered ticket or voucher is approved, signed by the person receiving the cash, and
prepared for each expenditure made from the fund and any supporting documents such as an
invoice or receipt is attached when the voucher is settled for.
The total of the cash in the fund plus the total of all the tickets and vouchers should always equal
the balance established for the fund. In other words if your petty cash fund amount is $500, the
total of the tickets paid and the currency on hand should equal $500.
Surprise counts of petty cash should occasionally be performed in order to make sure that
employees are not borrowing this cash.
How do you replenish the Petty Cash Fund when it runs out of cash?
At the end of a month or whenever the amount of currency (actual cash) in the fund becomes low
a summary is prepared of all the settled vouchers assigning the payments made to the appropriate
expense or other categories (accounts) which is used to record the debits to the expense and other
accounts and the total credit to the cash account in the Cash Disbursements Journal.
The current balance of the fund should also be checked by adding up all the currency still on
hand and the total of all the vouchers and tickets. This total should agree with the balance
assigned to the fund. In other words, if the funds assigned balance is $500 the total of all the
tickets and vouches and currency should equal to $500.
A cheque is then prepared and made payable to the Petty Cash Custodian and recorded in the
Cash book.
To increase the Petty Cash fund balance, you simply prepare a check made out to the Petty Cash
Custodian for the amount of the increase to the Petty Cash Fund. For example, if your current
fund balance is $100.00 and you want to increase the Petty Cash fund to a balance of $200.00,
you would issue a check for $100.00 and record the cheque in your Cash Disbursements Journal
as a debit to your Petty Cash Account and a credit to your Cash In Bank Account.
2010
November 1 Cash of $5 000 deposited to Petty Cash account from cash book
November 30 Cash of $1 700 deposited to Petty Cash account from cashbook as reimbursed of
cash used throughout the month of November Petty Cash Float balance remains $5 000
Quiz
Question 1
On December 31, 2010, John Henry found that the debit side of his trial Balance exceeded the
credit side by $492. The difference was put to a suspense account. February 11 of 2011 the
following errors were discovered in the books:
1. $165 paid for the purchase of Fixtures had been entered to Purchases account.
3. The Returns Inwards Book was overcast by $57 and the wrong amount was entered to the
Returns Inwards account.
4. $ 217 cash paid to Mike Collester was debited to his account as $271.
5. $15 goods sold to Lee Gray was debited to Lee Mays account.
6. A cheque for $157 received from M. Ruddock was not entered to his account.
Required:
(b) Prepare the necessary Journal entries to correct the above mistakes.
(d) Identify from the above, ONE error of principle and ONE error of commission.
Solution
(a) The Trial Balance acts as a statement which arithmetically proves that proper double entry is
observed in making accounting entries. There are several errors which will not be revealed by the
Trial Balance.
(b)
(c)
(d)(i) Error of Principle occurred in error # 1 where $165 paid for the purchase of Fixtures had
been entered to Purchases account.
(ii) Error of Commission occurred in error # 5 where $15 goods sold to Lee Gray was debited to
Lee Mays
account.
Question 2
R. Guberman keeps a three column Cash Book. All cheques received are banked immediately.
All small payments of $20 or less are paid out of a petty cash float of $50 and recorded in a Petty
Cash Book with four analysis columns: Postage, Travelling, Sundry Expenses, and small
purchases of stock.
Cash 126
Petty Cash 19
less 5% discount.
Solution
1.
2.
Question 3
The following were transactions for Green Food Enterprises for the month of June 2007.
September 24 Bought Fixtures from Best Furnishings for use in the business 4,900
September 28 Sold goods on credit to B. Gumby 1,350
Required:
(A) Make Entries in the books of original entry (subsidiary books) for Green Food Enterprises.
(B) Post the books of original entry to the ledger at the end of the month.
Solution
(A)
(B)
Ledgers and the Trial Balance
We have often heard the expression the books are in balance in reference to the accounting
records of a business. This relates to the use of the double-entry system of accounting, which
says that every transaction will affect two accounts. Because the monetary values are equal we
say the transaction is in balance. Accounting is based on a simple rule, called the accounting
equation.
The accounting Equation describes items owned by the business on one hand, and the financing
of these items on the other hand.
Assets are the items owned by the business and are represented on the left side of the equation.
Capital and Liabilities represent the financing activities of the business and are represented on
the right side of the equation
Assets may include land and buildings, machinery, motor vehicles, fixtures, cash on hand and
money in the bank, as well as debts owed by customers.
