Andi Zeneli - Sumerian Hurrian Etymological Dictionary

Sumerian Hurrian Etymological Dictionary
By Andi Zeneli
SUMER
In the beginning, all roads lead to Sumer; until recently, it was the earliest recorded civilization
(currently, the oldest extant documents are from Egypt). The Sumerians were a non-Semitic people.
The remains show them to be generally short and stocky, with high, straight noses and downward
sloping eyes. Many wore beards, but some were clean-shaven. Most, though, looked like Francis
Shaeffer, with a clean-shaven upper lip, but a beard around the chin.
They wore fleece and finally woven wool. The women draped the garment from the left shoulder,
while the men bound it at their waists and left the upper half of their body bare.
Styles changed gradually over time, and later on, the male clothing moved up toward the neck, at
least among the upper class. Slaves, from beginning to end, both male and female, went about naked
from the waist up, however.
On their heads, the Sumerians wore a cap; on their feet, they wore sandals; wealthy women
sometimes wore shoes of soft leather, lacking heels, that they laced up.
Bracelets, necklaces, anklets, finger rings and ear rings made the women of Sumer into show
windows of their husband's prosperity.
When the civilization of Sumer was already a thousand years old, around 2300 BC, we find
written accounts of creation, a primitive paradise, and a flood that destroyed the world:
After Anu, Enlil, Enki, and Ninhursag

had fashioned the black-headed people,
Vegetation sprang from the earth,
Animals, four-legged creatures of the plain,
Were brought artfully into existence
[37 lines are unreadable]
After the....of kingship had been lowered from heaven
After the exalted crown and the throne of kingship
Had been lowered from heaven,
He perfected the rites and exalted the divine ordinances...
He founded the five cities in pure places,...
Then did Nintu weep like a....
The pure Inanna set up a lament for its people,
Enki took council with himself,
Anu, Enlil, Enki, and Ninhursag....
The gods of heaven and earth uttered the name of Anu and Enlil
Then did Ziusudra, the king, the priest of...,
Build a giant...;
Humbly obedient, reverently he...
Attending daily, constantly he...,
Bringing forth all kinds of dreams, he...,
Uttering the name of heaven and earth, he...[...]
the gods a wall...,
Ziusudra, standing at its side, listened.
"Stand by the wall at my left side...,
By the wall I will say a word to you,
Take my word,
Give ear to my instructions:
By our...a flood will sweep over the cult-centers;
To destroy the seed of mankind...,
Is the decision, the word of the assembly of the gods.
By the word commanded by Anu and Enlil...,
Its kingship, its rule will be put to an end.
[about 40 lines missing]
All the windstorms, exceedingly powerful,
Attacked as one,
At the same time, the flood sweeps over the cult-centers.
After, for seven days,
the flood sweeps over the cult centers.
After, for seven days and seven nights,
The flood had swept over the land,
And the huge boat had been tossed
About by the windstorms on the great waters,
Utu came forth, who sheds light on heaven and earth,
Ziusudra opened a window of the huge boat,
The hero Utu brought his rays into the giant boat.
Ziusudra, the king,
Prostrated himself before Utu.
Utu is the Sun god, equivalent to Akkadian Shamash. The translation above is based on the
translation by Poebel in ANET. The text was found in Nippur.
The Sumerians formulated lists of their ancient kings, and gave them extremely long reigns. The
time before the flood was said to be a period of 432,000 years. Two kings from after the flood that are
listed were Gilgamesh and Tammuz. Legends told about these two kings were so impressive that
Tammuz entered the pantheon of Babylon and later became known as Adonis to the Greeks.
Gilgamesh became the hero of the Babylonian epic poem which bears his name, and which also
contains an account of the flood. Until recently, these king lists and the names in them were thought to
be purely fanciful. But in the 1930's, Sir Leonard Woolley, while excavating a building at Ur on the
Ubaid level, found an inscription indicating that the structure had been erected by the son of the
founder of the First Dynasty of Ur, a person up till that time regarded as fiction.
Gilgamesh, too, has been found to be a real person, with inscriptions telling of the buildings he
built.
The earliest written documents were found in Uruk and are dated to 3100 BC. These texts are not
deciphered and perhaps are not decipherable. Fifty to seventy percent of the signs cannot be
recognized at all, and so defy analysis.
Those few signs that are recognizable appear to be logographic. There are none that represent
syllables. There are no grammatical markers. There are no mood markers. Those handful that can be
puzzled out take the form:
5 sheep PN receive.
Therefore, the best guess is that these earliest documents are mostly administrative and
economic in nature.
When the signs are examined, they are clearly mostly abstract: that is, they have lost their
supposed original pictographic form. This implies that these earliest of known tablets do not represent
the first attempts at writing; the nature of the writing on them indicates considerable previous evolution
in the writing system. These tablets are simply the earliest that have so far been discovered, nothing
more.
History of the Sumerian Language
Archaic Sumerian (c. 3000-2600 BC)
The first Sumerian literary texts are dated to 2600 BC, including a number of hymns and even
some proverbs. Remember, this does not mean that they were not writing literary texts before 2600
BC, it is only that none have been discovered earlier than this, yet. At the end of each of these literary
tablets we find a statement as follows:
"PN wrote this tablet."

What is particularly significant about this is that although the inscriptions are written in Sumerian,
the names of the scribes are already SEMITIC. Already, at the earliest examples of Sumerian texts
that have survived, we are at the place where we are witnessing the beginning of the end of Sumerian
power and influence.
The language of Akkadian (better known to non-specialists by its two dialects, Assyrian and
Babylonian) is already becoming increasingly important.
Classical (Old) Sumerian (c. 2600-2300 BC)
Most texts of this period were uncovered at Lagash. They fall into several different types or
genres, among which are:
1. Administrative texts
2. Inscriptions
3. Letters
Neo-Sumerian (c. 2300-2000 BC)
Beginning about 2334 BC (and lasting till 2154 BC), Sargon established his dynasty of Akkad.
This is the beginning of the submergence of Sumerian. It is hard to say precisely when the Sumerian
language died out as a spoken tongue, but this certainly must be when the decline began. It was, most
likely, a dead language by 2000 BC.
There was a brief revival of the Sumerian language which lasted between 2112 and 2004 BC, the
period of time referred to as the Ur III or Third Dynasty of Ur. Most of the Sumerian tablets that
scholars have to read originated during this period.
Post-Sumerian (c. 2000 BC to 50 AD)
During this final period in the history of the Sumerian language, it was used only in literature; the
native language of those writing these texts was usually Akkadian. Many apparent grammatical errors
can be noted in these late texts.
The Nature of the Sumerian Language
Sumerian apparently was divided into two dialects known as Emegir and Emesal; the language
as a whole, they referred to as Emeku, meaning, "the people's language".
Emesal was "the women's language" while Emegir was "the men's language". We think men and
women have trouble communicating now! How about if we spoke mutually intelligible dialects?
Sumerian is not alone among languages in dividing the language used by men and women or
between upper and lower classes. For instance, in modern Japanese, there is a whole class of
pronouns which are reserved for use by the emperor.
What are the differences between Emegir and Emesal?
1. Phonological: Emesal is more conservative, perhaps representing an earlier stage of the language.
For example:
En - lord (Emegir)
Umun - lord (Emesal)
En is possibly derived from Umun, as follows (in the development of the language over a long
period): Umun > Emen > En. There is not always this sort of relationship between the two dialects,
however.
2. Lexically
Dug - good (Emegir)

Zeb - good (Emesal)
Nin - queen (Emegir)
Gashan - queen (Emesal)
Written Sumerian was not an attempt to reproduce speech. It was not originally designed to
render the spoken language in permanent form. Instead, it was intended as a mnemonic device -- a
method for jogging the memory.
So, for instance, if the scribe wanted to remember to say "He built the temple." he would merely
write "Build Temple".
As a result, it makes it very difficult to understand Sumerian, particularly the oldest texts. The
later texts, written as Sumerian became a dead language are much easier to read because the
language was written less as a mnemonic device and more as a reproduction of speech.
Another problem with the early texts is that the signs were not always written in the proper, but
rather in whatever order was prettiest or best fit the space available. Once again this practice changed
as the language died.
Sumerian is an ergative, agglutinative language. English, by way of contrast, is a nominative-
accusative language. That is, English uses a nominative case for the subject of a transitive verb or
intransitive verb and an accusative case for the direct object.
Sumerian is an ergative language. That is,
1. The subject of a transitive verb is put in the ergative case.
2. The subject of an intransitive verb and the direct object of a transitive verb both get put into the
absolute case.
Example:
Lugal.e e.0 munandu

The king a house he builds
Lugal.0 i.gin
The king does good
Isolating Language
Analytic
Example: Chinese
Each morpheme is expressed by a separate word.
Inflecting Language
Combination
Verbs contain within themselves number, gender, and person.
Example: Hebrew, Akkadian, Latin
eqtol - "I will kill"

yiqtol - "he will kill"
tiqtol - "you (m.s.) will kill"
Agglutinative
Fusion
Examples: Sumerian, Turkish

Separate morphemes are combined in one word.
namtilanishe -- "For his long life"
Sumer in Sumerian is called Kienger. In Akkadian, it was called Shumeru. This is where the
English designation originates.
From about 3000 BC on the clay tablet records found in the ruins of Ur present an account of the
accessions and coronations, uninterrupted victories and sublime deaths of petty kings who ruled the
city states of Ur, Lagash, Uruk and the rest; the writing of history is a very ancient thing.
One king, Urukagina of Lagash, was a royal reformer, an enlightened despot who issued decrees
aimed at correcting the exploitation of the poor by the rich, and of everybody by the priests.
The high priest, according to one of his edicts, must refrain from "coming into the garden of a
poor mother and taking the wood from it, or gathering tax in fruit from it."
Burial fees were to be cut to one fifth of what they had been; and the clergy and high officials
were forbidden to share among themselves the revenues and cattle offered to the gods.
It was the king's boast that he "gave liberty to his people" and the tablets that come down to us
from this man reveal the oldest known code of laws in history.
The reign of Urukagina of Lagash ended in the normal manner: another king, named Lugal-
Zaggisi invaded Lagash, overthrew Urukagina, and sacked the city.
The temples were destroyed, the citizens were massacred in the streets, and the statues of the
gods were taken away into bondage.
One of the world's earliest known poems, 3800 years old, describes the destruction of Lagash:
My soul sighs in anguish for the city and its precious things;
My soul sighs in anguish for Lagash and its precious things.
The children are in distress in holy Lagash
Because the invader has pressed into the splendid shrine
And stolen away the Exalted Queen from her temple!
O Lady of my desolated city, when will you return?
After Lugal-Zaggisi comes Lugal-Shagengur, Lugal-Kigubnindudi, Ninigi-dubti, Lugal-

Andanukhunga...but we will pass over most of these kings.
Meanwhile, another group of people, Semitic by background -- had built the kingdom of Akkad
under the leadership of Sargon I, who established his capital at Agade, 200 miles northwest of the
Sumerian city states.
A monolith found at Susa portrays Sargon with a long beard, dressed in royal authority. His
origin, despite his end, was not royal. In fact, no father is listed for him, and his mother, from all
indications, was a temple prostitute. Of course, you know what that makes Sargon.
His origins are described this way in a relatively late text:
My humble mother conceived me; in secret she brought me forth. She placed me in a basket boat of
rushes; with pitch she closed my door.
The text goes on to say that, rescued by workmen, he became a cupbearer to the king, grew in
favor and influence, and, as so often happens in these situations, he rebelled and killed his master,
thereby becoming the ruler of Agade.
Sargon I called himself "King of the Universe", but he actually, at that time, ruled only a tiny
corner of Mesopotamia. Historians refer to Sargon I as Sargon the Great, because in the course of his
career he invaded many cities, captured much booth, and left behind many, many widows and
orphans.
Among his victims was Lugal Zaggisi, the king who had overthrown Urukagina and sacked
Lagash. Sargon defeated him and took him away in chains to Nippur.
Sargon marched north, south, east and west, conquering Elam (and washing his weapons in
symbolic triumph in the Persian Gulf, crossing western Asia, reaching the Mediterranean, establishing
the first great empire in recorded history.
He ruled for a total of fifty-five years.
In the end, his empire was in revolt.

Three sons succeeded him in turn; the third, Naram-sin, was a great builder, but the only things
left of his building projects are a few scattered bricks with his inscription on them, reminding one of the
poem Ozimandius.
By the twenty-sixth century BC, Lagash was once again flourishing under an enlightened
monarch named Gudea. He was a short, plump, right jolly old elf...He was not known as a great
warrior. Instead, he was noted for his literature and his piety; that is, he built a lot of temples.
In one of his inscriptions he writes:
During seven years the maidservant was the equal of her mistress, the slave walked beside his
master, and in my town the weak rested by the side of the strong.
The sentiment expressed is good, but chances are the reality, just as it is in the mouths of our
current crop of politicians, is probably somewhere else.
Meanwhile, Ur was experiencing one of its most prosperous epochs. Its greatest king, Ur-Engur,
brought all of western Asia under his control and he promulgated for all Sumer the second oldest code
of laws in history (that we know of).
"By the laws of righteousness of Shamash forever I establish justice."
He beautified Ur with new temples and built lavishly in the subject cities of Larsa, Uruk and
Nippur.
His son, Dungi, continued his work through a reign of fifty-eight years. He ruled so wisely, at least in
retrospect, it is claimed that his people ultimately deified him as the god who had restored their ancient
paradise.
But soon the Elamites from the east and the Amorites from the east and the Amorites from the
west swept down upon Ur, captured its king, and plundered the city.
For two hundred years Elam and Amor ruled Sumer. When speaking of something lasting 200
years 4000 years ago, it seems like a short time, particularly since we don't have detailed records. But
try to put it into our present context: this is a period equal to the age of the United States, a period in
which many lifetimes passed.
After two hundred years, in 2123-2075, 1728-1686 , or 1792-1750

, Hamurrapi, king of Babylon, came from the north. He retook from the Elamites the cities of Uruk and
Isin; he bided his time for twenty-three years, then invaded Elam itself; he captured its king,
established his sway over Amor and distant Assyria, and built an empire of unprecedented power, and
disciplined it with a universal law.
From this time till the rise of Persia, the Semites would rule the land between the two rivers (i.e.
Mesopotamia). Of the Sumerians, nothing more is heard. Their little chapter in the book of history is
finally complete. But Sumerian civilization remained. The culture of the southern cities passed north
along the Euphrates and Tigris to Babylonia and Assyria as the initial heritage of Mesopotamian
civilization.
ECONOMIC LIFE OF SUMER
The basis of Sumerian culture: soil made fertile by the annual overflow of the rivers swollen with
the winter rains. The overflow was perilous as well as useful. The Sumerians learned to channel it
safely through irrigation canals that crisscrossed their land.
This irrigating system, dating from 4000 BC, was one of the great achievements of Sumerian
civilization and certainly its foundation.
Out of these carefully watered fields came great crops of wheat, barley, dates and many
vegetables.
The plow appeared early, drawn by oxen.
The Sumerians made some use of copper and tin, and occasionally mixed them to produce
bronze. Now and then -- very rarely -- they made implements of iron. Still, metal of any kind was
something of a luxury and a rarity. Theirs was basically a stone-age civilization.
Most Sumerian tools were made of flint. Some, like the sickles for cutting the barley were made of
clay. Certain finer articles, such as needles and awls were made of ivory or bone.
Weaving was done on a large scale under the supervision of overseers appointed by the king.
Socialism is not a recent development.
Houses were made of reeds, usually plastered with an adobe mixture of clay and straw
moistened with water and then baked by the sun. These huts had wooden doors, revolving on sockets
made of stone. The floors were beaten earth.
Cows, sheep, goats, and pigs roamed about the dwellings, living with the people.
Goods were carried chiefly by water upon the canals. Land transportation was gradually
developing, however. Here and there in the ruins are business seals bearing indications of traffic with
Egypt and India.
There was no coinage yet. Trade was normally conducted by bartering, though gold and silver
were already in use as standards of value and were often accepted in exchange for goods --
sometimes in the form of ingots and rings of definite worth, more generally in quantities measured by
weight in each transaction.
Look at Genesis 23:14-16:
Ephron answered Abraham, "Listen to me, my lord; the land is worth four hundred shekels of
silver, but what is that between me and you? Bury your dead."
Abraham agreed to Ephron's terms and weighed out for him the price he had named in the
hearing of the Hittites: four hundred shekels of silver, according to the weight current among the
merchants.
A system of credit existed by which goods, gold or silver, might be borrowed, interest to be paid
in the same material as the loan, and at rates ranging as high as 33% per year. And you thought high
credit card rates were a recent innovation!
Rich and poor were stratified into many classes and gradations; slavery was highly developed,
and property rights were sacred.
Between the rich and the poor, a middle class took form, composed of small-business men,
scholars, physicians, and priests.
Medicine flourished and claimed a specific treatment for each and every disease.
A calendar of uncertain age and origin divided the year into twelve lunar months, adding an extra
month every three or four years to reconcile the calendar with the seasons (just like the Hebrew
calendar of the Old Testament and of modern Judaism).
Each city gave its own names to the months.
And indeed, each city, as long as it could, maintained a jealous independence and indulged itself
a private king, called an Ensi.
However, by 2800 BC, the growth of trade made such municipal separation impossible, and
generated "empires" in which some dominating personality subjected the cities and their Ensis to his
power.
The despot lived in an atmosphere of violence and fear. At any moment he might be dispatched
by the same method he had used to get the throne in the first place.
The despot lived in an inaccessible palace, whose two entrances were so narrow that only one
person could enter at a time.
To the right and left were recesses in which guards could examine every visitor, or else pounce
on him with daggers if he were unacceptable.
In ancient times, wars were waged honestly and frankly for the purpose of obtaining commercial
routes and goods. There were no euphemisms about making the world "safe for democracy" or any
similar claptrap.
In the empires that came and went social order was maintained through a feudal system. After a
successful war the ruler gave tracts of land to his valiant chieftains, and exempted such estates from
taxation. These men kept order in their territories and provided soldier and supplies for the never
ending exploits of the king.
Finances of the government were obtained by taxes in kind, stored in royal warehouses, and
distributed as pay to officials and employees of the state.
RELIGION AND MORALITY
King Ur-engur proclaimed his code of laws in the name of the great god Shamash; government
had, at the very start of human civilization, recognized the political expediency of gaining heaven's
blessing for its actions.
Since they came in handy, gods became innumerable. Every city and state, every human activity
had some inspiring and disciplinary divinity to help legitimize the human government.
Sun worship expressed itself in the cult of Shamash, the "light of the gods", who passed the
nights in the depth of the north, until Dawn opened its gates for him; then he mounted the sky like a
flame, driving his chariot over the steeps of the firmament; the sun was merely the wheel of his fiery
chariot.
Nippur built great temples to the god Enlil and his consort Ninlil.
Uruk worshipped especially the virgin earth goddess Innanna (later known to the Semites of
Akkad as Ishtar -- from which is derived the name Esther and the English word "star"); she was the
goddess of love, or more properly, lust.
Kish and Lagash worshipped Ninkarsag, a powerful mother goddess who grieved with the
unhappiness of men and interceded for them with sterner deities.
Ningirsu was the god of irrigation, the "Lord of Floods."