Liabilities represent money owed by the business due to borrowings and credit arrangements
including amounts owed by the business for goods and services supplied and unpaid expenses
incurred by the business.
Capital is the amount of resources supplied by the owner. This includes investments by the
owner as well as retained profits from ongoing business operations.
The accounting equation uses simple math and involves only addition and subtraction.
Regardless of the number of transactions, the Accounting Equation will always balance. The
respective values of assets, capital and liabilities may change but total assets will always be equal
to the total of capital and liabilities. This is because:
any item owned by the business must come from some source of financing
Types of Ledgers
Accounting entries are made in books called Ledgers. Most businesses use the following ledgers:
-Sales Ledger: This book contains the personal accounts for customers or debtors.
-Purchases Ledger : This book contains the personal accounts for suppliers or creditors.
-General Ledger: The remaining double-entry accounts such as those related to capital, fixed
assets, expenses and revenues ( except for cash account and bank account ) are entered in the
general ledger.
Classification of Accounts
All accounts may be grouped in two broad categories or classifications. These are personal and
impersonal.
Personal Accounts: These are the accounts that have the names of debtors (customers) or
creditors (suppliers). They are therefore personal to this extent.
Impersonal Accounts: These non-personal accounts may be divided into Real Accounts and
Nominal Accounts.
-Real Accounts - These accounts are tangible in nature and represent accounts that records
possession such as machinery, furniture, premises and stock.
-Nominal Accounts These accounts are intangible in nature and represent accounts that in
which expenses, revenues and capital are recorded.
CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS
Rules of Entry for general Accounts
An account is divided into two sides, a left side called the debit side and a right side called the
credit side. The title of the account is written in the center at the top of each account.
2009
Stock refers to all items that a business normally engages in buying or selling to make a profit.
Stock is an asset because it represents goods owned by the business .In accounting certain terms
have specific or restricted meaning but these terms may have a different meaning outside the
context of accounting. In Accounting the term Purchases refers to buying of stock only. Sales
refer to selling of stock only. There are items which may occasionally be bought and sold by a
business which are not stock. These items are fixed assets which are bought not for resale but to
be used in the business for a long time.
Goods may be bought and sold for cash or on a credit basis. When goods are sold on credit the
customer becomes indebted to the business and is called debtors. Debtors are a form of asset and
represents customers who owe the business money usually for items sold on credit. When goods
are bought on credit the business becomes indebted to the supplier and is called creditors.
Creditors are a form of liability and represents suppliers to whom the business owes money
usually for items bought on credit.
There are four basic movements of stock, two representing increases in the asset of stock and
two representing decreases in stock; Each movement requiring its own accounting entry. These
movements are:
Increase of Stock
-Purchases of stock: The Purchase Account will be debited because purchases represent
increases in the asset of stock.
-Returns Inwards of stock: Returns Inwards represent goods returned to the business by
customers. These goods were previously sold so they are also referred to as sales returns. The
asset of stock will increase by the goods returned in, therefore the Returns Inwards (or Sales
Returns) Account will be debited. Goods are sometimes returned due to excess amount received
by customers, wrong type, damaged goods, or inferior quality.
Decrease of Stock
-Sale of stock: The Sales Account will be credited because sales represent decrease in the asset
of stock due to the leaving of stock.
-Returns Outwards of stock: Returns Outwards represent goods returned out to suppliers by the
business. These goods were previously purchased so they are also referred to as purchases
returns. The asset of stock will decrease by the goods returned out, therefore the Returns
Outwards (or Purchases Returns) Account will be credited.
Expenses
These represent the daily cost to keep the business in effective operation. Expenses would
include light , water bills, telephone charges, wages and salaries, cleaning, transportation,
stationery used, and insurance. All expense accounts are debited.
Revenues
Revenues represent the monetary value of goods and services that have been delivered to
customers. Revenues would include rent received, commissioned received and discount received.
All revenue accounts are credited.
Profit
Profit is the excess of revenues over expenses for an accounting period. It is represented by
revenues minus expenses for the accounting period. Profits will have an increasing effect on
increase capital.
Loss
Loss is the excess of expenses over revenues for an accounting period. Loss will decrease
capital.
Drawings
Drawings represent the monetary of any asset which the owner takes out of the business for his
personal and private use. The drawings account is debited.
Capital Expenditure is directly related to fixed assets in that it is incurred when money is spent
by a business to either:
2010
May 1 Owner started business Gummy Sweets with $5 000 cash in hand.
May 3 The business borrowed $10 000 from C. Wuggot which was put to the bank account.
May 16 Owner took $ 250 cash from business for personal use
The respective accounts for most businesses are closed off at the last day of each month and
reopened for the first day of the following month. The steps by which this is done is referred to
as balancing off the accounts. An account balance is the difference between the totals on the
debit side, and the totals on the credit side of the account of the same account. The account
balance always belongs to the greater side.
The account balance is entered on the lesser side at the end of the month as a balance carried
down. This may be written as balance c/d. When the account is reopened the first day of the
following month the same balance is entered on the opposite side as a balance brought down.
This may be written as balance b/d.
If the debit side exceeds the credit side, the account is said to have a debit balance. If the credit
side exceeds the debit side, the account is said to have a credit balance.
The Trial Balance
The double entry system of accounting states that every transaction will affect two accounts. If
the first account is debited then the second one will be credited or vice versa. It means that every
value that is placed on the debit side of a first account must be placed on the opposite credit side
of a second account.
To ensure that a proper matching credit entry for every debit entry is being observed a Trial
Balance is prepared. A trial Balance is said to be a statement of arithmetic proof to ensure that
proper double entry is being done. This statement is made of a list of account balances arranged
according to whether they are debit balances or credit balances.
-The accounts balances should be entered in the Trial Balance on the same side as the balance
b/d in the accounts.
If the totals of both columns are not equal then it means that there may be one or more
accounting errors. If both column totals are in agreement then it is assumed that proper double
entry was observed.
-It provides closing balance figures for accounts to enter for Final Accounts
The trial Balance will only detect some types of accounting errors. There are roughly seven
errors which will not be revealed by the trial balance. These errors will be looked at separately a
little later.
Quiz
Question
Garvey had the following transactions for the month of January 2007.
2007 $
E. John. 475
Required:
(A)Record and balance transactions in the relevant accounts including a cash account in the
ledger of A. Garvey.
Solution
Preparation and Analysis of Financial Statements
Financial Statements
Financial Statements are summary accounting reports prepared at stated time periods to inform
the owner, creditors, and other interested parties as to performance of the business. Financial
Statements uses summarized data to prepare the businesss financial reports.
Financial statements have generally agreed-upon formats. There are three main financial
statements:
-Balance Sheet
Each financial statement provides a different perspective Combined the financial statements
provide a general overview of the company, the impact of its activities, its financial strength, and
an overview of its cash flow. Evaluating allows directors to formulate effective strategic policies,
and implement factors that will increase efficiency.
The closing stock figure at the end of the year may be valuated used several methods.
This method of valuating closing stock assumes that stock of goods are sold in order of those
which were first purchased ( First In) being sold first (First Out).
This method of valuating closing stock assumes that stock of goods are sold in order of those
which were last purchased ( Last In) being sold first (First Out).
The average cost of each item of stock in hand is recalculated whenever there is a receival of
new stock of goods. The new average cost is calculated by adding the old average cost to the unit
cost of the new item of stock and divide by two.
Below is a fully worked example:
From the following figures calculate the closing stock value using the FIFO, LIFO and AVCO
method of stock valuation.
The Trading and Profit and Loss Account
One of the main aims of operating a business is to make profit. Profit is calculated in a Trading
and Profit and Loss Account. This is divided in a Trading Account which calculates the Gross
Profit for the period, and a Profit and Loss Account which calculates Net profit for the period.
The Trading Account calculates the profit made strictly from trading activities. Trading
involves buying and selling. In the trading account the cost of goods sold is subtracted from Net
Sales for the period to calculate Gross Profit.
Net Sales the actual sales made after all adjustments have been made for goods returned.
Gross Profit this is the excess of Net Sales over Cost of Goods Sold.
Gross Loss this is the excess of Cost of goods sold over Net Sales.
At the end of a financial period, all expense and revenue accounts are closed to a summarizing
account usually called a Profit and Loss Account. This is the financial statement that summarizes
revenues and expenses for a specific period of time, usually a month or a year.
The Profit and Loss Account reflects a Period of Time Month, Quarter, Year. It shows financial
the activity of a business during that period and indicates any profit or loss earned.
Revenue is the value of goods and services which have been delivered to customers.