Abu or Tammuz was the god of vegetation.
Sin -- the god of the moon.
The air was full of spirits -- beneficent angels, one each as protector to every Sumerian, and
demons or devils who sought to expel the protective deity and take possession of body and soul.
These were concepts that would find their way ultimately into Persion theology, and then even into
popular Christian theology.
Most of the gods lived in the temples, where they were provided with revenue, food, and wives.
Life after death was conceived of as a dark abode of miserable shadows, to which all the dead
descended indiscriminately.
Women were attached to every temple, some as domestics, some as concubines for the gods or
their duly constituted representatives on earth.
Marriage was a complex institution regulated by many laws. The bride kept control of the dowry
given her by her father in marriage, and though she held it jointly with her husband, she alone
determined its bequest.
She exercised equal rights with her husband over their children.
In the absence of the husband or a grown son, she could administer the estate, including her
home.
She could engage in business independently of her husband, and could keep or dispose of her
own slaves.
But in all crises, the man was lord and master. Under certain circumstances he could sell his wife,
or hand her over as a slave to pay his debts.
The double standard was already in force, as a corollary of property and inheritance. Adultery in
the man was a forgivable whim; in the woman, it was punished with death.
She was expected to give many children to her husband and the state. If she was barren, then
she could be divorced for that reason alone; if she claimed she didn't want to have any more children,
the husband could have her executed by drowning.
Children had no legal rights; their parents, simply by the publicly disowning them, could have
them banished from the community.
Proto-North Caucasian: * a _E ( - -,-o -)

Sino-Caucasian etymology:
Meaning: to be ill, feel pain
Proto-Nakh: *l-ac-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *c:i-n-
Proto-Lak: cu-
Proto-Dargwa: * ic:-
Proto-Lezghian: * ac:a
Proto-Khinalug: c -t
Proto-West Caucasian: *V
Notes: A rather widely represented common NC root. The etymology on the whole
seems quite satisfactory, but there are some irregularities: in PD we would rather
expect *z, not *c:. We may think that the root consonant here was expressively
geminated (PD * izz- > * icc:-), and indeed we see traces of this gemination in Ak.
izz-es, izz-ala. It is even possible that the gemination occurred as early as in Proto-
Darg.-Lezg. - cf. a quite analogous gemination in Rut. =dda- (normally -d- would be
expected).
Cf. also Hurr. azz-u/o 'tabooed, impure, sinful, sick (or the like)', see
Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 40.
See Abdokov 1983, 136.
Note:
Sumerian
azag [TABOO] (6x: Old Babylonian) wr. azag "taboo, forbidden thing" Akk. asakku
Proto-North Caucasian: * ilsV

Meaning: tower
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * isV
Proto-Tsezian: * z(:)
Proto-Lak: isu
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Although not very widely spread (attested
only in four languages), the root is no doubt archaic. Medial -l- is reconstructed on
basis of PC nasalisation, and is well confirmed by the HU parallel: Hurr. il -iri
'boundary mark of the universe (provided with a watch-tower)', see Diakonoff-
Starostin 1986, 42).
Note:
Akkadian origin:
dubla [TOWER] (28x: Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. dub-la2 "gate tower" Akk. idu; tublu
Proto-North Caucasian: * ima(n)-

Meaning: to stay, to be
Proto-Lezghian: * ima
Proto-Khinalug: =m
Notes: A Lezg.-Khin. isogloss. There are no traces of this archaic root in other EC
languages, but there is a good HU parallel: Hurr. mann-, Ur. man- 'to be' (see
Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 21).
Proto-North Caucasian: * ir _wVr ( --)

Meaning: to kill, to slaughter
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * : ar- (-o-)
Proto-Lezghian: * ir : r-
Proto-Khinalug: =uk-
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Cf. also Hurr. u/oll- 'to perish' (caus. 'to
destroy'), see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 51. The root may be ultimately related to
*=i w E 'to kill' (q.v.).
Proto-North Caucasian: * r jc_we (-a )

Meaning: hind, bottom
Proto-Nakh: *=ist
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *ris: i
Proto-Tsezian: *r s: (*l-,-s)
Proto-Lezghian: * ajs:a (-s-)
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Although in PN we have a stem with
changing class prefixes, it is probably secondary: a result of treating *d- in PN *dist
"(lower) end" (cf. Chech., Ing. dist) as a class prefix. All other data point to a
protoform with the initial cluster * r-.
Cf. also Hurr. taw-a l 'bottom, lower part' (with t- regularly < *r-), see Diakonoff-
Starostin 1986, 29.
Proto-North Caucasian: * V V
Meaning: prince, master
Proto-Nakh: * i
Notes: Among modern languages the root is attested only within Nakh (an old
borrowing from Nakh or some close language is probably Arch. hal-lu / hal 'master').
However, the root is no doubt archaic, because it has interesting parallels in HU:
Hurr. all-ae 'princess, queen', *allae- 'household' (borrowed in Arm. a x 'family,
household', allae- i-nn 'housewife' ( > Arm. a axin 'serving woman, female slave');
Ur. al-ae 'master, ruler', al-awe 'great'. See Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 50.
The HU forms with the *- -suffix (voiced in Hurr. - -) are particularly interesting,
because it seems that they were borrowed back into EC languages with the meaning
'slave': cf. Av., Cham. la , Darg. la , Lak. la ( > Arch. (Mikailov) la -t:u 'obedient'),
Tind. la a, Akhv., Kar. la e, God. la i 'slave', PL *la > Arch. lo (erg. laha) 'child'.
Proto-North Caucasian: * w rw
Meaning: skin; colour
Proto-Nakh: * rcu
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * i(r)i
Proto-Lezghian: * w(r)
Proto-West Caucasian: *c a
Notes: Cf. also Hurr. a i 'skin' (regularly < *arci, see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 47).
An interesting common NC root. The original meaning is obviously "skin" > "surface,
exterior, color" > (change of color = ) "anger, anxiety". The whole spectre of
meanings is present both in EC and in WC languages.
See Abdokov 1983, 76 (Shakhdagh-WC; all other EC forms cited by the author do
not belong here).
Proto-North Caucasian: *- wV-

Meaning: conditional
Proto-Nakh: *-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-wa-
Notes: Cf. Hurr. -ewa-, Urart. -eja- 'conditional' (also -l-ewa-, -l-eja- = Tind. - -uwa-).
Proto-North Caucasian: * m
Meaning: apple; medlar
Proto-Nakh: *amc ( --)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * imi
Proto-Tsezian: * : A
Proto-Lak: hiw
Proto-Dargwa: *hinc
Proto-Lezghian: *m
Proto-Khinalug: m
Proto-West Caucasian: *bVc: V
Notes: Cf. also Hurr. in -ur "apple" (borrowed in Arm. as n or), see Diakonoff-
Starostin 1986, 24. A very widely spread common NC root. The PWC form has a
frequent prefixed *b(V)-. The original meaning could have been not "apple", but
"medlar" (cf. the semantic correspondence between PN and PWC), with later
semantic change (medlars look very much like small apples). Note that PN *
'apple' should be quite definitely kept apart (PN * can not be derived from * in any
possible way); see *HV wE .
Despite Abdokov 1983, 110 the PEC forms can not be related to PWC *mIa
'apple'.
Note:
Sumerian
hahur [APPLE] (575x: ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Old Babylonian, unknown)
wr. ehahur; hahur; ha-u-ur2; eha-u-ur2 "apple (tree)" Akk. hahru
Proto-North Caucasian: *- -
Meaning: in empty series
Proto-Nakh: *-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-0-
Proto-Tsezian: *- V
Proto-Lak: -w-
Proto-Dargwa: *- I- ( --)
Proto-Lezghian: *- -
Proto-West Caucasian: *j -
Notes: Cf. Hurr., Urart. -a 'locative' (without the elision of the preceding vowel).
Proto-North Caucasian: * dV
Meaning: thing; interrogative pronoun
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *[h]idV
Proto-Tsezian: *h dV ( -, -a-)
Proto-Khinalug: de-l
Proto-West Caucasian: *t:V
Notes: Cf. also HU: Hurr. ed 'body, thing', Ur. edi- 'thing' (see Diakonoff-Starostin
1986, 26). It is not quite clear which meaning is original - 'thing' or 'what', because
both are rather widely reflected.
We should also mention a quite isolated form: Lak. ta 'when', which has an
irregular devoiced t-, but possibly reflects the same EC root.
Note:
Sumerian
adda [CORPSE] (425x: ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. adda; adda2;
adx(|LU2@sBAD|); adx(|BAD.LU2|); adx(|LU2GAM|); adx(|LU2@s|); a-
da
addax(|LU2@g.U2|) "corpse; wreck (of a boat)" Akk. pagru; alamtu
Proto-North Caucasian: * e ncE

Meaning: ten
Proto-Nakh: * itt
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *hoco-
Proto-Tsezian: * c (-n ) A
Proto-Lak: ac
Proto-Dargwa: *wec-
Proto-Lezghian: *u_ic -
Proto-Khinalug: j iz
Proto-West Caucasian: *b-c
Notes: A common NC numeral (in WC it is reflected at least in Adygh languages, with
less certainty - also in other subgroups). Reflexes in several EC subgroups reflect
class prefixation (*u- or *j-); in PWC the initial labial also goes back to a class prefix
(with assimilatory labialisation of the following affricate, as in a number of other
cases). See Trubetzkoy 1930, 275; 1983, 156.
In PEC the same root was also used in a contracted shape *-ce - as part of
names of tens, cf.:
PL *-cV- > Tab. -cu-r (simi-cu-r 'thirty'), Rut. -c -r (xib-c -r id.), Tsakh. -ca- (xeb-
ca- id.);
PD *-ca-li > Ak. -ca-li (aIb-ca-li 'thirty'), Chir. aIb-ca-le id.;
Lak. -ca-l (muq -ca-l 'fourty' etc.);
PA *-co- > And. -co-l- ( ob-co-l-gu 'thirty'), Cham. -ca- ( a a-ca-da id.), Tind. -ca-
( aba-ca-ja id.), Kar. -ca-da ( aba-ca-da id.), Botl. -ca-li- (habu-ca-li-da id.), Bagv. -
ca (haba-ca id.), God. -ca-li ( abu-ca-li id.).
Hurrian has replaced the numeral 'ten' by the word eman (of unknown origin), but
has retained the root in ki-i 'thirty' (ki- 'three'); names of other tens are unknown. See
Note:
The use of Sumeria sign umun > u = Hurrian eman 'ten'
bur3
bur [UNIT].
buru3
(see full listing)
burudx(U)
burud [PERFORATE].
ge14
ge [BLOW].
giguru
giguru [EDGE].
puzur (buzur bur3 buru3)
puzur [SECRET].
il3
il [EQUIPMENT].
u4
su [RED].
u [BASKET] (eu4).
u [TOTALITY].
u (u4)
u [COVER].
u [SIXTH].
u (un2)
u [ABUSE].
u [EARTH].
u [FINGER].
u [GIFT].
u [HOLE].
u [TEN].
u [TOTALITY].
umun
en [LORD].
umun [BLOOD].
Proto-North Caucasian: * e r_
Meaning: seven
Proto-Nakh: *wor
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *ho :u-
Proto-Tsezian: * -(n ) A
Proto-Lak: arul
Proto-Dargwa: *war I- (/*war I-)
Proto-Lezghian: *u_ir : -
Proto-Khinalug: jik
Proto-West Caucasian: *b
Notes: A very stable common NC numeral. It is also attested in HU: although the
normal Hurr. word for 'seven' is itta- (a Semitic loanword), the old root may be
discovered in Hurr. fr ( < *wa(H)er-) "the seven stars, the Pleiades" (see
Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 20). In most NC subgroups (including HU) this numeral
reveals a reflex of the old class marker *u_- (*u_ e r_ ); labial *b- in PWC is
also a trace of the class prefix. Special phonetic comments: in Lak. arul < * arl-
(insertion of a parasitic vowel between two liquids); the uvular reflex in PD is due to
the lost laryngeal; in PWC palatalisation of * is secondary (there does not exist a
non-palatalised *L in PWC). Otherwise all correspondences are regular.
See Trubetzkoy 1922, 241, 243; 1930, 275; 1983, 152.
Proto-North Caucasian: * werV

Meaning: look, sight
Proto-Nakh: *b ar
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *arV ( -o-)
Proto-Lak: =uru-g a-
Proto-Dargwa: *er
Proto-Lezghian: * wVr-
Notes: Cf. also Hurr. fr- ( < HU *wr-) 'to look, see', see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986,
64. An archaic root; not widely represented, probably because in most languages it
merged with * wi l i 'eye'.
Note:
Proto-Semitic: *bVrVy-
Afroasiatic etymology:
Meaning: 'see, examine'
Akkadian: baru^
Arabic: bry [-i-]
Jibbali: ebrer
Notes: Various triliteral derivatives of the original root.
Proto-North Caucasian: * w hri ( -e)

Meaning: troops, army
Proto-Nakh: *b o
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * in- a
Proto-Tsezian: * z: B
Proto-Lak: aIra-l
Proto-West Caucasian: *
Notes: An interesting cultural term, securely reconstructed for PNC. There exist also
HU parallels: Hurr. r-ad , Ur. ur-ad , r-ad 'warrior' (see Diakonoff-Starostin
1986, 63-64).
Note:
Sumerian
ursa [HERO] (750x: ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. ur-sa
"hero" Akk. qarrdu
Proto-North Caucasian: *bHa _i ( - -)

Meaning: young one, young (of animals)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: (?) *ba a (o,- -)
Proto-Tsezian: * apV ( - -)
Proto-Lezghian: *p:aI :
Notes: The PTs (Bezht.) form has undergone a metathesis (* apV (with assimilation)
< * abV < *ba V). It is much more difficult to explain the PA form with *- - (or *- -)
instead of the expected *- :-; reasons for deglottalisation are not at all clear.
The root has probable correspondences in HU: Hurr. pra-(m)mi, Ur. por "slave"
(with a typologically frequent semantic shift and a regular development *-- > -r-), see
Proto-North Caucasian: *bi_ (--,- )

Meaning: moral experience; god
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *bi:i
Proto-Lak: bi:i
Notes: An interesting Lak.-Av. isogloss. Precise meaning is hard to reconstruct, but
the root probably denoted some kind of moral or supernatural experience: cf. also
likely parallels in HU: Hurr. pi -, Urart. pic- 'to be glad, rejoice' (see Diakonoff-
Proto-North Caucasian: *bu l _V (- -)

Meaning: house
Proto-Tsezian: *bu i A
Proto-Lak: bura-lu
Proto-Lezghian: *no : ( - -)
Notes: PL (Arch.) *no : probably reflects an earlier *mo : (with variation *m-/*n-)
which would be a normal reflex of *bu l _V.
Reconstructed for the PEC level; cf. also HU: Hurr. purli, Urart. pur(u)li 'house'
(see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 17). The root is sometimes confused with PEC
*b_V 'shed' q.v., but the two roots should be strictly distinguished.
Proto-North Caucasian: *brV ( --)

Meaning: grey, brown
Proto-Nakh: *bra(-n)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *burV-
Proto-Dargwa: *p:Vr- ( b-) (?)
Proto-Lezghian: *p:orV- ( -u-)
Notes: The word is not very widely spread, and - despite regular correspondences
between languages - may be borrowed (cf. Pers. br 'bay, reddish', Osset. br
'yellow' or Mong. bora 'grey'. Cf. Hurr. pawro 'brown' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986,
18) - which strengthens the EC etymology - but on the other hand, may be itself a
loan from Indo-Iranian *babhru-.
Proto-North Caucasian: *bn_e (-a)

Meaning: eight
Proto-Nakh: *bar (--)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *bi :i-
Proto-Tsezian: *be -(n ) B
Proto-Lak: maIj-
Proto-Dargwa: *k:a-
Proto-Lezghian: *men :-
Proto-Khinalug: ink
Notes: Reconstructed for PEC (however, a possibility should be considered of
comparing this root with PWC *p(:) 'four' q.v.). Lak. maIj- is probably a
transformation of *maIlj- < *mali- (the source of pharyngealization is not clear). In
Khin. the root has been transformed under the influence of the numeral "seven"
(Khin. jik). In Darg. k: is the normal reflex of *; however, the reduction of initial labial
and the source of *-- is not yet clear (maybe *k:a- < *k:aI- is a result of a secondary
transformation of *aIk:- which, in its turn, had been formed under analogy of *-ar I-
'seven' from the original *mak:- ?).
A very probable parallel is Hurr. miri - a numeral from the first ten (it can be either
'five', 'six' or 'eight'). If it denotes 'eight', it matches very well with PEC *bn_e ( >
*m_e > miri with a regular reflex -- > -r-).
See Trubetzkoy 1922, 242.
Proto-North Caucasian: *-bV

Meaning: plural
Proto-Nakh: [*-bi]
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-b-
Proto-Tsezian: *-bV
Proto-Dargwa: *-bi
Proto-Lezghian: *-b-
Proto-Khinalug: -be-r
Notes: Cf. Hurr. -b , Ur. -(i)b 'a collective suffix' (rare).
Proto-North Caucasian: *cH

Meaning: one
Proto-Nakh: *ca
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *ci-
Proto-Tsezian: *h s:
Proto-Lak: ca
Proto-Dargwa: *ca
Proto-Lezghian: *s:a
Proto-Khinalug: sa
Proto-West Caucasian: *zV
Notes: The initial cluster *cH may explain some irregularities in reflexation (the most
severe ones - not explainable by interlingual borrowings - are strengthening *s- > *s:-
in PL and voicing in PWC). It is possible that the monosyllabic structure *cH itself
is a contraction < *c V or * cV - in which case the PTs form should be considered
as the most archaic one. Cf. also (V)- in Urart. (V)-us 'first', as well as HU *suj- >
Hurr. ui(-ne), Urart. uin 'all, every' (cf. a similar semantic development in several
EC languages), see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 38.
See Trubetzkoy 1930, 274; 1983, 153.
Note:
Sumerian
a [ONE] (191x: ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. a "one" Akk. iten
di [ONE] (5x: Old Akkadian, Ur III) wr. di; de-e-u2; di-id; di-t- "one" Akk. itn
eda [ONE] wr. e3-da "one" Akk. itn
Proto-North Caucasian: *cVGVrV

Meaning: shed, penthouse
Proto-Nakh: *c(V) ar ( - -)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *cV VrV
Proto-Khinalug: cuqa
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Not widely attested (therefore the vocalic
reconstruction is not secure), but obviously archaic: cf. Hurr. i-c ar 'kitchen'
(*'subsidiary building'), see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 39.
Proto-North Caucasian: *wi jo

Meaning: man, male
Proto-Nakh: *pstu
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *VjV
Proto-Tsezian: *i-k A/*zi-k A
Proto-Lak: uw
Proto-Dargwa: *s:ub
Proto-Lezghian: *: ij
Proto-West Caucasian: * / *c
Notes: One of very widely spread common NC roots. Correspondences are quite
regular (Nakh *p- reflects labialisation, while *st is a result of the following -j-). There
may have existed an early variant *i wo (or *i wjo) which would account for Nakh
forms without *p- (*st-ak) and the PWC absence of labialisation.
A possible HU parallel is *-s(u)wa in Hurr. tar-(u)wa-nn , Urart. tar-ua-n 'man,

human being' (where *tar- is probably connected with *tur- 'male', see *l wV); see
Proto-North Caucasian: *HapV(-lV)

Meaning: left
Proto-Dargwa: *ipil
Proto-Lezghian: *aIpVl-
Notes: A Darg-Lezg. isogloss. The word has a certain resemblance to Pers. ap 'left',
and could be considered as an Iranian loanword (although the phonetic and
morphologic side of this hypothesis raises several objections), if not for an obvious
HU parallel: Hurr. ap al 'left' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 54), which makes the
PEC reconstruction much more reliable.
Sumerian:
gab [LEFT] (52x: Old Akkadian, Old Babylonian) wr. gab2-bu; gab2 "left (hand)"
Akk. umlu
[1] gab2-bu
[2] gab2
Number: 2218
Proto-Semitic: *sîma l- {} *cîma l-
Meaning: left (side, hand)
Akkadian: umlu, umlu 'left side, left hand' OB on [CAD 267], [AHw 1271].
The irregular --/-- (instead of the expected *--) may be explained from the
change *sîma l- > *imi l- > uml- (*-i- > -u- near -m-)
Ugaritic: m al 'die, das Linke' [Aist 307].
To be normalized as i/uma l- ?
Hebrew: s^ m( )l 'left side, left' [KB 1332].
Note -- in s^ m( )l 'left' (adj.) [ibid. 1333], which is usually explained as a

regular reflex of * in an unstressed position (versus -- in s^ m( )l where * is
stressed). It seems more plausible, however, not to connect this discrepancy with
accentual phenomena, but rather to regard the adjective as derived after a different
pattern (probably *CaCaCiyy-, f. y mn 'right' with -a-, which neither can go back
directly to its presumed prototype ymn 'right side')
Judaic Aramaic: s ml 'left side' [Ja 1002].
Orthographically also with both s^ and ( ) [Ja 1591],

[Sok 571]
Syrian Aramaic: s ml 'sinistra', adj. 'sinister' [Brock 481]

Modern Aramaic: HRT umala 'links' [J Hert 199] NASS sim l 'left hand, left side'
[Tser 0148] MMND smla 'left' [M MND 509
Mandaic Aramaic: smal(a) 'left (hand, arm, side)' [DM 332].
Also asmala, smala (with the * a- prefix)
Arabic: iml- 'main gauche' [BK 1 1273], aml- 'co^t gauche' [ibid.]
Mehri: sâym l 'left, left hand' [JM 380]
Jibbali: s^y l 'left-hand, left (direction)' [JJ 253], s^ mli, s^ ml t 'left' [ibid.]
Harsusi: s^mel 'left, left-hand' [JH 120]
Soqotri: s^mhil (s^mhel, s^mel) 'gauche' [LS 430] (also [SSL LS 1473; SSL 4 97])
Notes: Postulating the succession *-a l- in the protoform is the only non-contradictory
way to explain in HBR.
On the possibility of suffixed *-l see Introduction; cf. ARB a mat- 'co^t gauche'
[BK 1 1179], SAB s2 m 'North' [SD 130] and JIB sî (a correct transcription is s^n,
see [SSL 2 247]) 'gauche' quoted in [LS 64] under mhel (influenced, according to
Leslau, by i 'droite', cf. notes to *yamn *yamn-, No. ).
See metathesis with a meaning shift in ARB a amal- 'vent du Nord' (also
am al- do.) [BK 1 1273] and ESA: SAB h-s2 ml 'be northward' [SD 130], MIN
s2 ml-s1 'vers le nord' [LM 85] (note s2m l-s1 quoted [ibid. 86] as a contextual form).
Note BERB *a-z lmad 'left', *z- yielding AFRAS *c^. With three identical root
consonants out of four, though in a metathetic order, and such specific meaning as
'left', the SEM and BERB roots are very likely related; BERB -d in Auslaut, though,
remains unexplained (<*a-z lma -t <*-cîlma -t < metathetic *cîm al-t ?).
[Holma 3]: AKK, HBR, ARB, SYR; [KB 1332]: HBR, UGR, AKK, ARM, ARB, ESA;
[Brock 481]: SYR, ARB, HBR, AKK; [LS 430]: SOQ, MSA, ARB, HBR, SYR, AKK
Proto-North Caucasian: *-V- / *-V-