Net Profit is the excess of Revenue over Expenses, on the Profit and Loss Account.
Net Loss is the excess of Expenses over Revenue, on the Income Statement.
The Balance Sheet
The statement of financial position of a business sums up its economic resources, obligations
(debts and other non-current liabilities) and owners capital at a particular point of time. It also
shows how the economic resources contributed by lenders and shareholders are used in the
business.
Balance sheet items are classified as assets, liabilities, or capital, and the amount and nature of
these items are shown at a specific date in time.
Capital This is the portion that remains after liabilities are subtracted from assets. Capital
includes profit or Loss from the business.
Financial Position what you have/what you owe/what your stockholders have Have Owe
= Value to Owner
In the balance sheet net profit is added to capital because profit increases capital. It also follows
that in net loss will be subtracted from capital because a loss will reduce the owners capital.
Working Capital
This is the excess of current (or short term) assets over current (or short term) liabilities. To
calculate working capital the total of Current liabilities is subtracted from the total of Current
assets.
Working Capital may be used as a tool for solvency. The calculation involves strictly short term
items and therefore working capital reveals the assets of the business that are most easily
converted to cash in the short term. This has significance for the liquidity or solvency of the
business or its ability to deal with short term payments. In the long run fixed assets may be sold
to offset immediate cash obligations.
The calculation of working capital
Accounting Ratios
A financial ratio (or accounting ratio) is a relative magnitude of two selected numerical values
taken from an enterprises financial statements. Often used in accounting, there are many
standard ratios used to try to evaluate the overall financial condition of a corporation or other
organization. Financial ratios may be used by managers within a firm, by current and potential
shareholders (owners) of a firm, and by a firms creditors. Security analysts use financial ratios
to compare the strengths and weaknesses in various companies.
Financial ratios quantify many aspects of a business and are an integral part of the financial
statement analysis. Financial ratios are categorized according to the financial aspect of the
business which the ratio measures.
-between companies
-between industries
Profitability ratios
Profitability ratios measure the companys use of its assets and control of its expenses to
generate an acceptable rate of return. These are concerned with the return on investment for
shareholders, and with the relationship between return and the value of an investment in
companys shares.
Activity ratios measure the effectiveness of the firms use of resources. Activity ratios measure
how quickly a firm converts non-cash assets to cash assets.
Liquidity ratios
Debt ratios measure the firms ability to repay long-term debt. Debt ratios measure financial
leverage.
Market Ratios
If shares in a company are traded in a financial market, the market price of the shares is used in
certain financial ratios. Market ratios measure investor response to owning a companys stock
and also the cost of issuing stock. These are concerned with the return on investment for
shareholders, and with the relationship between return and the value of an investment in
companys shares.
If shares in a company are traded in a financial market, the market price of the shares is used in
certain financial ratios.
Stock turn provides an indication as to how fast or slow stock is been sold. It also indicates the
efficiency of the business in terms of its control of stock levels. Assuming that gross profit
percentage remains constant, a faster sale of stock will mean increases in profits from sales;
likewise a slower sale of stock could mean decreases in profits.
Sales revenue does not tell the total picture of performance. The sales revenue of a business may
significantly increase with only marginal increase in actual gross profit. Gross profit as a
percentage of sales provides information on the profitability of sales; that is the gross profit per
$100 of sales.
The formula is:
Net profit as a percentage of sales provides information on the profitability of sales; that is the
net profit per $100 of sales.
Liquidity Ratios
The ability of a business to meet current financial obligations such as loan repayments, expenses
and creditors is crucial to its continued existence. A business is said to be liquid when it is able
to pay its debts on time. It is equally important that the business collect from debtors their
outstanding amounts on time. Two ratios directly related to the liquidity or solvency of
businesses, are the Current Ratio and the Acid Test Ratio.
Current Ratio
This ratio provides indication of the business to meet its short term financial commitments. The
comparison is made with (current) assets which will become liquid within a year and (current)
liabilities which should be paid within the same period of one year. This will indicate if the
business has enough short term assets to meet its short term payments. The formula for current
ratio is:
Acid Test Ratio
Acid test ratio indicates the ability of the business to meet it short term payments given the
situation where all debtors settle and all creditors are paid at the same time. The formula for Acid
Test ratio is:
Capital employed is basically the effective capital that is being used in the business. The average
of the capital account for the year i.e. (opening capital + closing capital) 2 may be used as
capital employed. Most people start a business with the hope to make satisfactory returns on their
capital employed. The formula for capital employed is:
This shows that effective use of capital is very crucial to the success of a business. Company A
has made a return of 30% net profit on its capital. Company B has only made a return of 10% net
profit on its capital although it has three times the value of capital.