Meaning: gerund / conditional
Proto-Nakh: *-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: [*-V-l-]
Proto-Tsezian: *-
Proto-Lak: -a
Proto-Lezghian: *-V
Notes: Cf. Hurr. -e, Urart. - 'adverbial modifier'. Perhaps originally two
morphemes, but rather hard to distinguish.
Proto-North Caucasian: *_ rV
Meaning: skin, shell
Proto-Nakh: * r
Proto-Tsezian: * rV ( *:-)
Proto-Lezghian: *:ar(a)
Proto-Khinalug: ar
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Correspondences are regular (some doubts
are raised by PTs *- -: one would rather expect *-o-). Cf. also Hurr. ri(y)-ann
'coat of mail' ( > Akkad. /sirijm, Hebr. sirjn), see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 42.
It is tempting to compare the reconstructed form *_ rV with East Iranian

forms meaning 'coat of mail', 'armour': Osset. z r / sqr, Afg. z ara etc. (see
Abayev 1989, 309), which are etymologically rather obscure. A more recent loan from
Nakh is Osset. car / car 'skin, bark' (see Abayev 1958, 330).
Shagirov (1983, 134) compares the Lezg. forms with some WC forms meaning
'milk'; this is obviously wrong, both for semantic reasons (the meaning 'cream' in
some Lezg. languages is secondary) and for phonetic reasons (see the discussion
under PNC *ra wV).
Proto-North Caucasian: *cwV

Meaning: blood; life
Proto-Nakh: *cgi
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *agV-
Proto-Lezghian: *V : V-
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Although the root is not widely spread
outside Nakh, it is no doubt archaic: cf. Hurr. zur-gi 'blood' (see Diakonoff-Starostin
1986, 44).
Sumerian:
urin [BLOOD] (5x: Old Babylonian) wr. urin; u3-ri2-in "blood" Akk. damu
[1] urin
[2] u3-ri2-in
Proto-North Caucasian: *co cV ( c_)

Meaning: tip, spout
Proto-Nakh: *cuc- ( -o-)
Proto-Lezghian: *coc(a)
Notes: An expressive Nakh-Lezg. isogloss. However, may be archaic: cf. Hurr. zizzi
'mamma, female breast', zizz-u/o , zuzz-u/o 'spouted jar' (see Diakonoff-
Note:
Proto-Semitic: *zz- {} * i -
Meaning: teat
Akkadian: zzu 'breast' NA [CAD z 149], [CAD z 149]
Ugaritic: (?) zd, d_d 'weibl. Brust' [Aist 321; 97].
d_d 'pecho, seno' [DLU 139]; found in some UGR texts in place of a more common
t_d
Hebrew: zz 'udder, nipple' [KB 268]

Modern Arabic: zz-at- 'sein, mamelle' [BK 1 1032] marked as ALG (so also [Dozy 1
619]: "en Barbarie")
Notes: *zd_- {} * - is an alternative reconstruction based on UGR. Since UGR d
may represent SEM *d_, Gordon is probably right in assuming *zd_ as the proto-
form [Gordon 388, 393]; in this case, the ARB example is to be treated as a form with
*-d_ > -z with a full assimilation to the initial z-. Such interpretation of the
contradiction between UGR zd and ARB zz- would look more convincing than the
reconstruction *zz- leaving no coherent explanation of UGR zd, if not for low
compatibility of z and d_ in SEM making their combination in the same root
questionable. Note that, in any case, UGR d_d remains unexplained.
[DLU 139]: UGR, HBR (dad); [KB 268]: HBR, UGR (t_d, d_d, zd), AKK, ARB DIAL
(dd)
Proto-North Caucasian: *c_ V ( -o -)

Meaning: branch; tree
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *c:ilV
Proto-Lezghian: *cal
Proto-West Caucasian: *c la
Notes: The etymology seems plausible both phonetically and semantically (cf. also
*c_lci ). Cf. HU: Hurr. carr- (spelled sar-me) 'wood', also carcarr- ( > Akkad.
lexical gloss sarsaru 'wood, grove'), Urart. car 'orchard' (perhaps > Arm. car 'tree';
see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 44).
NC origin is probable for Osset. c l n / cilin 'besom, broom' (see Abayev 1958,
339).
Proto-North Caucasian: *c_ mbi

Meaning: god; mercy
Proto-Nakh: *cbV
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *c:VbV
Proto-Lak: cimi
Proto-Dargwa: *cum
Notes: An interesting term (reconstructed for the PEC level). Phonetic
correspondences are regular (except for vocalic reflexes in Darg. and Lak., which are
usual for contexts with labialised consonants; perhaps we should attribute it to the
proximity of labial -m-). Cf. also Hurr. a ammi 'image, figure' (= 'idol'), see Diakonoff-
Starostin 1986, 22.
Proto-Semitic: *dmy 1, * a-dVm(-Vt)- 2

Meaning: 'to resemble, be like' 1, 'likeness, shape, image, figure' 2
Akkadian: damtu (dattu) LL 'figure (of a man)'
Hebrew: d mt 'model; shape; something like; likeness', dm 'to be like, resemble'
Aramaic: Eg, Phl, Plm
Judaic Aramaic: d mt() 'resemblance, image, esp. man's divine image' [Ja 312]
Syrian Aramaic: d m 'similis fuit', dm y 'videtur, verisimile est', dumy
'similitudo; imago, figura, forma', d mt 'simulacrum; imago, forma; exemplum'
[Brock 156]
Mandaic Aramaic: DMA 'to be (a)like, resemble', dmu, dmut(a) 'likeness, archetype,
kind, shape, form, portrait, picture' [DM 111]
Arabic: adm- 'modle, example imiter' [BK 1 19]; dumyat- 'figure, statue de
marble; idole; jolie femme', dmy II 'e^. en evidence et visible' [BK 1 736] (likely a loan
from Aram.)
Tigre: dumt 'uncertain outlines of a figure or of an object' [LH 516]
Proto-North Caucasian: *w [] ( *c-)

Meaning: leather strip
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * oli
Proto-Tsezian: *elu A
Proto-Lak: ul
Proto-Lezghian: *ol:a
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Correspondences are regular (except for the
Auslaut: Lak. and Av. suggest PEC *-, which does not correspond to PL *-a). A
possible derivate from this root is Hurr. zl-ud- 'to release, unbind' (see Diakonoff-
[One must also consider the possibility of relating here Darg. Ak. i 'thread' - if it
originally meant 'leather thread or strip'. In this case, however, we would have to
change the cluster - - to -lh- to account for the loss of resonant in Darg. Lak. ul
would then have to be analyzed as a suffixed form (otherwise the regular reflex would
be u, also with loss of -l) - which is not improbable, in view of the mentioned above
discrepancy between the Lak. and PL Auslauts).]
Proto-North Caucasian: *wV lHV (-_-,- -)
Meaning: cheek; mouth
Proto-Lak: aw
Proto-Lezghian: * al(:a)
Proto-West Caucasian: * a
Notes: The comparison seems reliable, although the vocalism is not quite clear.
Sumerian:
kag [MOUTH] (1329x: ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Early Old Babylonian, Old
Babylonian, unknown) wr. ka "mouth" Akk. p
[1] ka (kag2)
Proto-North Caucasian: *_H q wA ( *c_-, -G-)

Meaning: dung, ordure, dirt
Proto-Lezghian: * q I / * q :I
Proto-West Caucasian: *Vq ( *c-)
Notes: A Lezg.-WC isogloss. The comparison is quite satisfactory both phonetically
and semantically. Cf., perhaps, also Akhv. ak:i 'urine' - although this would raise
some semantic and phonetic problems.
Sumerian:
ka [URINE] (4x: Old Babylonian) wr. ka3 "urine" Akk. ntu
See ka sur[urinate].
[1] ka3
Proto-North Caucasian: *-d-

Meaning: frequentative
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-id-
Proto-Tsezian: *-d-
Notes: Cf. also Hurr., Urart. -ed- 'imperfective aspect'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *djV / *ddjV

Meaning: father; mother
Proto-Nakh: *dd(a)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *dadV
Proto-Lak: t:at:a
Proto-Dargwa: *t:ut:e()
Proto-Lezghian: *dadVj
Proto-Khinalug: dd
Proto-West Caucasian: *t:at:V
Notes: A common NC nursery word, used for the most part as a term of endearment.
Similar words are widely spread in many linguistic families, but the addressing form
*dd may well have existed also in PNC (correspondences between subgroups are
basically regular). The root is usually reduplicated (although several languages reflect
a non-reduplicated *djV or a partially reduplicated * djV; cf. also HU: Hurr. at:aj,
Urart. at 'father', see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 25).
This stem certainly was not a basic name for either 'father' (which was most
probably * o bV jV) or 'mother' (* nVjV), but could possibly be used as a term of
endearment for both parents.
Sumerian:
adda [FATHER] (178x: ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Ur III, Early Old Babylonian, Old
Babylonian, unknown) wr. ad-da; ad "father" Akk. abu
[1] ad-da
[2] ad
Proto-North Caucasian: *-dV

Meaning: plural
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-d-
Proto-Tsezian: *-dV
Proto-Lak: -du, -t:u, -r-du, -l-t
Proto-Lezghian: [*-t:-]
Proto-Khinalug: -d- / -t-
Notes: Cf. Ur. -tu 'collective suffix', perhaps also -t- i 'a derivational nominal suffix';
Hurr., Urart. -ar-di 'a collective and abstract suffix'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *-dV

Meaning: general locative
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-di
Proto-Tsezian: *-d
Proto-Dargwa: *-ad
Proto-Lezghian: *-dV
Proto-West Caucasian: *-da
Notes: Cf. Hurr. -ta/-da, Ur. -t (in all. plur. -a-t ) 'directive (allative)'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *dVrq wV
Meaning: he-goat
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *dVq ( )V-n
Proto-Tsezian: *t q VA
Notes: This root is probably reflected also in HU: Hurr. ta 'man, male' (see
Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 26). There is not enough information to reconstruct the
vocalism. *-r- is obligatory in the reconstruction to account for the preservation of
uvular *-q - ( > Av. - -) in Inlaut; without a previous liquid *-q - regularly yields -
k-.
Proto-Semitic: *tay-
Meaning: he-goat
Hebrew: tayi 'billy goat' [KB 1592], pB. 'he-goat; wether' [Ja. 1667]. A rare term used
as a male parallel to z 'she-goat' in Gn 30.35, 32.15 and outside this parallelism in
2Ch 17.11 and Pr 30.31.
Judaic Aramaic: t y, t 'he-goat, wether' [Ja. 1667], tyy 'he-goat' [Sok. 580].
Syrian Aramaic: tay 'hircus' [Brock. 822], [PS 4429].
Arabic: tays- 'bouc (tant domestique que de montagnes)' [BK 1 212], [Fr. I 206],
[Lane 324], [LA VI 33] (see further [Hommel 245]).
Epigraphic South Arabian: tys1 'bouc' [LM 97]. Hapax in MAFRAY-Darb as-Sab 1/14
(b-tys1 w- yl, v. [Sima 143]).
Tigre: tes 'big and fat ram' [LH 311] (also 'male guinea-fowl').
Mehri: tyh '(fully grown) m. goat' [JM 404].
Jibbali: tu id. [JJ 273].
Harsusi: tyeh id. [JH 128].
Soqotri: te 'bouc' [LS 441] (cf. also t eh 'black goat' [JM 404]).
Notes: Akk. dau (tau) 'buck (said of gazelles and goats)' MA, SB on [CAD d 120],
[AHw. 165] is traditionally compared to the present root. Forms with d- are clearly
predominant and attested as early as archaic Mari (v. references in ARMT 19, p. 164)
while the t-form appears only once in a lexical list. While the shift -y- > -- is
conceivable (a curious parallelism with Akk. lau Arb. laysa 'there is not' was
pointed out in [Brock. 822]), word-initial d- is quite unexpected. Sceptical attitude
towards this comparison see in [Sima 143]. Further parallels with d- are sometimes
proposed for this root: Hbr. dn 'aurochs' [KB 221] (hapax in the dietary law Dt
14.5; Sam. dn 'an animal' [Tal 179] is most probably a Hebraism) and Akk. ditnu
(didnu) 'aurochs' SB [CAD d 164], [AHw. 173]. This comparison looked very doubtful
because of the word-middle -t- (-d-) and the meaning difference, but recently
discovered Akk. evidence makes it more attractive. As pointed out in a special study
[Durand 1988], the term UDU.H ti-a-ne (with t-, -- and meaning 'a (wild) ram' and
not 'a (wild) bull'!) appears in lists of exotic animals from Mari. As pointed out by
Durand, a phonetically similar form ti-a-nu-u has long been identified in the Hittite
column of the trilingual lexical list MSL 3 64.11' (= Akk. ku-sa-ri-i - u, Sum. ALIM),
likely representing a borrowing from some Semitic language. According to Durand,
here may also belong the form ti-a-nim in the OB sa- piential text BWL 227 10
(without translation in [AHw. 1362]). Durand does not hesitate to put together dn,
ditnu and tinu without explaining convincingly either the phonetic shifts or the
semantic difference. Further evidence for the reflexation of *tay- in Akkadian comes
from MA and NA where the forms tunu and tenu are attested ('eine Art Bffel ?'
accroding to [AHw. 1352]). CF. A SPECIAL STUDY LION NABU 1991/60 Finally, it
was suggested in [Conti-Bonechi] that Ebl. ti-sa-na (with variants) might be
indentified with tinu in spite of the fact that the Ebl. term denote a kind of jewel (the
authors give further examples of zoomorphic jewels in Ebla). Conti and Bonechi
explicitly relate the Ebla and Mari terms to *tay- 'buck' (*tay-n-um > t-n-um).
[Fron. 29]: *tay- 'capro' (Soq., Arb., Syr., Hbr., Akk. /dau/); [KB 1592]: Hbr., Arm.,
Akk., Arb.; [Brock. 822]: Syr., Arm., Hbr., Akk.; [LS 441]: Soq., MSA, Arb., Hbr., Syr.,
Akk.; [Firmage 1152]: Hbr., Arm., Arb.; [Hommel 245]: *tayu (Arb., Hbr., Arm.);
[Sima 143]: Min., MSA, Hbr., Arm., Arb.
Proto-North Caucasian: *dw

Meaning: stick
Proto-Nakh: *tl
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *dalV
Proto-Lak: t:ala
Proto-Dargwa: *t:ult:V /*t:alt:V
Proto-Lezghian: *t:al
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Correspondences are regular. Cf. also Hurr.
tl 'tree' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 25).
Note:
Sumerian
tulubum [TREE] (42x: ED IIIb) wr. gegul-bu; etu-lu-bu-um; edili-bu-um; gul-bu; edal-bu-
um "Oriental plane tree" Akk. dulbu
Proto-North Caucasian: *dwir E

Meaning: child, son
Proto-Dargwa: *dur I a
Proto-Lezghian: *t: i(r)
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. The form *dwir E, reflected in PD and PL,
probably goes back to an earlier *u_V-dir E (with the 1st class prefix *uV-); cf. PHU
*wutqi, *witqi 'son' reflected in Hurr. futqi, fitqi (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 20).
Proto-North Caucasian: *dwi i(- -)

Meaning: snow, hoar-frost
Proto-Nakh: *t i
Proto-Tsezian: * : da
Proto-Dargwa: *du Ii
Proto-West Caucasian: *t V ( - -)
Notes: Except for metathesis in PTs (* : da < *d :a) correspondences are regular.
PN *t i is a reduction < *tu i; in PWC there occurred an assimilation (*t V >
*t V).
Sumerian:
eg [FROST] (11x: ED IIIb, Lagash II, Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. eg9; eg4 "snow; sleet;
cold weather; frost, ice; burning, incineration; chills, shivers" Akk. algu; urpu; urupp;
urpu
[1] eg9
[2] eg4
Proto-North Caucasian: *fa nV

Meaning: mountain, hill
Proto-Nakh: *un
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *xan-dV (-o-)
Proto-Tsezian: * en A
Proto-Lak: han
Proto-Dargwa: *x:Vna
Proto-Lezghian: * : [a]na
Proto-West Caucasian: *x A
Notes: In most EC languages the root means actually 'shady slope of a mountain' (i.e.
part of the mountain heavily covered with trees). The root is also attested (with
reduplication) in HU languages: Hurr. fvan , Ur. vvn 'mountain' (see Diakonoff-
Sumerian:
gin [MOUNTAIN] (46x: Ur III) wr. gin3 "mountain(s)" Akk. ad
Proto-North Caucasian: *farn

Meaning: horse, mare
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *x VnV
Proto-Tsezian: * ar-am (?)
Proto-Lezghian: * ar(a)
Proto-West Caucasian: *x ara ( f-)
Notes: The etymology seems satisfactory both phonetically and semantically. The
root must have denoted a good horse, mare ('thoroughbred' in WC).
Proto-Semitic: *para-
Meaning: horse
Hebrew: pr 'team of horses, horses for a chariot; horseman' [KB 977]. According
to [KB], all the textual attestations of p. belong to one lexeme whereas in [BDB 832]
two lexemes are postulated: a primary noun (< *para-) and a derived nomen
professionis (< *parr -). In the pl., only prm (< *parr ma) and not
(*p rm < *par ma) is attested which means that *para- was ousted by
*parra- at least by the epoque of the Massoretic vocalization (note that only the
meaning 'horseman, knight' is attested in Hbr. pB. according to [Ja. 1243]). The
meaning 'horse' for p. is postulated in a limited number of passages where it is
paralleled by the main Hbr. term for (ss), e.g. Jo 2.4: k mar ssm mar h //
k prm kn y rsn 'they look like horses // and like p. they run'. See further
[TDAT VI 782ff.].
Aramaic: Anc. pr 'horseman, cavalry-man' [HJ 945]. Hapax in KAI 202B 2 (lrkb
[w]lpr, context fragmentary). Off. pr id. [ibid.]. Nab. pr id. [ibid.]. Plm. pr id. [ibid.]
(v. [PAT 401]).
Judaic Aramaic: pr, det. pr 'horseman, knight' [Ja. 1243], pr 'rider' [Sok.
451].
Syrian Aramaic: parr 'eques' [Brock. 609], [PS 3308].
Mandaic Aramaic: paraa 'mounted soldier, horseman' [DM 363].
Arabic: faras- 'cheval ou jument', farasat- 'jument' [BK 2 568], [LA VI 159] (see further
[Hommel 44ff.]).
Epigraphic South Arabian: Sab. frs1 'horse/mare; cavalryman, cavalry' [SD 46]. Qat.
frs1 'Pferd' [Sima 71]. Hdr. frs1-n (pl.) 'Pferdeleiter' [ibid.]. The Hdr. and the Qat.
terms are attested once in the respective languages whereas many dozens of
examples are known for the Sab. terms (all passages and discussion v. in [Sima
63ff.]). Note that according to Sima the form frs1-n 'cavalry, horsemen' (Ja 1817 1-
2) quoted in [Ricks 131] is Sabaic and not Qatabanian.
Ge ez (Ethiopian): faras 'horse' [LGz. 166].
Tigre: frs 'horse' [LH 656].
Tigrai (Tigria): frs 'cavallo' [Bass. 989].
Amharic: frs 'horse, stallion' [K 2279].
Harari: Cf. frz 'horse' [LHar. 65] (a Cushitism?).
Gurage: Sod. frs (rest of Gur. frz 'horse') [LGur. 244].
Mehri: f rhyn 'mare; horse' [JM 98].
Harsusi: ferhn 'mare; horse' [JH 34].
Notes: As rightly stressed in [Sima 71-2], the Eth. and MSA cognates seem to be
quite deeply rooted in the respective branches of Semitic so that no borrowing from a
WS source is conceivable. Soq. frehim 'fille, jeune fille' [LS 341] is sometimes
identified with the above MSA forms with a meaning shift. There is hardly any reason
to connect with the present root Ugr. prs in KTU 4.392.1 (l m mrkbt m rh prs
'for 5 chariots 15 p.') as it was suggested in [Dietrich-Loretz 193ff.], cf. more recent
tranlsations like 'una pieza de carro' in [DLU 355] and 'die Masseinheit *parsu' in
[Tropper UG 43]. [LGz. 166]: Gez., Eth., Arb., ESA, Mhr., Arm., Hbr.; [KB 977]: Hbr.,
Arm., Arb., Gez., Tgr., ESA; [Brock. 609]: Syr., Arm., Arb., Hbr., Gez.
Proto-North Caucasian: * [n]wi ( -e )

Meaning: horse
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * i a
Proto-Tsezian: *e (?)
Proto-Lak: u
Proto-Dargwa: * uri
Proto-Lezghian: * n ( -)
Proto-Khinalug: pi
Notes: Cf. also Hurr. e 'horse', see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 34. The first (weak)
syllable with the initial laryngeal was dropped in Av., Lak. and Khin. (and, of course,
in PWC where it is the normal reflex), but is preserved in PD and PL. Medial -r- in PD
does not represent the original *-n- (which was probably dropped); it is rather a trace
of an oblique stem * uri < * u-ri-.
One of the most secure common NC roots. See 1912, 48-49; Trubetzkoy
1930, 277; 1964, 97; 1977, 2, 141, Abdokov 1983, 124. Charaya
notes also Kartvelian parallels: Georg. au, ai 'interjection (addressing a horse)',
aua '(child.) horse' - most probably NC loanwords (cf. analogous loans of *j mc
'ox'). Abdokov (loc. cit.) suggests also an etymological connection of the root with
*=a _wV 'to bring, carry' (q.v.), but there are phonetic problems with this solution.
Proto-Semitic: *sVwsVw-
Meaning: horse
Akkadian: ssu^ (ss u) 'horse' OA on [CAD s 328], [AHw. 1051]. The earliest
attestation is thought to be the OA letter Contenau TTC 28:13 (lu ina s-s-im itai
'or bring [it] on horses'), but see sceptical remarks in [Veenhof 1989 521]. OB
attestations are scarce (mostly from Mari). According to [Civil 1966], this s. may be
attested already in Ur III documents if the sequence ANS E.ZI.ZI is to be read as
ANS E
s-si (for Civil, "a synonym of ANS E.KUR.RA and possibly the reading of this
logogram at least in some contexts").
Ugaritic: ssw, w 'caballo', sswt 'yegua' [DLU 410]. Widely attested in various types
of texts including special hyppiatric compositions (.....). Orthographic problems
connected with this word are extensively discussed in [Tropper UG 45] (according
to Tropper, the rare grapheme was used to emphasize the affricated pronunciation
of s [ts] whereas the normal s probably rendered a desaffricated s).
Phoenician: Amarna s-u-[s-ma] 'horse' (pl.)' [HJ 795]. As a gloss to
ANS E.<KUR>.MES in EA 263:25. Pho. ss 'horse' [T 231], [Krah. 346]. Hapax in
KAI 26 A I 6-7: wp l nk ss l ss 'I acquired one horse after another' (see [Gibson
57]).
Hebrew: ss 'horse' [KB 746], pB. [Ja. 967]. The basic Hbr. term for horse widely
used in prose and poetry (e.g., Ju 5.22). The fem. formation ss '' is known
from Ct 1.9 only.
Aramaic: D.-Alla ssh [HJ 795]. In II 15 ( lt mlk ssh), context difficult (v. [Hackett
72]). Anc. ssyh [HJ 795]. Hapax in KAI 222 A 22: b ssyh yhynkn l w l y[b ]
'seven mares will suckle a foal and he will not be sated' (v. [Fitzmyer 80]). Off. swsh
(pl. swsyn, emph. swsy ) 'horse' [HJ 795] ([PY XLV]). Nab. swsy id. [HJ 795],
[Cantineau II 123]. Plm. swsy id. [HJ 795], [PAT 391]. Dem. swsy 'horse' [HJ 1261].
Judaic Aramaic: ss y (pl. ss wn), ss 'horse' [Ja. 967], [Levy WTM III 492];
ss, det. ss y, pl. swswwn id. [Sok. 371].
Syrian Aramaic: ss y 'equus', ss t 'equa' [Brock. 464-5], [PS 2574].
Mandaic Aramaic: susia 'horse' [DM 322], sisiata, var. of susiata 'horses, mares' [DM
329].
Arabic: ssiyy- 'Pony' [Wehr 408]. Marked as an Egyptian dialectism, not found in the
available dictionaries of Classical Arabic. Cf. also sws 'gouverner un peuple' [BK 1
1164], [LA VI 108] (with a meaning shift from 'to drive horses'?).
Notes: According to [Civil Ebla 93], Ebl. su-su-um (listed among large mammals in
MEE IV 96 II 4) may reflect the present root in spite of the obvious orthographic
difficulty (SU instead of the expected ZU). The above listed Sem. terms are usually
thought to be borrowed from an IE sat m-language, v. [Gamkrelidze-Ivanov 560,
914] (PIE *ek^[h]wo- 'horse'), [Tropper UG 45] (with a special emphasis on Luv.
azzuwa-). Considering this hypothesis (as such not improbable) one should not
disregard the difficulties implied thereby. Note in particular that both the loss of the
word-initial vowel and the reduplication are present already in the earliest Sem.
attestations. [KB 746]: Hbr., Arm., Ugr., Akk., Arb.; [Firmage 1152]: Hbr., Akk., Ugr.,
Arm. ("an old Wanderwort"); [DLU 410]: Ugr., Hbr., Pho., Arm., Akk., Ebl.
Sumerian:
sisi [HORSE] (90x: Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. anesi2-si2; si2-si2; sisix(|ANE.KUR|); sisi
"horse"
ane
[1] si2-si2
[2] si2-si2
[3] sisix(|ANE.KUR|)
[4] sisi
Proto-North Caucasian: *Gw ntV

Meaning: mound, hill
Proto-Lak: q:unt
Proto-Lezghian: *q:unt(a)
Notes: A Lak-Lezg. isogloss. There exists, however, a HU parallel: Hurr. qund-ar
'mountain, abode of gods' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 24), which makes the EC
antiquity of the root rather probable.
Sumerian:
gin [MOUNTAIN] (46x: Ur III) wr. gin3 "mountain(s)" Akk. ad
[1] gin3
Proto-North Caucasian: *Gw r i ( - -,- -)

Meaning: root, stalk; leaf
Proto-Nakh: * a
Proto-Lak: q:ur
Proto-Lezghian: *q:ur
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Correspondences are regular.
Sumerian:
GIR [TREE] (3x: Old Babylonian) wr. eGIR3 "a type of tree"
e
[1] GIR3 (geGIR3)
Proto-North Caucasian: *h[a ] a ( - -,-e)

Meaning: steam
Proto-Nakh: * e
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *halHV ( -)
Proto-Tsezian: *hel- ( -)
Proto-Lezghian: *hIela
Proto-West Caucasian: *a
Notes: Cf. (with an a-prothesis and * > r) Hurr. a ri 'incense' (see Diakonoff-
The EC-WC comparison seems rather probable, despite the not quite regular
correspondence PEC * : PWC *. Resonants are normally lost in PWC, but in this
case * was retained as the only possible element (because laryngeals were also
lost, and probably even before the resonants), but was transformed into a voiced
lateral affricate.
Proto-North Caucasian: *Ha _wV (-e -,- -)

Meaning: forehead
Proto-Nakh: *ak(a)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *ha :a (-,o)
Notes: A Nakh-Av.-And. isogloss (hence it is hard to reconstruct the initial laryngeal).
Sumerian:
saki [FOREHEAD] (79x: ED IIIb, Old Babylonian) wr. sa-ki "forehead, brow; front"
Akk. ptu
[1] sa-ki
Proto-North Caucasian: *Ha (r) w ( -)

Meaning: a k. of tree
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * a V-lV ( -o-)
Proto-Tsezian: * a (-,-: -)
Proto-West Caucasian: *:
Notes: Originally it was probably a name of some coniferous tree, cf. also Hurr. au(-
) 'fir-tree' ( > Akkad. a u, see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 41); the meaning
'birch-tree' in some And. languages is secondary. The medial resonant is not
reflected directly, but it must be postulated to explain spirantisation in PTs.
Proto-Semitic: *HVV -
Meaning: 'fir-tree splinter'
Akkadian: e/ie u
Proto-North Caucasian: *Ha _E m-

Meaning: to clean, clean
Proto-Nakh: *cani(-n)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=ac:Vn- (-o-)
Proto-Tsezian: *=cV-
Proto-Lak: marc-
Proto-Dargwa: * amzu-(r)/*marzu-
Proto-Lezghian: *maIrc: -
Proto-West Caucasian: *p A
Notes: Initial laryngeal is reconstructed on basis of PL pharyngealisation; however, it
is not possible to establish its precise nature, because in most languages it was
either lost (as part of the weak first syllable), or absorbed by class prefixes.
In PWC the root has a frequent labial prefix (probably originally a class marker). In
EC the original structure of the root was best preserved in Av.-And. and Nakh; in
most other languages, where the root was treated mainly as an adjective, it obtained
a productive adjectival (*participial) suffix *-rV and underwent metatheses, usual in
cases like this: *Ha _E mV-rV- > *Ha _mE -rV- > *Ha m _E rV- //
*mHa r _E -. Cf. also Hurr. -(a)l 'ritually pure', , 'pure (water)',
Urart. a id. (?) - reflecting probably a variant * _a mHE - (see Diakonoff-
See 1983, 149, 168-169.
sikil [PURE] (457x: ED IIIa, ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Early Old Babylonian,
Old Babylonian, unknown) wr. sikil "(to be) pure" Akk. ebbu; ellu
[1] sikil
Proto-North Caucasian: *hmcE

Meaning: half, middle
Proto-Nakh: * cu-k ( -,- -)
Proto-Tsezian: *hcV
Proto-Lezghian: *ha(m)c
Notes: Although the root is not widely spread in PEC, it seems both phonetically and
semantically reliable. Some phonetic comments: both PN and PWC seem to point to
a variant with an early loss of medial *-m- and transfer of the labialisation to the
following vowel (otherwise the consonant in PWC would not be labialised, and in PN
we would have a reflex *-mc- > *-tt-).
Sumerian:
sa [HALF] (8x: Old Babylonian, unknown) wr. sa9 "half; middle, center; to reach the middle"
Akk. milu
sur [HALF] (82x: ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Ur III, Early Old Babylonian, Old Babylonian) wr.
sur; sur3 "half" Akk. inn; milu
Proto-North Caucasian: *Hr_p V

Meaning: a k. of food
Proto-Tsezian: * irip B
Proto-Lak: aIr:ap
Notes: An interesting Tsez-Lak. parallel. In PC we have to assume an assimilation
and metathesis (* irip < * ir ip ), not surprising in a complicated stem like this.
The word, although not widely spread in modern languages, is probably archaic,
because it corresponds very well to Hurr. * uruppi > Hitt. uruppi 'a k. of cake' (see
H 1985, 62).
Proto-North Caucasian: *H u V / *Hl V

Meaning: long
Proto-Nakh: *= -(in)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=i :Vl-
Proto-Tsezian: *= : lV-
Proto-Lak: hal :a-
Proto-Dargwa: * : ala-
Proto-Lezghian: *[hI]al -
Proto-Khinalug: wi
Proto-West Caucasian: * A
Notes: For the phonetic development in PWC cf. * _ we je 'dog' (in this case the
lateralisation in PWC may also have been favoured by the lateral resonant in the
root).
The stem *Hl V (reflected in PN, Lak., PL and Khin. /with a former class prefix w-
/) is a secondary development < *H V < *H u V. Several morphological notes:
the stem is usually accompanied by class prefixes in the Western area (Nakh,
Andian, Tsezian) but is prefixless in Eastern Daghestan (Lak., Darg., Lezghian). By
now it is hard to judge which situation is original; however, it seems probable that the
initial syllable *H- is historically a prefix, and that we should reconstruct the most
archaic form as * u V (cf. the rather frequent reflex of this stem in different areas: in
Av. / :al-ta-/, in PD /* : ala-/, in some Lezg. languages/Rut. ul -d , Tsakh.
li-na/. Cf. also Hurr. el(-)di 'lofty, highborn' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 54-
55).
See 1983, 147.
Sumerian:
gal [BIG] (6612x: ED IIIa, ED IIIb, Ebla, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Early Old
Babylonian, Old Babylonian, unknown) wr. gal; gu-la; gu-ul; gal-gal; ku-ul "(to be) big,
great; (to be) retired, former; (to be) mature (of male animals)" Akk. rab
Proto-North Caucasian: *h[]nV

Meaning: now
Proto-Nakh: *hin-ca / *hin- a
Proto-Tsezian: *hin-V
Proto-Dargwa: *han-
Proto-Lezghian: *hin-
Proto-West Caucasian: *n -
Notes: A common NC temporal adverb. We must note that in most subgroups the root
can be followed by some kind of affricate (although the affricates do not correspond
to each other regularly).
The root is also attested in HU: Hurr. enn , Ur. en 'now' (see Diakonoff-
Sumerian:
ae [NOW] (32x: Old Babylonian, unknown) wr. a2-e "now" Akk. anumma
[1] a2-e
enbie [UP TILL NOW] (1x: Old Babylonian) wr. en3-bi-e3 "up till now"
[1] en3-bi-e3
ene [UP TILL NOW] (20x: Old Babylonian, unknown) wr. en3-e3 "up till now" Akk. adi
matma
ene'am [UP TILL NOW] wr. en3-e3-am3 "up till now" Akk. adi matma
[1] en3-e3-am3
ine [NOW] (76x: Old Babylonian, unknown) wr. i3-ne-e2 "now" Akk. inanna
[1] i3-ne-e2
Proto-North Caucasian: *Hdu rV

Meaning: plot of land; yard, enclosure
Proto-Nakh: * urd ( -,-t)
Proto-Lezghian: *t:or-
Proto-Khinalug: t:oz
Proto-West Caucasian: *d
Notes: The original meaning in PEC was probably 'enclosure, yard' (for the semantics
in Khin. cf. cases like Russ. 'door' - 'yard' etc.). It is interesting to note a
probable HU parallel: Hurr. ard 'town', Ur. ardi-n 'the Town' (name of Musasir, the
capital of Urartu), with the root structure reflex similar to PN (see Diakonoff-Starostin
1986, 26). {It is also interesting to note Georg. vedr- 'share, plot of arable land',
perhaps reflecting an early PN form like * udr- or * wVdr-.}
Sumerian:
iri [CITY] (2070x: ED IIIb, Ebla, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Early Old Babylonian, Old
Babylonian) wr. iri; iriki; uru2; uru11; iri11 "city" Akk. lu
[1] iri (eri, uru)
[2] iriki
[3] uru2 (ES)
[4] uru11
[5] iri11 (eri11)
Proto-North Caucasian: *He rcV-

Meaning: to stand up, to raise
Proto-Nakh: *l-abc-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *irc-
Proto-Tsezian: *= c- (-u-,--)
Proto-Lak: =a=ca-
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Class prefixation in Lak. and Tsezian is
probably secondary (cf. the prefixless structure *irc- in PA). PN *-b- is a former
aspective (plural) marker.
The root *He rcV- has a parallel in HU *as - ( < *arc- with a typical HU
development): Hurr. a - 'to raise; endow', a u/o 'high, upper', Ur. a - 'to endow'
(see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 47).
Proto-North Caucasian: *-Hi

Meaning: dative (?)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-jV
Proto-Tsezian: *-V(j)
Proto-Lak: -j-nu, -ija
Proto-Dargwa: *-Hi
Proto-Lezghian: *-i (-Vj)
Proto-Khinalug: -i(j)
Notes: Cf. also Hurr. -ae, Ur. -ai, -ae, -aj 'adverbial, adjectival, gerundial or
participial suffix'. Some of the modern forms without -j may actually reflect some
other case (perhaps essive), or just a pure oblique stem.
Proto-North Caucasian: *Hi_V ( --)

Meaning: to say
Proto-Nakh: *l-w- / * -
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *hi :-
Proto-Tsezian: * i -
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Vowel length is not clear (PN probably
reflects an alternation of long/short root vowels); otherwise regular. Cf. also Hurr. ill-
'to speak' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 51).
See Trubetzkoy 1922, 241 (with incorrect Lezg. and Darg. parallels).
Proto-North Caucasian: *Hp V (--)

Meaning: vein, sinew, pipe
Proto-Nakh: * p
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *pulV
Proto-Tsezian: *p A
Proto-Lak: p:iIllu
Proto-Dargwa: *lap
Notes: Darg. has a metathesized form (*lap instead of *pal). Not clear is the Lak.
initial p:- (perhaps, a bad recording of a dialectal form?); p- should be expected. The
original meaning of the root must have been "pipe; kennel" - cf. also related HU
forms: Hurr. pala, Ur. pl "canal" (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 16) - but in several
subgroups a semantic shift "pipe" > "blood vessel, sinew" took place.
Sumerian:
par [CANAL] (130x: ED IIIa, ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. pa5; pa6
"(small) canal, irrigation ditch" Akk. atappu; palgu; pattu
[1] pa5
[2] pa6
Proto-North Caucasian: *HubV ( -o-)

Meaning: orphan; step-relation
Proto-Nakh: *ba-du ( --)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * ubV-
Proto-Dargwa: * up:a-j ( -b-)
Proto-West Caucasian: *bIa
Notes: Cf. also Hurr. u/ob-idi- "boy; calf" (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 18). The
root is not reflected in PL which preserves well medial clusters with resonants; thus it
is possible also to reconstruct *HurbV - a form really close to PIE *orbho- (but
despite Shagirov 1,181-182 the direction of borrowing - from IE or vice versa - is still
to be established). The root belongs to a number of stems common to several
linguistic families of the ancient Near East: besides IE and NC, cf. also PK *obol-
'orphan' ( 1965, 149-150).
Proto-North Caucasian: *HV qwA

Meaning: pig, swine
Proto-Nakh: *aqa
Proto-West Caucasian: *qI a
Notes: A Nakh-WC isogloss (there are no traces of the root in the languages of
Dagestan). Cf. also HU: Hurr. u 'pig' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 60).
See Trubetzkoy 1934, 277, Shagirov 1, 237-238, Abdokov 1983, 118 (also listing
Akhv. a a- :i 'wild': this is certainly wrong, because Akhv. preserves old affricates.
Besides, the Akhv. word is most probably a reduction < awla V- :i, cf. Akhv. Tseg.
ala i- :i, Ratl. alai- :i and Av. awlaq: 'steppe, wild place' - obviously a Turkic
loanword).
Sumerian:
agan [~PIG] (150x: ED IIIb) wr. aganx(|GA2AN|)gan; agan; aganx(AMA)a "a designation
of pigs; pregnant?"
[1] aganx(|GA2AN|)gan
[2] agan
[3] aganx(AMA)a
ah [PIG] (1117x: ED IIIa, ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Early Old Babylonian,
Old Babylonian, 1st millennium, unknown) wr. ah2; ah "pig" Akk. h
[1] ah2
[2] ah
Proto-North Caucasian: *hwri ( -e)

Meaning: morning, dawn
Proto-Nakh: * rV
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *ri V
Proto-Dargwa: *eri
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Cf. also HU: Hurr. urr , urw 'morning,
east', whence the name of the Hurrian country (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 63).
Except for the metathesis in PA (possibly under influence of PA *riHV 'time, season'),
correspondences are regular.
The word is probably a deverbal noun, and there are traces of the original verbal
root in Lak. and Darg.: cf. Lak. =ija-n (=i=nu), Darg. Ur. r-ur- (dur.) 'to shine'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *hw lkw

Meaning: carriage, vehicle; wheel
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * [i]nk V
Proto-Tsezian: * akV- ( -,--)
Proto-Lak: hark
Proto-Dargwa: * ark
Proto-Lezghian: * a(l)k V-r
Proto-West Caucasian: *k:
Notes: Correspondences are regular. See Balkarov 1964, Shagirov 1977, Abdokov
1983, 130. Cf. also Hurr. ulug- 'chariot'.
Sumerian:
GUL [~CHARIOT] (1x: Old Babylonian) wr. eGUL "a designation of chariots"
Akk. halmadru
e
[1] GUL
Proto-North Caucasian: *HwV V
Meaning: plain, meadow
Proto-Nakh: * e
Proto-Lezghian: * i ( - -,-u-)
Notes: A Nakh-Lezg. isogloss. A derivate *HwV V-rV ( = Rut. Iur, see above) is
possibly reflected in Hurr. awar 'field, open space, steppe' (see Diakonoff-Starostin
1986, 65).
Sumerian:
aria [STEPPE] (26x: Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. a-ri-a "steppe" Akk. harbu; nam
[1] a-ri-a
Proto-North Caucasian: *hwVmVli (-e )

Meaning: face
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *VmV(r)
Proto-Dargwa: *muuli
Notes: An Av.-And.-Darg. isogloss.
Sumerian:
mu [FACE] (107x: Old Babylonian) wr. mu3; mu2 "face, appearance" Akk. zmu
[1] mu3
[2] mu2
mume [FACE] (20x: Old Akkadian, Old Babylonian) wr. mu3-me "face, appearance"
Akk. zmu; bnu
[1] mu3-me
Proto-North Caucasian: *ar i ( -)

Meaning: trip, march
Proto-Lak: aIr :i
Proto-Dargwa: * ar Ia ( - :I-)
Proto-Lezghian: *ja(r) I(a)
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Cf. also Hurr., Urart. r 'road, march;
way' (probably dissimilated < * ar i). In [Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 62] the HU root is
compared with Tsakh. wuhur 'street', but since the Tsakhur word is absolutely
isolated (the comparison - ibid. - with Chech. ram 'street' should be certainly
abandoned, because Chech. ram is a recent borrowing from Turkic), we now prefer
the comparison of HU * ri with EC *ar i.
Note:
Proto-Semitic: * ur -
Meaning: road
Akkadian: ur -
Aramaic: Pal wrh
Biblical Aramaic: arh
Syrian Aramaic: urh-
Modern Aramaic: Urm r h-
Mandaic Aramaic: uhr-
Soqotri: rah 'come'
Sumerian:
harran [ROUTE] (72x: Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. har-ra-an "route, passage; path"
Akk. mtequ; urhu
[1] har-ra-an
Proto-North Caucasian: * e rVcwi