As seen from the table above, Adam Wesley is very liquid, enjoying a high liquidity ratio of 16.
This is augers well for the future.
The Gross Profit margin on sales is also attractive. A 35% profit margin on sales signals that
Adam Wesley should recoup his investment and then some.
The Current Ratio may be a bit too high, suggesting that some of the cash or bank can be
invested rather than resting in the bank or remaining as cash in hand. Cash or bank is best held in
such amounts as will be needed to fund the daily working of the business and no more. On a
positive note, it is better to have this ratio too high, as all Adam Wesley needs to do to regularize
this, is to invest some of the extra liquidity. If the converse is the case, the business may have to
take a loan or risk running into overdraft.
Notwithstanding the positive return on investment at the end of the day, the investor must,
however, look at the rate of return they desire on their investment because ultimately it makes
little sense to operate a business to achieve a rate of return which is lower than could have been
obtained had the money been invested in a money market instrument, for instance.
Quiz
Question 1
The records of R. Graham showed the following purchases and sales of stock for the months of
May and June 2006.
Required:
Use the LIFO, FIFO and AVCO methods of stock valuation to calculate the value of closing
stock. Please show all workings clearly.
Solution
Question 2
The Following balances were extracted from the Trial balance of T. Brooks Wholesale at the end
of 2005.
Creditors 1400
Purchases 32,000
Debtors 2,000
Required:
(a)Current Ratio
Solution
1.
2.
(a) Current Ratio provides indication of the business to meet its short term financial
commitments. The comparison is made with (current) assets which will become liquid within a
year and (current) liabilities which should be paid within the same period of one year. This will
indicate if the business has enough short term assets to meet its short term payments.
(b) Acid test ratio indicates the ability of the business to meet it short term payments given the
situation where all debtors settle and all creditors are paid at the same time.
(c) Stock turn provides an indication as to how fast or slow stock is been sold. It also indicates
the efficiency of the business in terms of its control of stock levels. Assuming that gross profit
percentage remains constant, a faster sale of stock will mean increases in profits from sales,
likewise a slower sale of stock could mean decreases in profits.
3. Ratios may become misleading if they are not used in proper context. The same ratios need to
be used as a means of comparison for different time periods of a business, or in comparison with
similar business entities.
The Accruals Concept of accounting states that in calculating net profit the expenses for the
period should be subtracted from the revenues generated in the same period. The process by
which the revenues and expenses for the period are ascertained is referred to as matching
expenses with revenues.
At the end of each accounting period some adjustments may be needed for some expense and
revenue accounts. This is due to some of these accounts having outstanding balances as well as
having prepayments and advanced revenues advance.
Entries for prepaid expenses and accrued expenses at the beginning and end of a period
Below is an example:
On January 1, 2010 the following balances among other balances stood in the books of T. Tyler.
During the financial year ending December 31, 2010 the following transactions were recorded:
At the end of the financial period December 31, 2010 the following accounts showed balances:
You are required to write up the accounts including the correct amount to transfer to The Profit
and Loss Account ended December 31, 2010, and any balances to be carried forward to 2011.
Accruals and Prepayments in the Balance Sheet
Prepaid expenses represented assets of the business. The total of prepaid expenses will be listed
in the balance sheet immediately under debtors as a current asset.
Accrued expenses are a form of current liability and will be listed in the balance sheet under
current liabilities.
The debt is immediately written off by crediting the debtors account and therefore eliminating
any balance remaining in that account. A bad debt represents money lost by a business which is
why it is regarded as an expense.
Doubtful debts are those debts which a business or individual is unlikely to be able to collect.
The reasons for potential non payment can include disputes over supply, delivery, and conditions
of goods or the appearance of financial stress within a customers operations. When such a
dispute occurs it is prudent to add this debt or portion thereof to the doubtful debt reserve. This is
done to avoid over-stating the assets of the business, as trade debtors are reported net of Doubtful
debt. When there is no longer any doubt that a debt is uncollectable the debt becomes bad. An
example of a debt becoming uncollectable would be: once final payments have been made
from the liquidation of a customers limited liability company, no further action can be taken.