Meaning: silver
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * orci
Proto-Tsezian: * s(:) ( -)
Proto-Lak: arcu
Proto-Dargwa: * arc
Proto-Lezghian: * ars(a)
Proto-West Caucasian: *rV[ ]Vn
Notes: An interesting cultural term - despite some phonetic problems, undoubtedly
common NC. Cf. also Hurr. o o(-ne) / u u(-ne) 'silver' (see Diakonoff-Starostin
1986, 46-47), where - - regularly goes back to the cluster *-rc-. The early PHU form
*Hwerc - (reflecting an intermediate stage in the process *-rc- > *-rc - > *-c -) was
borrowed in Proto-Kartvelian as *werc 1 l- (the comparison of PK, PWC and PEC
forms was first suggested in Charaya 1912, 11). A similar form exists also in Semitic
(Proto-Semitic *hrs); it is therefore impossible to suggest a simple loan from Indo-
European *rgnto- in Caucasian languages - to say nothing of enormous phonetic
problems arising with this supposition. Although some Caucasian forms may have
experienced Indo-European (Indo-Iranian) influence (see above in the WC section), it
seems rather more probable that PIE had borrowed this archaic Near Eastern root,
which on Indo-European ground had contaminated with the pure Indo-European root
*Har( )g- 'light, white'. The root reveals a "floating" labialisation: some forms are best
explained by a protoform * e rVcwi (PL, with spirantization of *-c-, PWC), some -
by * we rVci (Av.-And., PD, HU). It is interesting to note the Ossetian name of
'silver': vzst / vzest (having penetrated into Fenno-Ugric: Udm. azve, Komi ezy,
Hung. ezst, see Abayev 1958, 213). The Indo-European etymology of this word (see
ibid.), belonging to Petersson, is very dubious, and it can also have a NC source
(reflecting the original labialisation).
Finally it is interesting to note the similarity of this root and PNC *re wcwi 'gold,
red copper' (q.v.): perhaps it is possible to think of an archaic word-derivation with a
laryngeal prefix.
Proto-North Caucasian: * wV
Meaning: not (negative particle)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-hi
Proto-Tsezian: *- (V)
Proto-Dargwa: *e
Proto-Khinalug: -i-
Notes: The morpheme can be safely reconstructed for PEC on basis of the PA, PC,
PD and Khin. evidence. It has a probable parallel in HU: Hurr. -wa- 'not' (negation in
verbs), see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986.
Proto-North Caucasian: *je rkwi

Meaning: heart
Proto-Nakh: *dok
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *rok o
Proto-Tsezian: *r k A
Proto-Lak: dak
Proto-Dargwa: * urki
Proto-Lezghian: *jirk
Proto-Khinalug: ung
Proto-West Caucasian: *g
Notes: One of the most reliable common NC etymologies (see Trubetzkoy 1930, 277;
Abdokov 1983, 80 etc.). Cf. also Hurr. egi, igi 'inside' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986,
31).
Sumerian:
ag [HEART] (10808x: ED IIIa, ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Early Old
Babylonian, Old Babylonian, uncertain, unknown) wr. ag4; a; a3-ab "inner body; heart; in,
inside" Akk. libbu
[1] ag4 (a3)
[2] a
[3] a3-ab (ES)
Proto-North Caucasian: *je r _wV

Meaning: belt, girdle
Proto-Nakh: *do kV ( --)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *ro :i- olV
Proto-Tsezian: * VA
Proto-Dargwa: * ir i
Sumerian:
dara [BELT] (2x: Old Babylonian) wr. tug2dara4; dara2; tug2dara2 "belt, sash, girdle; string"
Akk. izhu; nbettu
tug
[1] 2dara4
[2] dara2
tug
[3] 2dara2
Proto-North Caucasian: *-k- ?

Meaning: negative / prohibitive
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-k- / -g-
Proto-Lezghian: [*-gV]
Proto-Khinalug: -ku-
Proto-West Caucasian: [*-k a] ?
Notes: Cf. Hurr. -kk- 'negative suffix in participles'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *kA

Meaning: a suffix(diminutive or singulative)
Proto-Nakh: *-Vk
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-kV
Proto-Lezghian: *-k:(a)
Proto-West Caucasian: *k
Notes: One of the very rare class of derivative suffixes, reconstructable for PNC; cf.
also Hurr. -ga, -g id. The morpheme is expressive, thus correspondences are not
quite regular (sometimes glottalisation disappears). The suffix is still productive in
Nakh and Abkh.-Abaz., but it has left numerous traces in other languages (including
Tsezian and Dargwa).
Proto-North Caucasian: *kV rkV (-nV)

Meaning: small stone, grain, egg
Proto-Nakh: *kikel
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *korkonV
Proto-Tsezian: *keke
Proto-Lezghian: *kkl ( -l:)
Proto-West Caucasian: *kan ka / *kakan
Notes: One of several EC and NC roots with the structure *KVKV denoting some
small object. The root is expressive, and it is hard to reconstruct vowels; however,
consonantal correspondences are quite regular and the root is well represented, thus
it must be reconstructed for PNC. See Abdokov 1983, 134 (with some confusion of
several roots mentioned above). Cf. Hurr. kirikiri(j)ann 'seed of pine-cone' ( >
Akkad. kirkiriannu), see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 57.
Similar roots are known in Kartvelian (PK *kakal- 'nut', *kaka- 'fruit stone');
however, the supposition of a late loan of Lezg. forms from Georg. kakali 'walnut'
(Klimov 1972, 352) or from Arm. k:ak:al id. (Klimov, Vinogradova 1979, 158) is
unacceptable - both because Lezg. forms are very different semantically and
because they fit well into the common NC root. The Armenian form itself is obviously
a Caucasian loanword.
Proto-North Caucasian: *kVwrV (?)

Meaning: smoke
Proto-Nakh: *kur
Notes: No correspondences in Dagestanian languages have been found, but cf. Hurr.
ubr- "smoke" ( < HU *kowr- ?), see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 57.
Sumerian:
ibi [SMOKE] (18x: Old Akkadian, Old Babylonian, unknown) wr. i-bi2; i3-bi2; ibbi; ibbix(NE)
"smoke" Akk. qutru
[1] i-bi2
[2] i3-bi2
[3] ibbi
[4] ibbix(NE)
Proto-Semitic: ubr- ? *kutr-

Meaning: smoke, incense
Akkadian: katr- 'fumigate, make an incense offering', kutr- 'smoke, fog', kutrn-,
kutrinn- 'incense, censer'
Eblaitic: /kuttur/
Ugaritic: ktr 'humo'
Hebrew: ktr (pi) 'make a sacrifice, go up in smoke', k trt 'incense' (>Eg NK kdrt)
Judaic Aramaic: kitr- 'smoke, mist'
Mandaic Aramaic: gutr- 'smoke', gtr 'fumigate, cense'
Arabic: ktr 'to smell, smoke', kutr-, katr- 'steam, smoke; incense'
Epigraphic South Arabian: Sab m-ktr 'incense-altar' SD 109
Ge ez (Ethiopian): ktr 'fumigate, give off an odor', k ttr(e) 'incense, fumigation' LGz
452
Tigre: k tare 'fragrance, spice'
Amharic: kttr 'burn incense in church', kttr 'bathe in steam or in incense
smoke'
Proto-North Caucasian: *kwi rV
Meaning: leg bone, leg (of animal)
Proto-Nakh: *kurV-m
Proto-Lezghian: *k ir(a)
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Cf. also HU forms: Hurr. u-kr , Ur. qur
'foot, leg' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 57).
Sumerian:
iri [FOOT] (10822x: Lagash II, Ur III) wr. iri3; me-ri; iri16 "via, by means of, under the
authority of someone; foot; path" Akk. pu
[1] iri3 (giri3)
[2] me-ri (ES)
[3] iri16 (giri16)
Proto-North Caucasian: *kw kwV

Meaning: cake, cookie
Proto-Lezghian: *kukV-
Proto-Khinalug: kuku
Proto-West Caucasian: *k ak a-r
Notes: An expressive reduplicated root; despite this, correspondences are regular,
and the PNC reconstruction seems rather probable. Cf. also Hurr. kakkari ( > Akkad.
kakkaru) 'a sort of sweetmeat', see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 56.
Proto-Semitic: *kakkar-/*kikkar-
Meaning: 'round bread, disk'
Akkadian: kakkaru
Hebrew: kikka r
Proto-North Caucasian: *k_wVnV

Meaning: mastix, tar
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *k: VnV
Proto-Tsezian: *q Vni
Notes: An Av.-Tsez. isogloss. There is an interesting (reduplicated or suffixed) HU
parallel: Hurr. kanagi 'mastix (tree)' ( > Akkad. kanak-tu), kanag-it i 'mastix resin'.
See Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 56. In some languages (in particular, PL) the root
could have merged with the reflexes of *bi nk_wV q.v.
Proto-Semitic: *kanak-
Meaning: 'kind of tree'
Akkadian: kanaktu
Notes: Assimilation of vowels
Proto-North Caucasian: *-0

Meaning: nominative (absolutive)
Proto-Nakh: *-0
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-0
Proto-Tsezian: *-0
Proto-Lak: -0
Proto-Dargwa: *-0
Proto-Lezghian: *-0
Proto-Khinalug: -0
Proto-West Caucasian: -0
Notes: Cf. Hurr., Urart. -0 id.
Proto-North Caucasian: *-0

Meaning: essive
Proto-Nakh: *-0
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-V
Proto-Tsezian: *-0 (-V)
Proto-Dargwa: -0 ?
Proto-Lezghian: *-0
Notes: Cf. Hurr., Urart. - (with preceding vowel elision) 'stative' (?).
Proto-North Caucasian: * e H e (-i)

Meaning: ear
Proto-Nakh: *la
Proto-Dargwa: *lei
Proto-West Caucasian: *A- / *A-
Notes: See Abdokov 1983, 77. Cf. also Hurr. ll 'ear' (Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 53)
which fits well as a reflex of the reconstructed NC form (actually, the Hurr. form is the
reason for reconstructing * and not *l in PEC).
The cluster *-H - is reconstructed tentatively; if -l in the Hurr. form is a suffix, we

could also reconstruct * e He.
Note:
See Sumerian
etug [EAR] (269x: ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. etug2;
e
etug; etug; etug3; mutug2; mu-u-tug2; mu-u-tug "reason, plan; (to be) wise;
wisdom, understanding; ear" Akk. hassu; uznu; uznu; mu
izzal [EAR] (50x: Old Babylonian) wr. izzal; gizzal2 "wisdom; understanding; ear; hearing"
Akk. hassu; uznu; uznu; nem
Proto-North Caucasian: *- V
Meaning: deverbative noun
Proto-Nakh: [*-la]
Proto-Avaro-Andian: [*-lV]
Proto-Lak: -ala, -(w)alu
Proto-Dargwa: *-la
Proto-Lezghian: *-al, *-wal
Proto-Khinalug: -wal ( < Lezgh.)
Notes: Cf. also Hurr. -l , Urart. -la 'adjectival or nominal suffix'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *- wV
Meaning: conditional
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *- V-
Proto-Lezghian: *- V
Notes: Cf. Hurr. -l(l)-, Urart. -l- 'optative'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *- -
Meaning: deverbative verbal
Proto-Nakh: [*-l-]
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *- - ( - -)
Proto-Tsezian: *-L-
Notes: Cf. Hurr., Urart. -u/ol- 'reflexive (or medial) suffix'.
Proto-North Caucasian: * wibV ( -w-)

Meaning: shed, barn, granary
Proto-Nakh: *kebu ( --,-w-)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * ibV(-r)
Proto-Tsezian: * ibe(r)
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Correspondences are regular. In [Diakonoff -
Starostin 1986, 48] the root is compared with Hurr. karuB 'granary'; it is possible,
but somewhat dubious because of the -i-vocalism in PEC.
Proto-North Caucasian: * w r V
Meaning: leaf
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * ol(H)i
Proto-Dargwa: *ka
Proto-Lezghian: * uru
Proto-West Caucasian: *p a
Notes: The PWC form has a frequent labial prefix (*P-). In PA there occurred a lateral
assimilation (*r > l after * -); otherwise the correspondences are regular, and the
comparison can be considered as quite reliable. See Abdokov 1983, 107 (with a
basically correct comparison, but citing also many superfluous forms, not belonging
to the present root).
Proto-Semitic: * a l-
Meaning: 'leaf, foliage'
Hebrew: l
Judaic Aramaic: ly
Notes: Cf. * Vlw- 'aloe' Br 526
Sumerian:
gilim [FOLIAGE] (47x: Ur III, Early Old Babylonian) wr. gigilim; egilim "foliage; forest"
Akk. gru; halbu
gi
[1] gilim
e
[2] gilim (gegilim)
Proto-North Caucasian: * w nV
Meaning: malt
Proto-Nakh: *kVwV (k-,-b-)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * inHi
Proto-Tsezian: * A
Proto-Lak: kut
Proto-Dargwa: *ki a
Proto-Lezghian: * un:
Proto-Khinalug: kun
Sumerian:
ku [MALT-FLOUR] (4x: Early Old Babylonian, Old Babylonian, unknown) wr. ku7 "malt-
flour" Akk. kukkuu
[1] ku7
Proto-North Caucasian: * _ (-)

Meaning: lamb
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * :idir (pl.* :ili)
Proto-Tsezian: * ile A
Proto-Lak: i
Proto-Lezghian: * :l
Proto-Khinalug: ku
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. See Trubetzkoy 1922, 241.
Sumerian:
kir [LAMB] (1113x: Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. kir11 "female
lamb" Akk. buqamtu
[1] kir11
Proto-North Caucasian: *le HwV ( -)

Meaning: word
Proto-Tsezian: *l je ( r-)
Proto-Dargwa: *lu i
Notes: An interesting Tsez-Darg. isogloss - although not very reliable (because it is
preserved only in two languages). With a regular shift *l- > PHU *t- cf. perhaps also
PHU *tiw- : Hurr. tiwe 'word; thing'; Ur. ti(j)- 'to say', ti-n 'name' (see Diakonoff-
Starostin 1986, 53). If this parallel is correct, then Darg. lu i and Inkh. loje must be
regarded as an archaism, lost in most modern EC languages. [Note that Av. ra i
'word', cited ibid., does not belong here, being a derivate of r i-ze < *-i q E 'to
hear'].
Sumerian:
di [SPEAK] (59x: ED IIIa, ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Early Old Babylonian,
Old Babylonian, unknown) wr. di "non-finite imperfect stem of dug[to speak]" Akk. atw;
dabbu; qab
[1] di
dug [SPEAK] (3878x: ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Early Old Babylonian, Old
Babylonian, uncertain) wr. dug4 "to speak, talk, say; to order; to do, perform; to negotiate"
Akk. atw; dabbu; epu; qab
[1] dug4 (du11)
Proto-North Caucasian: *li wE / *i wlV

Meaning: man, male
Proto-Nakh: *-law
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *lV
Proto-Lak: lak:-
Proto-Dargwa: *gal(i)
Proto-Lezghian: * :ilV-
Proto-Khinalug: l g ld
Proto-West Caucasian: *A
Notes: Cf. also Hurr. tur-o 'male' (with a regular reflex t- < *l-, -r- < *--), see
Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 52. The meaning 'man' changed to ethnonym 'Laki' in Lak.
(typologically a frequent phenomenon).
This root may have something to do with the PN and PAA words for 'slave' (if we
assume that a self-denomination for Eastern Daghestan dwellers *lak:(V) could be
borrowed by the Nakh and through them, possibly, by Western Caucasians with the
meaning 'slave'): PN *lag (Chech., Ing. laj, Bacb. lag), PAA *l g (Abkh. a-l g,
Abaz. l g). Since these words have a velar, they can not be connected with another
EC name for 'slave', Av. la etc. (see on its possible origin under * V V).
Of obvious Caucasian origin is Osset. lg 'man, male' (see Abayev 1973, 20).
Sumerian:
lu [PERSON] (12429x: ED IIIa, ED IIIb, Ebla, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Early Old
Babylonian, Old Babylonian, uncertain, unknown) wr. lu2; mu-lu; mu-lu2; lu10; lu6 "who(m),
which; man; (s)he who, that which; of; ruler; person" Akk. amlu; a
[1] lu2
[2] mu-lu (ES)
[3] mu-lu2 (ES)

[4] lu10
[5] lu6
Proto-North Caucasian: *_ dwi / *_ dwi

Meaning: corn
Proto-Nakh: *jalata (- -)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * :iltu (/* -)
Proto-Lak: :at:i
Proto-Lezghian: * :at:
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. The PN form is a dissimilation < *lal(a)ta; PA
* :iltu < * :ildu. Cf. also Hurr. kad 'barley' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 28).
Sumerian:
hazin [BARLEY] (22x: ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Ur III) wr. eha-zi; eha-zi-na "a type of
barley"
e
[1] ha-zi
e
[2] ha-zi-na
Proto-North Caucasian: *_lV

Meaning: guest, neighbour
Proto-Nakh: *llu
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * :irV
Proto-Tsezian: * r ( -e-,- -,-l)
Proto-Khinalug: kij
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Correspondences are regular. Cf. also the
HU parallels: Hurr. lula- : 'foreigner' ( = PN *llu- aw), Ur. lul-ue 'foreigner, enemy'
Abdokov (1983, 88) compares the Andian forms (with the secondary meaning
'parent-in-law') with Ad. s - in s -g 'mother-in-law', s -p 'father-in-law'.
These forms, however, being quite isolated in WC, should be rather analyzed as
metaphoric compounds meaning originally 'fair princess'/ 'fair prince'; at any rate, Ad.
s - (going back to PWC *c ) can not correspond to PEC *_.
Sumerian:
lukur [STRANGER] (59x: Old Akkadian, Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. lu2-kur2 "stranger,
foreigner" Akk. nakru
[1] lu2-kur2
gir [STRANGER] (9x: Old Babylonian) wr. gir5 "stranger" Akk. ubru[foreigner]
[1] gir5
Proto-Semitic: *gir-
Meaning: 'stranger'
Hebrew: ge r
Proto-North Caucasian: *m r[ ] (-o)

Meaning: handful, armful
Proto-Nakh: *mor
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * um-ur ( * -)
Proto-Tsezian: *mi[ ]u (- -)
Proto-Lezghian: *m[r ]
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. The comparison is very probable, although
strange phonetically: a lot of irregularities in the development of * in all subgroups.
Maybe this is due to a special development of a rare cluster *-r -? A metathesis
similar to the one that occurred in PA, apparently happened also in HU: cf. Hurr.
umm 'hand' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 23).
Sumerian:
u [HAND] (2785x: ED IIIa, ED IIIb, Ebla, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Early Old
Babylonian, Old Babylonian, 1st millennium, unknown) wr. u; sum5; u-x "hand" Akk. qtu
[1] u
[2] sum5
[3] u-x
Proto-Semitic: *sîma l- {} *cîma l-

Meaning: left (side, hand)
Akkadian: umlu, umlu 'left side, left hand' OB on [CAD 267], [AHw 1271].
The irregular --/-- (instead of the expected *--) may be explained from the
change *sîma l- > *imi l- > uml- (*-i- > -u- near -m-)
Ugaritic: m al 'die, das Linke' [Aist 307].
To be normalized as i/uma l- ?
Hebrew: s^ m( )l 'left side, left' [KB 1332].
Note -- in s^ m( )l 'left' (adj.) [ibid. 1333], which is usually explained as a

regular reflex of * in an unstressed position (versus -- in s^ m( )l where * is
stressed). It seems more plausible, however, not to connect this discrepancy with
accentual phenomena, but rather to regard the adjective as derived after a different
pattern (probably *CaCaCiyy-, f. y mn 'right' with -a-, which neither can go back
directly to its presumed prototype ymn 'right side')
Judaic Aramaic: s ml 'left side' [Ja 1002].
Orthographically also with both s^ and ( ) [Ja 1591],

[Sok 571]
Syrian Aramaic: s ml 'sinistra', adj. 'sinister' [Brock 481]

Modern Aramaic: HRT umala 'links' [J Hert 199] NASS sim l 'left hand, left side'
[Tser 0148] MMND smla 'left' [M MND 509
Mandaic Aramaic: smal(a) 'left (hand, arm, side)' [DM 332].
Also asmala, smala (with the * a- prefix)
Arabic: iml- 'main gauche' [BK 1 1273], aml- 'co^t gauche' [ibid.]
Mehri: sâym l 'left, left hand' [JM 380]
Jibbali: s^y l 'left-hand, left (direction)' [JJ 253], s^ mli, s^ ml t 'left' [ibid.]
Harsusi: s^mel 'left, left-hand' [JH 120]
Soqotri: s^mhil (s^mhel, s^mel) 'gauche' [LS 430] (also [SSL LS 1473; SSL 4 97])
Notes: Postulating the succession *-a l- in the protoform is the only non-contradictory
way to explain in HBR.
On the possibility of suffixed *-l see Introduction; cf. ARB a mat- 'co^t gauche'
[BK 1 1179], SAB s2 m 'North' [SD 130] and JIB sî (a correct transcription is s^n,
see [SSL 2 247]) 'gauche' quoted in [LS 64] under mhel (influenced, according to
Leslau, by i 'droite', cf. notes to *yamn *yamn-, No. ).
See metathesis with a meaning shift in ARB a amal- 'vent du Nord' (also
am al- do.) [BK 1 1273] and ESA: SAB h-s2 ml 'be northward' [SD 130], MIN
s2 ml-s1 'vers le nord' [LM 85] (note s2m l-s1 quoted [ibid. 86] as a contextual form).
Note BERB *a-z lmad 'left', *z- yielding AFRAS *c^. With three identical root
consonants out of four, though in a metathetic order, and such specific meaning as
'left', the SEM and BERB roots are very likely related; BERB -d in Auslaut, though,
remains unexplained (<*a-z lma -t <*-cîlma -t < metathetic *cîm al-t ?).
[Holma 3]: AKK, HBR, ARB, SYR; [KB 1332]: HBR, UGR, AKK, ARM, ARB, ESA;
[Brock 481]: SYR, ARB, HBR, AKK; [LS 430]: SOQ, MSA, ARB, HBR, SYR, AKK
Proto-North Caucasian: *m(r) _w