An Ageing Debtors Schedule is set up where the debts are scheduled according to their age
starting with from youngest to the oldest debts. This will assist in the calculation of bad debts,
where the older debts are given a higher probability of bad debt, as well to determine those older
debts that may not be collectible.
A provision for bad debts is an estimation for bad debts on the balance of debtors at the end of
the financial period.
-This bad debts provision expense attempts to allow as accurate as possible a calculation for bad
debts for the year in which the debt occurred.
-It also allows for as accurate a figure for debtors at the date of the balance sheet.
Accounting entries for Bad Debts and Provision for Bad Debts
Both Bad debts and Provision for bad Debts are expenses and are therefore entered to Profit and
Loss Account. However, only Provision for bad debts is entered to the balance sheet.
Below is an example
Enter up the Bad Debts account, Provision for Doubtful Debts Account, The Profit and Loss
Account extracts, and Balance Sheet extracts for the relevant years from the table below.
Provision for Depreciation
(2) The allocation of the cost of assets to periods in which the assets are used (depreciation with
the matching principle).
Causes of depreciation
The former affects values of businesses and entities. The latter affects net income. Generally the
cost is allocated, as depreciation expense, among the periods in which the asset is expected to be
used. Such expense is recognized by businesses for financial reporting and tax purposes.
Methods of computing depreciation may vary by asset for the same business. Methods and lives
may be specified in accounting and/or tax rules in a country. Several standard methods of
computing depreciation expense may be used, including straight line, and reducing balance
methods. Depreciation expense generally begins when the asset is placed in service.
Factors to consider when calculating depreciation
Depreciation is the gradual decrease in the economic value of the fixed assets of a business,
either through physical depreciation, obsolescence or changes in the demand for the services of
the asset in question.
While depreciation expense is recorded on the income statement of a business, its impact is
generally recorded in a separate account and disclosed on the balance sheet as accumulated
depreciation, under fixed assets, according to most accounting principles. Accumulated
depreciation is known as a contra account, because it separately shows a negative amount that is
directly associated with another account.
There are several methods for calculating depreciation, generally based on either the passage of
time or the level of activity (or use) of the asset.
-Straight-line Method
Straight-line depreciation is the simplest and most-often-used technique, in which the company
estimates the disposal value of the asset at the end of the period during which it will be used to
generate revenues (useful life) and will expense a portion of original cost in equal increments
over that period. The disposal value is an estimate of the value of the asset at the time it will be
sold or disposed of; it may be zero or even negative. Disposal value is also known as scrap value
or residual value.
Depreciation may be given as a fixed percentage annually and may be applied on cost in the first
year, but in subsequent years applied on the reduced balance or net book value of the previous
year. This method is called the reducing balance method.
Below is an Example
A motor van was bought on January 1, 2009 for $10 000. It has an estimated life of ten years
with an annual depreciation of 10% straight line method. Calculate the annual depreciation for
2009 to 2011 and make entries to Provision for Depreciation AccountMotor Van, and Balance
Sheet.
Quiz
Question 1
Sam Browns accounting period is from January 1 to December 31. The following provides
information for three periods.
Year Debtor Balances Provision for Doubtful Debts
2000 20,000 5%
2001 30,000 6%
2002 25,000 4%
Required:
Write up the Provision for Doubtful Debts Account for each of the three years ending December
31 2000 to 2002.
Solution
Question 2
Novelty Chemicals bought a Motor Vehicle for $110,000 on January 5, 2002. The estimated
useful life of the vehicle is ten years. The disposal value is estimated at $10,000. Annual
depreciation is on the straight line method.
Required for years 2002, 2003 and 2004:
(b)The Balance Sheet extracts for motor vehicle and its related depreciation.
Solution
Question 3
The Trial balance of Wholesome Groceries as at December 31, 2005 is shown below.
Notes:
1. The Trading and Profit and Loss account for the period ending December 32, 2005
Solution
1.
2.
Control Systems
All accounting information systems have controls or checks in place to ensure accounting errors
and irregularities are minimized. Given the division of the accounting function carried out by
various persons these controls become very relevant to ensure the accounting system is working
in harmony.
Common control systems include:
-Suspense Accounts
-Control Accounts
A Trial Balance is said to be a statement of proof done arithmetically to prove that proper double
was observed in making accounting entries. The assumption is that the Trial balance totals will
not agree whenever there is an accounting error. There are several errors in fact which will not
affect the agreement of the trial balance totals. This means that there are two basic types of
accounting errors:
The correction of all accounting errors must be journalized by way of the General Journal.
Accounting errors not detected by the trial balance are listed below:
Error of Omission this occurs when a transaction is completely left out or omitted from the
accounting entries.
-Accounting Error: Credit purchases of goods $100.from Al Binno omitted from the records.
-Accounting Error: Cash of $200 received from debtor V. Green entered correctly to cash but
incorrectly to W. Greens account.
The error will need to be corrected in W. Greens account and entered correctly to V. Greens
account.
-Accounting Error: Cash of $400 paid for motor expenses correctly credited to cash account but
incorrectly debited to motor van account.
The incorrect entry will need to be subtracted from motor van account and correctly entered to
motor expense account.
-Accounting Error: Purchases account is overcast or overstated by $500; while $500 is omitted
from the rent account.
An account is said to be overcast when its total is in excess of the correct amount, and under-cast
when the total is less than the correct amount.
$500 will need to be deducted from the purchases account and $500 added to the rent account.
Error of Original Entry With this type of error the accounts are entered correctly except with
the wrong figures.
-Accounting Error: Cash drawings of $1000 entered to both Cash and Drawings accounts as
$100.
-Accounting Error: Cash Payment for Furniture $77 debited to Cash account and credited to
Furniture account.
The values of the entries to make corrections will need to be doubled. This is because the first
entry is to correct the mistake and the second entry represents the actual entry.
Transposition Error A Transposition Error occurs when entries are made to the correct
account but the figures are not entered in the correct order.
-Accounting Error: Goods $25.returned inwards from W. Wugget entered to both accounts as
$52.
When the trial balance totals do not agree and the errors cannot be found immediately the
difference is put to an interim account until the errors are located. Since the errors are put to
suspense the account is refereed to as a Suspense Account. The suspense account balance is
entered in the Trial Balance on the same side of the balance in the suspense account.
If the errors are not located by the end of the financial period, then the suspense account will be
entered in the Balance Sheet. Whenever the errors are located they are taken from the Suspense
Accounts and corrected in the account containing the error.
Below is an example:
The trial balance at December 31, 2009 for Wally West showed a difference reflecting a shortage
of $100 on the credit side. A suspense account is opened and the difference of $100 is put to the
credit side of the account. Net Profit was calculated to be $20,000.
March 5 of 2010 the following errors were found from the previous years errors.
(b) Cash sales $550 entered correctly to cash account but incorrectly entered to sales account as
$500.
(c) Drawings from bank $750 entered correctly to drawings account, but omitted from bank
account.
(d) Cash received from a debtor D. Marvin $1200 is correctly entered to cash account, but
credited to D. Marvins account as $1900.
The Effect of Accounting Errors on Final Accounts
Where accounting errors represent items normally entered for Final Accounts then the original
incorrect profit figure would need to be adjusted to calculate the correct figure for profit. A
statement of Corrected Net Profit would be prepared to calculate the correct profit.
A statement of corrected Net Profit for the above error is illustrated below
Control Accounts
A Trial Balance is said to be a statement of proof done arithmetically to prove that proper double
was observed in making accounting entries. The assumption is that the Trial balance totals will
not agree whenever there is an error. With the division of accounting records into different books
of entries it becomes difficult to identify a specific accounting error due to the number of books
to search. What is needed is a form of Trial balance for each ledger so that only those ledgers
with errors need searching. This simplifies the accounting work. This need is met by Control
Accounts.
A Control Account is a general ledger account that provides summarized information on the
detailed balances of the individual records maintained in a subsidiary ledger. Subsidiary Ledgers
provide the detail information about what makes up the balance in the control account.
-Assist in locating errors example in books like the sales ledger and purchases ledger.
Two of the most common Control Accounts are Sales Ledger Control Accounts and Purchases
Ledger Control Accounts. After posting all transactions the balance of the Control Account and
the sum of the detailed records in the Subsidiary Ledger should always be the same. In other
words, a control account deals with summarized information while a subsidiary ledger deals with
detailed information. Because the control accounts contain summarized information they are
also called total accounts. Therefore a control account for a Sales Ledger can be called a Sales
ledger Control accounts or Total Debtors Account. A control account for a Purchases Ledger can
be called a Purchases Ledger Control account or a Total Creditors Account.