Meaning: ice
Proto-Lak: mik
Proto-Dargwa: *mi
Proto-Lezghian: *mer :
Proto-Khinalug: mik
Proto-West Caucasian: *m
Notes: The EC-WC comparison was proposed by Trubetzkoy. Dissimilatory
delabialisation after an initial labial is normal in PWC, as well as the palatalized reflex
* (since non-palatalized *L is not reconstructed). A minor phonetic problem is,
however, the preservation of nasal *m- in PWC (a non-nasal *P- would be expected
before the following -r-resonant). It is not excluded, however, that *-r- in the PL form
*mer : is secondary (duplicating the -r- of the oblique stem *me : V-rV- >
*mer : V-rV-, cf. modern obl. stems like Ag. merk:ur-a-, Bursh. mirk:-ri-, Rut.
m k r -, Kryz. m k r-). In that case *m _w should be reconstructed for PEC,
and the PWC correspondence would be wholly regular.
See Trubetzkoy 1922, 241, 243; 1930, 276; Abdokov 1983, 97.
Sumerian:
amagi [FROST] (1x: Old Babylonian) wr. amagi; amagi2; amagi3 "frost, ice" Akk. halp;
mamm; urpu
[1] amagi
[2] amagi2
[3] amagi3
Proto-North Caucasian: *me _V ( - -,-x-)

Meaning: study, knowledge
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *mo :-
Proto-Tsezian: *m L(:)- (- -,- :-)
Proto-Lak: max(:)-
Proto-Khinalug: mux-
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Tenseness of -x- in Lak. is unknown
(attested only in the syllable-final position), thus a reconstruction of both *- - ( > Lak.
x) and *-x- ( > Lak. x:) is possible.
A reconstruction *be n _V is also possible; in this case one could also compare
HU *pl- (Hurr. pl-, Urart. pal- or pl-) "to pronounce, to tell" (see Diakonoff-
Proto-North Caucasian: *me lc_i

Meaning: tongue
Proto-Nakh: *mott
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *mic:i
Proto-Tsezian: *m c A
Proto-Lak: maz
Proto-Dargwa: *mec:/*lec:mi
Proto-Lezghian: *melc:
Proto-Khinalug: mic
Proto-West Caucasian: *b A
Notes: A common NC root with perfect correspondences. See Trubetzkoy 1930, 277;
Abdokov 1983, 78.
Sumerian:
eme [TONGUE] (178x: ED IIIa, ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Ur III, Early Old Babylonian, Old
Babylonian) wr. eme "tongue; language" Akk. linu
[1] eme
Proto-North Caucasian: *m wA ( --, - -)

Meaning: sun; day
Proto-Nakh: *ml
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *mi i
Proto-West Caucasian: *ma wV
Notes: See Trubetzkoy 1922, 239, 242;1930, 275 (who also compares Darg. beri
'sun' which is reflecting a different NC root, see PNC *wir q _A ), Abdokov 1983,
96. The metathesizes form is probably reflected in HU: Hurr. im-g 'sun' (with a
diminutive suffix), see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 23.
The inner analysis of the WC form (prefix *ma- + * V 'white, light') which had
been accepted by many authors (see 1912, 46; 1948, 273, 292;
1941, 260; Rogava 1956, 26; Kuipers 1960, 111; Shagirov 1, 262) must be regarded
as a folk etymology, because of the obvious relationship between the EC and WC
forms.
Interesting is the comparison of the WC forms with Old Georgian sa-m ari 'south'
( 1953, 71); on the other hand, Mszaros' comparison of WC forms with
PEC *Hwq _ 'day' (1934, 242) is absolutely untenable.
Sumerian:
ame [RADIANCE] (8x: Old Babylonian) wr. a-me; a-mezabar "radiance; sun-disk
ornament" Akk. barru; amatu
[1] a-me
[2] a-mezabar
Proto-Semitic: *sâm(sâm)-
Meaning: 'sun' 1, 'sun-heat' 2
Akkadian: amu 1
Hebrew: eme 1
Syrian Aramaic: em- 1
Arabic: ams- 1
Epigraphic South Arabian: ms^ 1
Tigre: m 1
Soqotri: am
Notes: Partial reduplication and dissimilation from *am-
Proto-North Caucasian: *m lwV

Meaning: wind
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *mo i (/*mi i)
Proto-Tsezian: *mu: A
Proto-Lak: mar
Proto-Lezghian: *mu
Sumerian:
mir [WIND] (347x: ED IIIa, Old Akkadian, Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. mir; tumumir "north
wind; north; storm" Akk. itnu; meh
[1] mir (mer)

tumu
[2] mir
Proto-North Caucasian: *mrV

Meaning: male
Proto-Nakh: *mr
Proto-Dargwa: *marga
Proto-Lezghian: *mor : l / *uor : l
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Cf. also Hurr. mari(j)-ann 'chariot driver',
Urart. mar 'one of the social groups' - an important social term, not borrowed (as
sometimes supposed) from Indo-Aryan (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 21).
Proto-North Caucasian: *mu s_i ( - -,-e)

Meaning: fog, smoke
Proto-Tsezian: *mus: A
Proto-Dargwa: *mus:i
Notes: A Tsez-Darg. isogloss (note the use of the root in compounds with 'cloud' both
in PTs and in Dargwa).
Sumerian:
muru [RAINSTORM] (21x: Old Babylonian) wr. muru9; muru3 "rainstorm; mist; drizzle"
Akk. imbaru; mur
[1] muru9
[2] muru3
Proto-North Caucasian: *mus_VrV

Meaning: goat (wild or domestic)
Proto-Nakh: *masor
Proto-Dargwa: *murs:
Proto-Lezghian: *mos:Vra ( -s-)
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Correspondences are regular and the root
seems reliable (although not widely spread outside Nakh).
Sumerian:
ma [GOAT] (10699x: ED IIIa, ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Early Old
Babylonian, Old Babylonian, 1st millennium) wr. ma2; ma "goat; extispicy; sacrificial
animal for omens" Akk. bru; uru
[1] ma2
[2] ma
Proto-North Caucasian: *-mV

Meaning: plural
Proto-Nakh: [*-m] ?
Proto-Tsezian: *-mV
Proto-Dargwa: *-mi
Proto-Lezghian: *-mV
Notes: PL also has a general obl. stem in *-mV-; it is not quite clear whether we deal
with one or two morphemes here. Cf. Hurr. -umme 'nomina actionis, infinitives'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *mV [c]V

Meaning: hunger
Proto-Nakh: *maci-n
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *mak ac- ( -o-)
Proto-Lezghian: *mos: -
Notes: The Nakh, Andian and Lezgian forms must be related, although phonetic
correspondences are rather strange in this root. Unclear is the syllable *-k a- in PA,
as well as the tense *s: in PL. Perhaps we should reconstruct here a rare cluster of
two medial stops (*mV kwcV) or a trisyllabic structure, like in PA? Another solution
may be provided by an isolated form, attested in Tsez. (Kid.): meka 'hunger' - The
PA form could be a compound *mak ac- < *mak a-mac- (where the first component
= Tsez. meka-, and the second component = PN *maci-). On the whole, a rather
obscure case.
Sumerian:
muagana [PANGS] wr. muagana "hunger pangs, ravenous hunger" Akk. karurtu a
barbaru
[1] muagana
Proto-North Caucasian: *mV nxV

Meaning: male, man
Proto-Nakh: *n
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *mi i-a-
Notes: A Nakh-Andian isogloss.
Sumerian:
mes [HERO] (29x: ED IIIa, ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. mes "hero;
(to be) manly; young man" Akk. elu
[1] mes (me3)
Proto-North Caucasian: *mVq _V V

Meaning: throat, larynx; chute, gutter
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *maq :ala (o)
Proto-Tsezian: *muq
Proto-Dargwa: *muq luq
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Reduplication is identical in Av. and Darg.,
thus a loan is possible (although the meanings are different). Lack of *- V in the
Bezht. form is probably secondary - a result of an analogous reanalysis of the oblique
stem *muq VlV- (cf. Bezht. -muq li-). There are too few data for a proper
reconstruction of vocalism.
Note:
Sumerian m-/- allophones represent a laryngeal
Sumerian:
eli [THROAT] (5x: Old Babylonian) wr. eli3 "throat; windpipe" Akk. ma'ltum; niml
[1] eli3
meli [NECK] wr. mel3; melix(|KAGAR+A3+A|); meli2; melix(|KAU2|) "neck" Akk. neml
[1] mel3
[2] melix(|KAGAR+A3+A|)
[3] meli2
[4] melix(|KAU2|)
Proto-North Caucasian: *mV xwV ( -x_-,-f-)

Meaning: price, pay
Proto-Nakh: *m
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *mix V
Proto-West Caucasian: *x V
Notes: The root behaves very similarly to PNC *mawE 'price' (with the same loss
of initial *mV- in a verbal root in PWC), and should be certainly reconstructed for
PNC. The semantic difference between these two roots is yet to be established (in
Ubykh they are opposed as 'profit, pay' : 'price'; in PAA as 'price, buy' : 'pay'). Cf. also
HU: Hurr. ni -ari 'dowry' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 22).
Proto-North Caucasian: *mV _wA

Meaning: fianc, son-in-law
Proto-Lak: muhi
Proto-Lezghian: *mV : - ( -q -)
Proto-West Caucasian: *ma
Notes: The root is well preserved in WC, but lost in most EC languages (except Lak.
and Udi). Nevertheless, its NC antiquity seems quite probable.
Sumerian:
mussa [IN-LAW] (53x: ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. mussa; mi2-us2-
sa; mi2-sa2 "son-in-law" Akk. emu ehru
[1] mussa (mi2-us2-sa2)
[2] mi2-us2-sa
[3] mi2-sa2
mussatur [IN-LAW] (5x: Old Babylonian) wr. mussa-tur "son-in-law"
[1] mussa-tur
Proto-North Caucasian: *n[a]V ( --)

Meaning: shame
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *nVV
Proto-Lak: na
Proto-Lezghian: *na(a)
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. The root is attested only in three languages,
but seems to be archaic. [? Cf. Austric: PAN *hait, -iC 'anger' (?+ *qaNiC 'skin'),
PAA *nVt 'afraid, angry']
Sumerian:
ni [FEAR] (326x: ED IIIb, Lagash II, Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. ni2; e; ne4 "fear, aura"
Akk. puluhtu
[1] ni2
[2] e
[3] ne4
Proto-North Caucasian: *n w_i

Meaning: two; a 2-year-old animal
Proto-Nakh: *i(n)
Proto-Lak: nuw:a
Proto-Lezghian: *nuaj (-iw-)
Proto-West Caucasian: *n
Notes: An interesting case. The root must have originally meant simply "two" and
formed part of the suppletive paradigm of the PNC numeral "two" (*tq Iw -
*nw_i). The original meaning is preserved in PN and HU: cf. HU *in 'two' > Hurr.
in-, Ur. i^- ( < *in-(i) ), see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 37. (Note that both in PN
and HU the root is metathesized). But probably already in PNC the root was used
also to denote a two-year-old animal; it is only the latter function in which it was
preserved in most modern languages. The Nakh languages present here an
important link, because they have preserved the root in both functions. Phonetically
the comparison is satisfactory (PL has a form with a frequent *-j suffix; weakness of -
- should be best explained by an intermediate form *ni aj < *niw:-aj). Some
problems are raised by -- in WC (instead of the expected --; perhaps the affricate
reflects here the rare Inlaut combination -w:- ?).
Note:
Sumerian min derived from metathesis of Phoenician: nm
Sumerian:
min [TWO] (959x: ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Ur III, Early Old Babylonian, Old Babylonian)
wr. min; min3; min6 "two; ditto" Akk. ina
[1] min
[2] min3 (man)
[3] min6
Proto-Semitic: *t_Vny-
Meaning: two
Akkadian: in
Ugaritic: t_n
Phoenician: nm
Hebrew: nayim
Arabic: it_nni
Epigraphic South Arabian: t_ny
Mehri: t_ni 'second', me-t_eny-t 'incisor tooth'
Jibbali: met_ent 'incisor tooth'
Harsusi: t_nye 'second', me-t_en-t 'incisor tooth'
Soqotri: mitnoh 'tooth'
Proto-North Caucasian: *ne kw ( - -,--,- ,-a )

Meaning: oath; to swear
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *nok o
Proto-West Caucasian: *k V
Notes: An interesting And.-WC isogloss; phonetically and semantically looks quite
satisfactory.
Sumerian:
namNERU [OATH] (46x: Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. nam-NE.RU "oath" Akk. mmtu
[1] nam-NE.RU
Proto-North Caucasian: *ne m _i ( -e )

Meaning: louse
Proto-Nakh: *mace
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *noc:i
Proto-Tsezian: *n c A
Proto-Lak: nac
Proto-Dargwa: *nez
Proto-Lezghian: *nc:
Proto-Khinalug: nimc
Proto-West Caucasian: *cA
Notes: One of the best preserved common NC roots. Correspondences are regular
(except the Av. paradigm A - since Nakh languages do not show here any trace of
any laryngeal, and there is no pharyngealisation in PL, PD and Lak., it must be
secondary).
Sumerian:
mar [PARASITE] (8x: ED IIIa, ED IIIb, Ur III) wr. mar "louse; worm; parasite"
Akk. miqqanu; tltu
[1] mar
Proto-North Caucasian: *ne _V

Meaning: milk; milk product (butter, cheese)
Proto-Nakh: *nal [o]
Proto-Lak: nak
Proto-Dargwa: *ni
Proto-Lezghian: *nI :
Proto-Khinalug: eng
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. The Khin. form obviously belongs here,
although the metathesis eng (instead of *neg) is not quite clear; other languages do
not allow to reconstruct any root structure except *RVCV. All other forms are
completely regular.
Abayev (1958, 544) suggests some Caucasian source (connected with Khin. eng)
for Osset. ing n 'curds'.
Sumerian:
ga [MILK] (4425x: ED IIIa, ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Early Old Babylonian,
Old Babylonian, 1st millennium, unknown) wr. ga "milk; suckling" Akk. izbu
[1] ga
Proto-North Caucasian: *n
Meaning: I (1st pers. pronoun)
Proto-Lak: na
Proto-Dargwa: *nu
Notes: A Lak-Darg. isogloss. The etymology is not very reliable, because the forms
are very isolated, and do not fit into the paradigm of the 1st person pronoun
reconstructed on other evidence (see *z).
If we compare the paradigm of the 1st p. pr. in Dargwa dialects, it becomes

probable that PD *nu is a secondary development < *du (or, possibly, *du-n, cf. PL
*zon): cf. Ak. nom. nu, erg. nuni, dat. nab vs. Chir. nom. du, erg. di-c:e, dat. dam.
Still, PD *nu- in the 1st p. plural *nu-:a stays unexplained, as well as Lak. na (also <
*da-n or *t:a-n, cf. the obl. stem t:u- ?).
An etymological possibility would be to consider the morpheme *n as originally

a collective plural pronoun: cf. its use in PD *nu-s:a 'we' (exclusive), *nu-x:a 'we'
(inclusive), *nu-:a 'you (plur.)', quite parallel to Av. ni-, ni- : and nu-. Its usage in
the 1st person plural could have influenced the 1st person singular in Lak. and Darg.,
and this influence was strengthened by a chance of secondary nasalisation (e. g. PD
*nu < *du-(n)).
Proto-Semitic: * an-akV
Meaning: I
Akkadian: anku
Ugaritic: an, ank
Phoenician: nk
Hebrew: a n, nk
Aramaic: Pal a n
Biblical Aramaic: a n
Syrian Aramaic: en
Modern Aramaic: Urm n
Mandaic Aramaic: ana
Arabic: an
Modern Arabic: Leb ani
Epigraphic South Arabian: n
Ge ez (Ethiopian): an
Tigre: na
Tigrai (Tigria): ane
Amharic: ne
Argobba: an, y
Gafat: ant
Harari: n
Number: 3030
Proto-Semitic: * an-akV
Meaning: I
Akkadian: anku
Ugaritic: an, ank
Phoenician: nk
Hebrew: a n, nk
Aramaic: Pal a n
Biblical Aramaic: a n
Syrian Aramaic: en
Modern Aramaic: Urm n
Mandaic Aramaic: ana
Arabic: an
Modern Arabic: Leb ani
Epigraphic South Arabian: n
Ge ez (Ethiopian): an
Tigre: na
Tigrai (Tigria): ane
Amharic: ne
Argobba: an, y
Gafat: ant
Harari: n
Proto-North Caucasian: *nu sA ( -o -)

Meaning: daughter-in-law
Proto-Nakh: *nus
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *nusa
Proto-Khinalug: c -nas
Proto-West Caucasian: *n sa ( --)
Notes: Correspondences are regular, and this is undoubtedly a common NC kinship
term. Cf. also HU *nas- > Hurr. na-ard 'concubines' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986,
37). The root has interesting parallels in other linguistic families: Semitic (Arab. niswa
'women', nis id. - whence Turk. nisa); IE (*snus- 'daughter-in-law') - thus being an
old Eurasiatic "Wanderwort".
See Genko 1930, 725; Balkarov 1965, 17; Abayev 1973, 190; Shagirov 1977, 287-
288; Abdokov 1983, 86.
Proto-North Caucasian: *nV

Meaning: oblique stem
Proto-Tsezian: *-nV-
Proto-Lak: -ni-
Proto-Lezghian: *-nV-
Notes: Cf. probably Hurr. -ne- (plur. -na-), Ur. -n-, -n 'definite article'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *-nV

Meaning: genitive
Proto-Nakh: *-n (cf. also *-nV dative)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-nV
Proto-Lak: -n
Proto-Lezghian: *-n
Proto-West Caucasian: [*-n ]
Notes: Also widely used for building denominative attributes. Cf. Hurr. -nn 'suffix of
substantivized relative adjectives', as well as Hurr., Urart. -n 'ablative, ablative-
instrumental'. [Lak. Dat. -n, PN Dat. *-na and PL directive *-na may go back to a
separate directive case *-na].
Proto-North Caucasian: *-nV

Meaning: (present) gerund; deverbative noun
Proto-Nakh: *-(i)-n
Proto-Avaro-Andian: [*-nV]
Proto-Tsezian: *-an
Proto-Lak: -n-na, -n-nu; -n
Proto-Dargwa: *-n
Proto-Lezghian: *-na, *-a-na
Proto-West Caucasian: *-n
Notes: Cf. also Hurr., Ur. -n , -nu 'nominal suffix' (?)
Proto-North Caucasian: *bo rGwV ( - -)

Meaning: stall, shed; tower
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *bir a ( -o)
Proto-Tsezian: *be (:) ( o, )
Proto-West Caucasian: *ba[q:I]V
Notes: Cf. Urart. burg-ana- ( > Arm. burgn) 'tower, fortress' (see Diakonoff-Starostin
1986, 18). An interesting common NC term - which has parallels in some European
languages (an old Wanderwort). Abdokov (1983, 125) compares the Kab. form with
heterogeneous EC material (Darg. dirq, Tab. aqI) which is hardly justified.
Proto-North Caucasian: *bVdV

Meaning: side
Proto-Lezghian: *p:at:
Notes: The PL form is compared (in Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 17) with Urart. bed
'side; (postpos.) on the part of, by'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *c n V
Meaning: new
Proto-Nakh: *cin-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *cinhV-
Proto-Tsezian: *- cVn- A
Proto-Lak: cu-
Proto-Dargwa: *ci-
Proto-Lezghian: *cenj- / *cenw-
Proto-West Caucasian: *cA
Notes: One of the most widely spread common NC roots. It is adjectival, but usually
does not have class prefixes (the situation in some Tsez. languages must therefore
be considered as a secondary innovation). In Khin. the root is preserved within the
compound c -nas 'bride' (see *nu sA).
Cf. Urart. (V)-u 'new' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 34-35).
See Trubetzkoy 1930, 275; 1983, 142.
Proto-North Caucasian: *-V-

Meaning: ad series
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-u-
Proto-Lak: --
Proto-Lezghian: [*-]
Notes: Cf. Urart. -as 'locative-illative'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *grV