The closing balances on the sales ledger control accounts should be equal to the sum total of the
closing balances on the individual debtor accounts in the sales ledger. It follow as well that the
closing balances on the purchases ledger control accounts should be equal to the sum total of the
closing balances on the individual creditor accounts in the purchases ledger. If the respective
balances are not in agreement then it would suggest some form of irregularity in the records
which would need investigation.
Bank Reconciliation Statement
The bank columns of the cashbook records money paid out and received by the business bank
account. Both the bank and business concerned should have identical records of these
transactions since both records refer to the same transactions. The bank will regularly send to the
business concerned a copy of its related transactions. This is called a bank statement.
The business will check its cash book bank entries against the entries in the bank statement. The
differences found many times are due to:
-Fraud
-The difference in time when the entries to the cashbook of the business and the banks records
are made; most of the time it is due to this third factor.
Items which may cause a time difference in making entries to the cash book and the banks
records
Unpresented Cheques
These are cheques paid out and recorded by the business but have not been received by the bank
for payment. Unpresented cheques will therefore be found on the payment side of the cashbook
but not on the bank statement.
Late Lodgements
These are cheques received and recorded in the cashbook by the business which have not been
lodged, or were lodged late, so were not entered on the bank statement. Late Lodgements will be
found on the receipts side of the cashbook but not on the bank statement.
Standing Orders
A business may instruct its bank to make regular payments to stated entities on its behalf. These
would have been entered on the banks records first and would therefore be found on the
payment side of the bank statement but not in the cash book of the business.
Direct Debits
These represent payments where the creditor is given permission to withdraw the payments
directly from business bank account. These would first be recorded by the bank. Direct Debits
are found on the payment side of the bank statement but not in the cash book.
Bank Charges
These represent payments of the business for some services provided by the bank. These
payments would automatically be withdrawn from the business account by the bank so would
first be on the banks records. Bank Charges would be found on the payment side of the bank
statement but not in the cash book.
Credit Transfers
These represent funds transferred to the business bank account from another account through the
banking system. This would first be entered on the banks records. Credit Transfers are found on
the receipts side of the bank statement but not in the cash book.
Dishonoured Cheques
If a cheque is received by the business and lodged to the bank but later discovered by the bank to
have some irregularity, the bank will not accept the cheque. This dishonoured cheque would first
be recorded by the bank. Dishonoured cheques will be found on the payment side of the bank
statement but not in cashbook of the business.
Below is an example:
The bank columns in the cash book for May 2011 and the bank statement for the same month for
C. White are shown below.
You are required to:
(a) Update the cashbook with the correct balance as on May 31, 2011
(b) Draw up a bank reconciliation statement, reconciling the corrected cash book balance with
the bank statement balance.
Quiz
Question 1
-There was a bank overdraft of $626 which was entered in error in the bank account as $662.
-A discount received of $474 was entered in the cash book but was not entered in S. Riddick
account who was a creditor.
-A credit sale of $2,000 to G. Jones had been omitted from the accounts.
-A machine bought for cash $1,000 as a fixed asset was entered to Purchases book.
Required:
3. Enter in Suspense account the figure which represented the original difference in the Trial
Balance.
Solution
1.
2.
3.The figure which represented the original difference in the Trial Balance is $1033.
Question 2
The following Details were extracted from the books of Angene Bisor;
2007
Required:
(A)Enter up the Sales Ledger Control accounts and The Purchases Ledger Control Accounts for
October 2007.
(B)From which books would the total of Credit Sales, Discount allowed, and Returns Inwards be
taken.
Solution
(A)
(B)
Question 3
The Following is a summary of the bank account in the Cash Book of X. Wethernorth for the
month of April 2001.
You are informed that:
-Bank charges of $70 shown on the bank statement have not been entered in the cash book.
-Four cheques in the sums of $100, $150, $125 and $175 have not been presented to the bank
-A Standing Order for Utilities of $200 was paid by the bank but not entered to the cash book.
-A customers cheque for $400 was returned by the bank marked refer to drawer. No entry was
made in the cash book.
-The bank did not credit Wethernorths current account with a lodgement of $ 2,500 made on
April 30 2001.
-Two customers D. Mark and F. Garvey deposited $200 and $300 respectively directly into the
current account of Wethernorth.
Required:
(b)Prepare a Bank Reconciliation Statement as at April 30, 2001 to show the Bank Statement
balance.
Solution
Mock Exam
Question 1
Solution
Question 4
Solution