Meaning: a k. of vessel
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *gigar ( -or)
Proto-Lezghian: *k:or(a)
Proto-West Caucasian: *k:ara ( g-)
Notes: The root is not widely spread, but seems phonetically and semantically
reliable. It must have denoted some middle-sized wooden vessel.
Cf. perhaps also Urart. ker 'bowl' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 55), although
the vocalism raises doubts.
Sumerian:
gur [UNIT] (27945x: ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Early Old Babylonian, Old
Babylonian) wr. gur; gur9 "unit of capacity; a measuring vessel" Akk. kurru; namandu
[1] gur
[2] gur9
Proto-North Caucasian: *HarG_(w)V

Meaning: to break, destroy, be broken
Proto-Tsezian: *laq
Proto-Lak: liI=q a-
Proto-Dargwa: *=ar I - *=ab I -
Proto-Lezghian: * arq:Ia
Proto-Khinalug: zo= -
Proto-West Caucasian: *q: - (q )
Notes: PTs has not preserved the original verb, but only the derivate (with a widely
spread semantic shift 'break, cut' > 'wound'); note the prefix coincidence in PTs and
Laki. The EC-WC comparison see in 1983, 162.
Cf. also Urart. iw - (spelled iB -) 'to destroy', see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 60.
Proto-North Caucasian: *Hc_Vr / *HrVc_

Meaning: clearing, uncultivated land
Proto-Nakh: * ircV ( , ,,- -)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *ha:a (-,o)
Proto-Lezghian: *ura (-o-)
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. The vocalism is hard to establish (too few
data). The PN and PL forms point to a root structure *HCVRV ; however, the PA
form reflects rather a metathesized structure *HRVCV . Cf. also Urart. cir-ab-
'empty, uninhabited' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 44).
Proto-North Caucasian: *Hi _wV(- V )

Meaning: root, seed; kin
Proto-Nakh: * ablV (- -,--)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *hi :ib (/-m)
Proto-Tsezian: * ib(u) A
Proto-Lezghian: * :iw(a)
Proto-West Caucasian: * : lA
Notes: Cf. also HU: Urart. zil(i)b- 'seed; descendants, kin' (see Diakonoff-Starostin
1986, 48).
An interesting common NC root. An original polysemy ("root, seed" : "kin, clan")

can be reconstructed, because both meanings keep recurring in different
subbranches (Nakh, Avar, WC, HU). The meaning 'leaf' in PC is obviously secondary
- although phonetically PC * ib(u) goes back directly to *Hi _wV, semantically it
has merged with PNC * a pi 'leaf' q.v.
Proto-North Caucasian: *hilwE

Meaning: to run
Proto-Tsezian: *=[]-
Proto-Lak: liI=a-
Proto-Lezghian: *hi -
Proto-Khinalug: =p-
Proto-West Caucasian: *: a
Notes: The EC-WC comparison seems reliable both phonetically and semantically.
Sumerian:
kaku [RUN] (1x: Old Babylonian) wr. kaku "to run" Akk. lasmu
[1] kaku
Akkadian:
lasmu [KA4 : ] (vb. u/u)
to run
Comparison with other Semitic languages :
Proto-Semitic : *lasm
Ugaritic : lsm
Proto-North Caucasian: *GaV ( - -)

Meaning: calf, bull-calf
Proto-Lak: q:aIa
Proto-Dargwa: *q:aa
Proto-Khinalug: q:i:-e
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. The root is mostly spread in the Eastern
area. In some of the Darg. dialects and in Khin. there occurred an assimilation > :
after q:.
Sumerian:
gud [OX] (17947x: ED IIIa, ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Early Old Babylonian,
Old Babylonian, 1st millennium, unknown) wr. gud; gu3-ra "bull, ox; cattle; calf; lion"
Akk. alpu; l'um
[1] gud (gu4)
[2] gu3-ra
Proto-North Caucasian: *ga lV ( - -)

Meaning: stick
Proto-Nakh: *gala
Proto-Tsezian: *gelV (- -,- -,-r-)
Proto-Lak: :ala
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Cf. also the reduplicated synonymous form
*ga lVgV q.v.: we keep the stems distinct, because they have separate reflexes in
some subgroups, but *ga lVgV most certainly is a reduplication of *ga lV.
Sumerian:
hal [STICK] wr. hal "a stick" Akk. pukku
[1] hal
Proto-North Caucasian: *ga l(V)gV

Meaning: stick
Proto-Nakh: *gag
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *gVrVgV
Proto-Tsezian: *gagV- *gogV-
Proto-Dargwa: *k:alk:V
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. It is possible to derive this stem (through
reduplication) from PEC *ga lV 'stick' q.v.
Sumerian:
gug [STICK] (2x: Old Babylonian) wr. gug6 "stick; weapon" Akk. kakku
[1] gug6
Proto-North Caucasian: *ga (/*ga)
Meaning: hunger
Proto-Lak: k:ai
Proto-Dargwa: *k:ai
Proto-Lezghian: *k:aa
Proto-West Caucasian: * ga ( -k:-)
Notes: Lak. k:ai may be borrowed from Darg. (or vice versa), but may be also
genuine. PWC has, as in some other cases, an affricate corresponding to a PEC
fricative: this must be explained by a historical dental prefix (* ga < *T- ga).
An interesting common NC root, attested also in other geographically close

families (cf. Sum. gar 'hunger' [cf. especially the PWC form], Hitt. kast, Afroasiatic:
Sem. *gs^ , Cush. *ga ac^-).
Sumerian:
aar [STARVATION] (39x: Old Babylonian) wr. a3-ar; e-ar; aar; a3-mar "starvation"
Akk. bru
[1] a3-ar (a3-gar)
[2] e-ar (e-gar)
[3] aar (agar)
[4] a3-mar
Proto-North Caucasian: *bHV rgA

Meaning: a beast of prey
Proto-Nakh: *b( )erg (- -,-k)
Proto-Dargwa: *buk: ( -g)
Proto-West Caucasian: *bIaga
Notes: The root is well attested in WC, but has left only faint traces in EC languages
(Chech. and Darg., both only in compounds). Still the NC reconstruction seems
rather probable, and EC languages have probably lost the root because the particular
beast of pray (jackal?), denoted by the root in PNC, was not spread in the mountains
of East Caucasus.
It is interesting to note similar words in other languages of the East: cf. Sum. pirig
'lion', Old Indian vyghr- 'tiger' (whence Arm. vagr) etc.
Sumerian:
piri [LION] (205x: ED IIIa, ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr.
piri; piri3; bi2-ri-i3; epiri; piri2 "lion; bull, wild bull" Akk. l; lbu; nu; rmu
[1] piri (pirig)
[2] piri3 (pirig3)
[3] bi2-ri-i3 (ES)

e
[4] piri (gepirig)
[5] piri2
Proto-North Caucasian: *be rci ( -e )
Meaning: wolf; jackal
Proto-Nakh: *b orc
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *boco
Proto-Tsezian: *b c A
Proto-Lak: barc
Proto-Dargwa: *bec
Proto-West Caucasian: *(bVgV)-bV V
Notes: If we assume a secondary contraction in PWC, the root is well reconstructable
for NC; all correspondences are regular.
Proto-North Caucasian: *sw n

Meaning: barberry; currants
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *soni ( -a-)
Proto-Tsezian: *z n(u) B
Proto-Lak: sun
Proto-Lezghian: *s: na ( *s -)
Proto-West Caucasian: *s( )ana
Notes: The comparison between EC and WC (PAK) seems reliable both phonetically
and semantically. See Abdokov 1983, 112.
Hurrian in Arraphe had a word *ann-or 'plum-(tree), medlar' ( > Akkad. annru,
perhaps also Sum. ennur id.), which can be compared with EC *sw n. Other
dialects, however, had *all-or ( > Akkad. allru, Arm. salor) with a secondary -l-
The Caucasian word (with the meaning 'grapes' > 'wine') penetrated into Scythian
*sana, Osset. sn / sn (despite Abayev 1979, 67, the Indo-Iranian origin of the
word is highly dubious). Note that usually this root is confused with PNC * w[ ]n i
'honey, wine' (q.v.) - etymologically quite different.
Sumerian:
ennur [PLUM] (12x: Old Babylonian, unknown) wr. ennur "plum" Akk. allru
[1] ennur
Proto-North Caucasian: * u mV
Meaning: bush, grass; a k. of fruit
Proto-Nakh: * o lVm ( -a -)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *umi / *imi
Proto-Tsezian: *umal ( -, :-)
Proto-Lak: unaw
Proto-Dargwa: *:unab
Proto-Lezghian: * uIm ( -o-)
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Several subgroups reflect a PEC derivate
* u mV- V (sometimes, with metathesis > * u VmV). Because of a specific
and identical metathesis of nasality, it is highly probable that either the Darg. forms
are borrowed from Lak., or vice versa - although it is difficult now to establish the
direction of loan. The form * u VmV (or * u Vm-bV, with a plural suffix) is
attested already in Hurr. zilumba 'date of the Phoenix dactylifera' (whence it was
borrowed into Sum. zulum(m)a, Akkad. suluppu, see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 41).
Despite Khaidakov 1973, Kum. um 'berry, cornel' can not be the source of
Caucasian forms (although it is a probable source of the isolated And. (cited from
ibid.) um 'cornel'). Within Turkic the root is known only in modern Kumyk, Balkar and
Turkmani, thus with high probability is itself borrowed from some Caucasian (or
closely related) language. Caucasian origin is also quite probable for Osset. c m /
cum 'cornel' (see Abayev 1958, 321).
Sumerian:
zulum [DATE] (2313x: ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Early Old Babylonian, Old
Babylonian, unknown) wr. zu2-lum "the fruit of the date-palm" Akk. suluppu
[1] zu2-lum (su11-lum)
Proto-North Caucasian: *Hl V

Meaning: liver
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *ri V
Proto-Lak: t:ilik
Proto-Dargwa: *dulek
Proto-Lezghian: *l
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Length of the final vowel is unclear: the Av.
paradigm C and the structure of the root in PA (*RVCV) point to a short vowel;
however, Eastern Dagestan forms presuppose a form like *Hl V . Metathesized
*H lV might have also existed (cf. Avar tul - if it belongs here, see above), in which
case we can also compare Urart. zel-d 'liver' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 48-49).
Abdokov's (1982, 83) attempt to compare this root with WC *c A 'liver' should be
regarded as unsuccessful (for phonetic reasons, and because of a better etymology
for the WC form, q.v.).
Proto-North Caucasian: *HVq _Vr

Meaning: to drink; to pour, flow
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *HVq :V-
Proto-Lak: iIq -
Proto-Lezghian: *HVq:Vr-
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level (although the vocalism is hard to establish).
Cf. also Urart. ur- 'to drink', see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 60.
Proto-North Caucasian: *HVre cV

Meaning: copper
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *o(r)co ( a)
Proto-Tsezian: *h r c
Notes: An And.-Tsez. isogloss. Phonetically very close is Lak. haraci 'a middle-sized
earthenware vessel' - but it can belong here only if the original Lak. meaning was
"copper vessel".
Sumerian:
urud [COPPER] (992x: ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Early Old Babylonian, Old
Babylonian, unknown) wr. urud; urud2 "copper" Akk. er
[1] urud (uruda)
[2] urud2 (urudu2)
Proto-North Caucasian: * w rq_

Meaning: mountain ridge; boundary
Proto-Nakh: * r (a) ( -)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *H Vrq:V
Proto-Dargwa: *hurqi
Proto-Lezghian: * arq(a) (hI-,-l-)
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Cf. also Urart. alg- 'boundary, mountain
ridge' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 30).
Proto-North Caucasian: *jicw ( -o)
Meaning: place
Proto-Lezghian: *jis
Notes: Besides PL *jis cf. Urart. es 'place' ( < HU *ec-). An interesting Lezg.-HU
isogloss (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 39).
Proto-North Caucasian: *-k- / *-g-

Meaning: some locative series
Proto-Nakh: *-go
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-g- (? = *-k-)
Proto-Tsezian: [*-k- -g-]
Proto-Lezghian: *-k-
Proto-Khinalug: -ko-li
Proto-West Caucasian: *k - / *g
Notes: Perhaps two original morphemes, but rather hard to distinguish. Cf. also Urart.
-kai , -k 'prelative'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *-k_E

Meaning: (past) gerund or participle
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-gV / *-kV
Proto-Tsezian: [*-gu]
Proto-Lak: -a ( < -ka)
Proto-Lezghian: *-ke(j)
Proto-West Caucasian: *-gV
Notes: Originally an emphatic particle; cf. also Urart. kui/e 'even, also'.
Proto-North Caucasian: * _(w) rV / * _(w) r-dV

Meaning: woman, female
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * :VdV
Proto-Lak: :ar
Proto-Dargwa: *xadi
Proto-Lezghian: * r (* :-)
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level.The root is also attested in HU: Urart. lutu
'women' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 27). The meaning of the Urartian form sheds
light on the nature of the element *-dV in EC (present in Av., Darg. and Ur.): this is
most probably an original plural formant.
See Trubetzkoy 1922, 239. Despite Abdokov (1983, 89), the EC root can not be
related to WC *s (m )cV 'woman' q.v.
Proto-North Caucasian: *l(H)ap V

Meaning: to throw, a throw
Proto-Lak: laIp
Proto-Lezghian: *lap (a)
Notes: An expressive Lak-Lezg. isogloss. The root, however, may be archaic if it is
related to Urart. np -a - "to overthrow, to subdue" (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986,
19).
Proto-North Caucasian: *mawE ( - -)

Meaning: price, pay
Proto-Lak: maa
Proto-Dargwa: *mas:
Proto-Lezghian: *mas:
Notes: An interesting common NC root. Correspondences are fully regular (including
a regular loss of *m- in a WC verbal root). Cf. also HU: Urart. me- 'to collect', me
'tribute' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 22).
Sumerian:
sam [PRICE] (120x: ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Early Old Babylonian, Old Babylonian) wr.
sam2 "purchase price" Akk. mu
[1] sam2
Proto-North Caucasian: *nwcV

Meaning: right, even
Proto-Nakh: *nibsi-
Notes: A probable parallel for PN *nibsi- is PHU *mcV- "righteous, just" > Hurr. m-,
Urart. mc (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 33).
Proto-North Caucasian: *nV kV

Meaning: swimming, flowing
Proto-Nakh: *nki
Notes: The root is attested only in Nakh, but cf. Urart. nek- 'to flow, flow out' (see
The Urartian parallel makes a loan from Iranian improbable: thus Osset. nak
'swimming' is probably a loan from Nakh, not vice versa (pace Abayev 1973, 152)
and hardly goes back to *snka-.
Proto-North Caucasian: *=a hwV(r)

Meaning: to do
Proto-Nakh: *=a-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-ih-
Proto-Tsezian: *=Vw-
Proto-Lak: =a-
Proto-Dargwa: *0/-i-r-
Proto-Lezghian: * a a(r)-
Proto-Khinalug: =ar
Proto-West Caucasian: *w
Notes: A widely spread common NC verb with a laryngeal root consonant. The final -r
was regularly lost in most subgroups, but is preserved in the Eastern area (Darg.,
Lezg., Khin.); cf. also HU: Urart. u/or- 'to make, to work', ur-i(i) 'instrument' (see
Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 63). The root demonstrates the Ablaut *a/i.
Proto-North Caucasian: *=a wV

Meaning: edge, point; face
Proto-Nakh: *=u
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=a V
Proto-Tsezian: *r- V (-i-)
Proto-Lak: =ajiI-l-
Proto-Dargwa: *=a
Proto-Lezghian: *V-rV-
Notes: One of several PEC nouns with changing class prefixes. It also served as the
root of PEC *=a wV- (often with suffixes *-a wV-rV- or *-a wV-lV-) 'sharp' ( >
PN * i-ri-, Av. -e -ra-, PA *-a V(-rV)-, Lak. =ajiI-l-, PL *V-rV-).
Cf. also HU: Hurr. aw , aj 'face, front', Urart. aj 'before' (see Diakonoff-
Starostin 1986, 64; we must add that the HU root can actually reflect a merger of
PEC *=a wV 'face' and * w - 'before, in front' q.v.).
Proto-North Caucasian: *=a rkE w

Meaning: to drive, urge; (be driven=) to go
Proto-Nakh: *=ik-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *kVb-
Proto-Tsezian: *=ek- A
Proto-Dargwa: *=irk-
Proto-Lezghian: * a(r)k
Proto-West Caucasian: *k a
Notes: Cf. also HU: Hurr., Urart. ag- 'to lead, to bring; to lead away' (see Diakonoff-
Correspondences are regular, and the etymology seems quite satisfactory. The
PN, PD (and probably PA) forms reflect the Ablaut grade *-i -. See 1983,
176.
Proto-North Caucasian: *= sA
Meaning: to sit, stay
Proto-Nakh: *=is-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *k-us-
Proto-Lezghian: * os:V-
Proto-West Caucasian: *s - ( *-)
Notes: The verb demonstrates an old Ablaut *- sA (reflected in PN *-is-, PWC *s -
and probably also Ud. ars-) / *-os(w)V (reflected in PA *-us-, PL * os:V-). It is
interesting that the grade *-i sV is not attested. Correspondences are regular.
Cf. also HU: Hurr. a:- 'to sit', Urart. a- 'to sit' (caus. 'to put'), see Diakonoff-
Starostin 1986, 37.
Proto-North Caucasian: *= twV

Meaning: to beat, to hit
Proto-Nakh: * t-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=it -
Proto-Tsezian: *=et - A
Proto-Lak: =u=ta-
Proto-Dargwa: *=it-
Proto-Lezghian: * t a- / * at a-
Proto-Khinalug: it-
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. The root is preserved in most languages, but
sometimes with a modified meaning (notably in Aand-Tsez.: 'to throw (oneself upon)
> to fly'). Cf. also Urart. at- 'to destroy' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 24).
Proto-North Caucasian: *= r _U
Meaning: to go, walk, enter
Proto-Nakh: *--
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=i :u-
Proto-Tsezian: * o :- (- -,-L-)
Proto-Lak: =u=k:a-
Proto-Lezghian: * ar :e-
Proto-Khinalug: ka-
Proto-West Caucasian: * V
Notes: A widely spread common NC verb root. Cf. also HU: Urart. u/ol- 'to go, to start
going' (caus. 'to carry off'), see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 50-51.
Trubetzkoy (1930, 278) compares the WC form with PEC *=i _V 'to carry' -
which is hardly justified (both for phonetic and semantic reasons).
Proto-North Caucasian: *=HarxVr ( - -, - -)

Meaning: to sweep
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * ar- ( -o-)
Proto-Lak: =ai-
Proto-Lezghian: * ar V(r) ( - :-)
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Correspondences are regular. In [Diakonoff-
Starostin 1986, 58] the root is compared with Urart. ar ar-- 'to demolish' ( <
*'sweep off'?).
Proto-North Caucasian: *=Hrq _V(n)

Meaning: to see, to find
Proto-Tsezian: *= q-
Proto-Dargwa: *=ahI-
Proto-Lezghian: * arq I:-
Proto-Khinalug: za -
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Both PL and PD reflect also the Ablaut grade
*=Hirq _V(n). Reasons for conjugation variation (-0 and -n) are not yet clear. Cf. also
Hurr. ti -an- (causative) 'to show' ( < PHU *ti -), where t- reflects *r (see Diakonoff-
Proto-North Caucasian: *=HjwV

Meaning: to untie, unbind
Proto-Nakh: *=st-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=aj -
Proto-Lezghian: * o a ( - )
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Note the correspondence of PA *-j- to the PN
development *w > *st. The Nakh languages also have a root *=bc- / *=bc- 'to knit,
plait' (Chech. =c-, Bacb. =epc-, term. =opc-) which may reflect the same verbal stem
(with the plural infix -b-, which superseded *-j- and prevented the development *-j- >
*-st-). Cf. also HU: Hurr. u- 'to bind, to detain', Urart. u- 'to annul (services), to
stem (water)' (*'to untie'), see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 40.
Proto-North Caucasian: *=i cwA r

Meaning: to melt, thaw
Proto-Nakh:
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=ic-
Proto-Lak: =a=ca- / =a=ci-
Proto-Dargwa: *=ac-
Proto-Lezghian: *jic ar-
Proto-West Caucasian: *(b)z
Notes: A reliable common NC root. Somewhat problematic is the relationship of PN
*=a- 'to melt, to thaw' (Chech., Ing., Bacb. =a-): if it is cognate (which is not very
certain), we should reconstruct PNC *=i rcwA r; see also PEC *=is_Vn-. Perhaps
related is Urart. ci- 'to flow, to rain' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 44) - although
semantically not very secure.
Proto-North Caucasian: *=icwE

Meaning: to come; to return
Proto-Nakh: *=erc-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=V V-
Proto-Tsezian: *-i-
Proto-Lak: =u=a-
Proto-Dargwa: *=ac-
Proto-Lezghian: * i -
Proto-Khinalug: -ci-
Notes: The EC-WC comparison belongs to Trubetzkoy (1930, 278). Except for the
loss of labialisation (which sometimes happens in verbal WC roots - possibly
because of interaction with class prefixes) correspondences are regular, and the
etymology seems plausible. Some forms (Av. or-, PN *=erc-) reflect a variant with
infixed (probably durative) *-r-; one can also compare Urart. erc- 'to return' (see
Proto-North Caucasian: *=i _V

Meaning: to give
Proto-Nakh: *=a -
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=i :-
Proto-Tsezian: *- - A
Proto-Lak: 450
Proto-Dargwa: *=(i)k:-/*lVk:-
Proto-Lezghian: * i : -
Proto-Khinalug: =k- i
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. The verb usually is used with class prefixes;
however, a prefixless stem * i _V- can also be reconstructed (reflected, with loss
of the first syllable, in the PN imperative stem *lo, Av. stem II :e-, PD stem *k:V-).
The Ablaut stem *-u_V is reflected in PL * o : -, Lak. =u=lu- and in some Darg.
forms (if we reconstruct here *, PTs *- - may also reflect this stem - vs. *-i - < *-
i V). Finally, PN *t- - reflects another durative Ablaut stem (without secure
parallels in other EC languages).
Cf. also Hurr., Urart. ar- 'to give' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 51).
Proto-North Caucasian: *=i nk_wV (/=i k_wVn; )

Meaning: right, good
Proto-Nakh: *dik-/*dak-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * ink V- / *k VnV-r-
Proto-Tsezian: *= gV (- -)
Proto-Dargwa: *d-uka
Proto-Lezghian: *juk: -
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Seems both semantically ("good" - "right" is a
common correlation) and phonetically reliable. Cf. also Urart. gun 'right (not left),
true' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 32).
The same root is probably represented in PEC *k_wVnV 'a conditional particle' >
Ud. -gin, Khin. -k: a, Lak. -kun, Tsez. -kin et al.
Proto-North Caucasian: *=in_wV

Meaning: to love, to want
Proto-Nakh: *l-a -
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=i : -
Proto-Lak: : a-
Proto-Dargwa: *=ik:-
Proto-Lezghian: * i :an
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Correspondences are regular. See
Trubetzkoy 1922, 241. Cf. also Urart. arn , aran 'favour, mercy' (see Diakonoff-
Proto-North Caucasian: *=[i]swV

Meaning: to touch, to take
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=is- ( -c-)
Proto-Tsezian: *=oz(:)- ( - -)
Proto-Lak: la=su-
Proto-Dargwa: *=as:-
Proto-Lezghian: * is:a-
Proto-West Caucasian: *V ( -)
Notes: The etymology seems satisfactory, although there are some unclear points.
Cf. also Urart. aj- 'to capture' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 36). Perhaps it would
be better to reconstruct *- - as the main vowel (and to consider *-i- in PL as a later
Ablaut grade). Since the meaning "to touch" occurs in EC languages, the comparison
with PWC *V (*V) seems plausible, although loss of labialisation in PWC is still to
be explained (there are several cases like that among verbal roots).
Proto-North Caucasian: *=i_A

Meaning: to move, come
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *: V-
Proto-Lak: =aj-:u-
Proto-Dargwa: *=a(:)-
Proto-Lezghian: * i:-
Proto-West Caucasian: * ( -)
Notes: One of the common NC verbs of motion. Labialisation in Av. : e- (reflecting
Av.-And. stem II) is probably secondary ( < *:u - *:o -), since other languages do
not reflect it. Cf. perhaps also Urart. a- 'to flee, to leave' (see Diakonoff-Starostin
1986, 38).
Proto-North Caucasian: *=i tV

Meaning: to cut, to divide
Proto-Nakh: *t-it- / *t-et-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *b-utV / *tubi
Proto-Tsezian: *=it-
Proto-Lak: b-atul-
Proto-Dargwa: *=ut-
Proto-Lezghian: * itV-
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. The root demonstrates different Ablaut
grades (*-i-/*-e-/*-u-). The isomorphism between Av.-And. *b-utV 'part', Lak. b-atu-l-
'separate' and Darg. Chir. b-ital 'part' suggests that the derivate *w-i tV (*w-u tV)
can also be reconstructed for PEC.
Cf. also HU *titi- > Hurr. tid- 'to share out, to separate', tidenni 'sharing out, re-
division of land', Urart. titj-u/o 'share, (movable) property' (see Diakonoff-Starostin
1986, 27).
Proto-North Caucasian: *=iw E

Meaning: to die, to kill
Proto-Nakh: *=a-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=i -
Proto-Tsezian: *=i -
Proto-Lak: =i=a-
Proto-Dargwa: *=ibk-
Proto-Lezghian: * i e
Proto-Khinalug: k-
Proto-West Caucasian: * -/* a-
Notes: Most languages reflect the stem *-iw E - (with class prefixes; the variant
without class prefixes is probably reflected in PN dur. stem *la- with vowel reduction);
the Ablaut grade *-uw E is reflected in some Lezg., And. languages and in Darg.
See 1983, 165.
Some Lezghian languages reflect a derivate * i i-n > * in meaning 'oath' (cf.
Lezg. q in, Tsakh. kin). It seems thus quite proper to compare HU forms: Hurr.
el(a)m 'oath', Urart. elm-u/o 'vow' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 33).
Proto-North Caucasian: *=i _V

Meaning: to carry, bear
Proto-Nakh: *=a-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=i -
Proto-Tsezian: *= :- B
Proto-Lak: =u= :i-
Proto-Dargwa: *=i :- / =u :-
Proto-Lezghian: * i :e-
Proto-Khinalug: -wi
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. The root is widely represented in two basic
Ablaut grades: *=i _V (or, without class prefixes, * i _V- > * _V-) and
*=u _V. We can also reconstruct a PEC derivate *r-[ ] _V 'load, burden'
(reflected in PD *de :, PA *ri i-r, see above). (Note that PTs *= :- may represent
a contamination of this root and PNC *=He l _U q.v., which would explain the
meanings 'take away, take off' in Tsezian languages). Cf. also HU: Hurr., Urart. a-
'to take (away, etc.)', see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 61.
Other possible derivates from the same root are PNC *mo _V 'pack, bundle' q.v.
(if it is, it contains the rare instrumental prefix *m-), and PEC * _[]l V 'burden,
bundle' q.v.
Proto-North Caucasian: *= wE
Meaning: son, daughter
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *w-oo, *j-oi
Proto-Tsezian: * o ( -:-)
Proto-Lak: ars
Proto-Dargwa: * uri (-:-)
Proto-Lezghian: *=u:
Proto-Khinalug: i, rii
Notes: See Abdokov 1983, 89. Cf. also Urart. ar 'young people, children' (see
Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 36). One of the widely spread nominal stems with changing
class prefixes. The WC evidence suggests that it may have been originally verbal ("to
bear"), but in all modern languages it is used only as a noun. Phonetic
correspondences are quite regular; the only problem is Lak. -s (- would be expected
normally). The seemingly classless forms (PC * o , Lak. ars, PD * uri, Khin. i)
reflect the PEC form with the weak male class prefix *u_= wE ; the only form
which can reflect an original prefixless stem is the PL plural *:i-p:V ( < * i-bV). In
Lak., Darg. and Urart. the stem obtained a secondary medial -r- (no trace of it in any
other language); it can not be a feminine class affix, because the word means only
'son, boy' in these languages. This -r- probably reflects an oblique stem with the *-rV
suffix (*- wE -rV- > *- rwV).
Proto-North Caucasian: *=V wVn

Meaning: to go
Proto-Nakh: * o-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=V Vn-
Proto-Tsezian: *= -
Proto-Lak: na-
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. One of the verbal roots with the basic
laryngeal consonant. The vowels are rather hard to reconstruct in most of these roots
(because of contractions). Cf. also HU: Hurr. un-, Urart. nun- 'to come' (see
Proto-North Caucasian: *qw rV / *r qwV

Meaning: field, arable land
Proto-Nakh: *qaw
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *qurHV
Proto-Tsezian: * u- ( * :-)
Proto-Lak: qu
Proto-Dargwa: *qu
Proto-Lezghian: * uj
Proto-West Caucasian: *r q:( )a
Notes: Cf. also HU: Hurr. k/ awr- 'earth, land', Urart. q wr-, qr- id. (see Diakonoff-
Starostin 1986, 58). Except for the metathesis, all correspondences are regular, and
the etymology seems quite plausible. See Abdokov 1983, 100.
Proto-North Caucasian: *q_VtV

Meaning: cleft, gap between stones
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *q:ita ( -o)
Proto-Lak: qunta
Proto-Lezghian: *q :Vt(a)
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. The vocalism is not quite clear. In PL we
have to assume an early process *q:Vt > *q :Vt. In [Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 28] we
considered Lak. -n- as going back to *-l-, and compared Urart. quld 'steep' (or
'precipice'), but Lezghian data seem to contradict the reconstruction of any medial
resonant. Therefore, medial -n- in Lak. must be secondary (on analogy with kuInta
'pit, small pit'), and the Urartian word is probably unrelated.
Proto-North Caucasian: *q wVrq _V

Proto-Nakh: *p i
Proto-Lak: q:uq:u
Notes: A Nakh-Lak. isogloss. A probable HU parallel is Urart. aqarq 'a measure of
capacity', which allows to reconstruct the medial resonant (lost both in Chech. and in
Lak.). See Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 58.
Proto-North Caucasian: *-r- (/-b-)

Meaning: frequentative / factitive infix (class marker?)
Proto-Nakh: *-b-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: [*-r-]
Proto-Tsezian: *-j-/-w-/-r-/-b-
Proto-Dargwa: *-r-
Proto-Lezghian: *-r-
Proto-West Caucasian: *r-
Notes: All highly questionable. All these morphemes may have been original (prefixed
or suffixed) class markers, or else may be quite unrelated with each other. Cf. also
Hurr., Urart. -ar- 'factitive (causative) suffix' - positionally closest to Avar -r-, but
semantically - to PWC *r-.
Proto-North Caucasian: *-ra

Meaning: conjunctive particle; comitative case
Proto-Dargwa: *-ra
Proto-Lezghian: *-ra
Proto-West Caucasian: [*-rV]
Notes: Cf. Hurr. -ra, Urart. -ra-n 'comitative'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *-rV

Meaning: plural
Proto-Nakh: *-r
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-r-
Proto-Tsezian: *-rV
Proto-Lak: -ru, -ri, -r-du
Proto-Dargwa: *-ri
Proto-Lezghian: *-r
Proto-Khinalug: -r
Proto-West Caucasian: *-ra
Notes: Cf. Hurr., Urart. -ar-di 'a collective and abstract suffix'.

Meaning: locative, directive
Proto-Nakh: *-re
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-r-
Proto-Tsezian: *-r
Proto-Lezghian: *-r
Proto-Khinalug: -r
Notes: Cf. also Hurr. -ar , Urart. -ar 'nominal suffix' (in part., instrumental).

Meaning: (past) participle
Proto-Nakh: *-ra
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-rV
Proto-Tsezian: *-ru
Proto-Lak: -ra, -ru
Proto-Dargwa: *-r-
Proto-Lezghian: *-rV
Proto-Khinalug: -ri
Notes: Cf. also Urart. -r 'perfective participle'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *swe rho ( - -)

Meaning: old; year
Proto-Nakh: *o
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-asara- ( -o-)
Proto-Dargwa: *dus:
Proto-Lezghian: *jis:V-
Proto-Khinalug: s
Notes: The reflexes reveal a variation between *swe rho and a metathesized form,
*r(h)e swo (PD, PL); the latter variant could also be promoted by the use of
*swe rho in the adjectival function (with the class prefix *r-: *r-eswe rho-). Inspite of
this metathesis, the etymology seems quite reliable, both semantically and
phonetically.
It is interesting to note that HU languages seem to reflect both *swe rho 'year' ( >
Hurr. awal , Urart. l id.) and the derivate *t-eswe (rho)- ( > PN *t-ii-), reflected
in Hurr. te-u/o , tes:-o : 'elder, overseer', Urart. te- 'to ripen' (see Diakonoff-
Starostin 1986, 25, 30).
Proto-North Caucasian: *wer V ( - -,- -)

Meaning: street, village
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *rVs V
Proto-Lak: aIra
Proto-Khinalug: s a
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Although the root is attested only in three
languages, correspondences are regular and the reconstruction seems probable. Cf.
also Hurr. a ri 'orchard' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 36).
Proto-North Caucasian: *wE rV

Meaning: evening
Proto-Nakh: *psarV
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *Vr-dV
Proto-West Caucasian: * - (* -)
Notes: Cf. also HU: Hurr. r 'evening; west' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 37).
Correspondences are regular. It is interesting to note that the word is also present in
Kartvelian: Megr., Laz. ser- 'night', Georg. ser-oba 'supper'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *-s_-

Meaning: instrumental animate; general attributive
Proto-Nakh: *-sV
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-s:-
Proto-Tsezian: *-s:
Proto-Lak: -s:a
Proto-Dargwa: *-s:
Proto-Lezghian: *-s:
Proto-Khinalug: -s-
Proto-West Caucasian: [*- ]
Notes: Cf. Hurr. -(u), Urart. - 'ergative'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *s_mV / *ms_V

Meaning: muscle, vein; intestine
Proto-Nakh: *samV-k ( --)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *s:i V (:-)
Proto-Dargwa: * ems:
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Except for the metathesis, correspondences
are quite regular. Cf. also HU: Urart. u/om-a 'force, strength' (see Diakonoff-
Proto-North Caucasian: *s_HwintV

Meaning: snuff, smell; snot
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *s: intV
Proto-Lezghian: *s: iInt
Notes: The word was widely borrowed from Av. into other languages of Daghestan -
probably because in Av. it came to mean 'snuff' (an object of busy trade). However, in
Av. and PL the forms are probably genuine (because of phonetic and semantic
differences). It is possible that *-tV is originally a suffix here (see notes on the Av.
form); in that case we can compare Hurr. n 'breath, soul, self' (see Diakonoff-
Starostin 1986, 32). [Cf. also Georg. cwintli 'snot' > Bacb. sintr id.?].
Proto-North Caucasian: *s_i HwV

Meaning: breath, to breathe
Proto-Nakh: *sa
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *s:uh-
Proto-Lak: s:i
Proto-West Caucasian: *p - A
Notes: Cf. also HU forms: Hurr. e -iri 'alive', e -ori 'fate' or 'life', Urart. u/o -ori /
e -eri 'alive' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 36).
Both phonetically and semantically the EC-WC parallel seems quite plausible.
PWC has a frequent labial prefix. In a position following a labial WC labialized
consonants usually are delabialized, but not in this case (PAA * : PAK * point
unambiguously to * ; in Ubykh, in fact, delabialisation had occurred - otherwise we
would have p a- - but this is a regular later Ubykh process). Lack of delabialisation
can be very well explained if we assume a form like *p - HwV > *p - wV (not
*p - V) for the early period, when the after-labial delabialisation process was
active. For phonetic reasons it seems better to keep apart WC *p sV 'soul' (which is
superficially closer to PN *sa), which has a quite different NC etymology (see under
* a ms_a).
Proto-North Caucasian: *-:w-

Meaning: plural stem marker
Proto-Nakh: *-i
Proto-Tsezian: [*-(:)-]
Proto-Lezghian: *--
Notes: Cf. Hurr. -a-, Urart. -a- (in -a-t , -a-tan ) plural suffix.
Proto-North Caucasian: *VnV / *VnV ( -l-)

Meaning: a k. of bird
Proto-Nakh: *aru-l
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * an a / *sana
Proto-Tsezian: *:a:V (- -,-V-)
Proto-Khinalug: n
Proto-West Caucasian: *V V
Notes: Like many birdnames, a reduplicated expressive root with some irregular
phonetic variations. The original root must have denoted a medium sized dark bird
(cf. various meanings in modern languages: 'blackbird, wild turkey, swallow, pigeon').
Cf. also Hurr. zinz-aB 'pigeon' (or 'swallow'), see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 45.It is
interesting to note similar birdnames in Georgian: avi 'blackbird', oia 'starling'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *-_- ( -_-) ?

Meaning: frequentative
Proto-Avaro-Andian: [*-:-]
Notes: Cf. Hurr. -V-, Urart. -- 'intensive or iterative'. Extremely dubious because of
quite scarce attestation.
Proto-North Caucasian: *-t-
Meaning: present (?)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-tA
Proto-Khinalug: -at- / -t-/ -et-, -t:-, -t-, -tar-
Proto-West Caucasian: *-t- / *-t-
Notes: In HU cf. either Hurr. -t- (a morpheme pointing to the absence of a direct
object), or Hurr. -ido-, Urart. -ito- 'plural action marker'. A not quite clear case.
Proto-North Caucasian: *tVruV

Proto-Lezghian: *turV
Notes: The word is attested only in Rutul and HU: cf. Urart. tirusi (Urartian spelling),
turuza (L.-Hier. spelling) "a vessel and capacity measure for liquids" (see Diakonoff-
Proto-North Caucasian: *-u (*-u V)

Meaning: instrumental inanimate
Proto-Nakh: *-w
Proto-Avaro-Andian: [*-u]
Proto-Khinalug: -u
Proto-West Caucasian: *-w
Notes: Cf. Hurr. -wa, Urart. *-w > -(i ) 'dative'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *u
Meaning: thou (2-d p. pr.)
Proto-Nakh: *waj
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *mi-n
Proto-Tsezian: *m
Proto-Lak: wi-
Proto-Lezghian: *uo-n
Proto-Khinalug: w
Proto-West Caucasian: *wA
Notes: Cf. also HU *we- (Hurr. erg. we-, gen. we-we; not attested in Ur.). The same
stem is used as a pronominal enclytic (Hurr., Ur. -w) and as a verbal ending of the 2-
d pers. sing. (Hurr. -/-, Ur. -au).
The PN form is somewhat problematical: it is the 1-st p. pl. inclusive pronoun, and
may belong here if this meaning is secondarily developped from "thou"(+"I").
The direct stem is easily reconstructed as *u or *u-n (cf. *z, *z-n for the 1-st
pers.), with nasal assimilation in PA (*mi-n < *wi-n) and PC (*m < *w -n). One of
the oblique stems (most probably genitive) was also formed from this root (cf. HU
*we-/*-Vw, Lak. wi- /in Lak. the direct stem was replaced by another stem, ina, and
only the original oblique stem was preserved/, PL *-iu, Khin. wi < PEC * iuV- (or
* euV- ). However, for other cases suppletive forms were used (* wV - /
* o wV- and *du- q.v.); PL *wa- and Khin. erg. wa are probably innovations (by
analogy with *za- in the 1-st person). See Trubetzkoy 1930, 273; 1983, 140.
Proto-North Caucasian: *-u V
Meaning: elative (?)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-u
Notes: Cf. Hurr. -we, Urart. arch. -w , late -(e)i 'genitive'. Perhaps ultimately the
same morpheme as *-u 'instrumental'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *-V

Meaning: imperative
Proto-Nakh: *-V, *-0
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *-o
Proto-Tsezian: *-V
Proto-Lak: -0 (-a, -i, -u)
Proto-Dargwa: *-V
Proto-Lezghian: *-V
Proto-Khinalug: -0, -, -i
Proto-West Caucasian: *-0
Notes: Cf. also Hurr., Urart. -0 'imperative'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *-V (-0)

Meaning: general tense or present
Proto-Nakh: *-V (-0)
Proto-Tsezian: *-0 (-V)
Proto-Dargwa: -a
Proto-Lezghian: *-V
Proto-West Caucasian: *-0 (- )
Notes: Cf. Hurr., Urart. -0 (-a, -u/o, -i - usually considered to be
transitivity/intransitivity markers).
Proto-North Caucasian: *-V(j)

Meaning: past, aorist
Proto-Nakh: *-i
Proto-Tsezian: *-jV
Proto-Lak: -j
Proto-Dargwa: ? *-0
Proto-Lezghian: *-V
Proto-Khinalug: -i
Proto-West Caucasian: -0
Notes: Cf. also Hurr., Urart. -0- 'neutral aspect'. The original form was probably a
pure (aoristic) root. The *-j suffix that we have here may in fact be = PL *-Vj
'imperative; conditional'; Hurr. -ae, Urart. -- 'debitive-final mood'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *- V
Meaning: denominative attributive
Proto-Nakh: *-xo(w)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: [*- :V-]
Notes: Cf. Hurr. - , Ur. - 'suffix of adjectives'.
Proto-North Caucasian: * V cV ( x-)
Meaning: to hear
Proto-Nakh: * ac-
Notes: The PN root has (as far as we know) no parallels in Dagestan languages, but
has good correspondences in Hurro-Urartian: PHU * as- (Hurr. a-, Ur. a-)
"hear". See Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 46.
Proto-North Caucasian: * HV tV
Meaning: woman, female
Proto-Nakh: * ut
Notes: The root has no parallels in Dagestan languages, but has a probable match in
Hurr. id-u/ori "maid(en)" (PHU *sit-, see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 28). Urart. ati
'woman; wife' was compared (see ibid., 39) with EC forms like Darg. Chir. cade
'female', but in fact may be a prefixed variant of the same HU root.
Proto-North Caucasian: *=algwA n

Meaning: to speak
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *g Vl-
Proto-Lak: =uk:i-
Proto-Dargwa: *=[a]lgwVn
Proto-Lezghian: * alga(n)
Proto-West Caucasian: *ga
Notes: Cf. also Hurr. kul- 'to say, to pronounce solemnly', see Diakonoff-Starostin
1986, 54. The EC-WC comparison seems satisfactory both semantically and
phonetically (although the reason for loss of labialisation in PWC is not quite clear:
perhaps it is the other way round, and we should reconstruct *=agA l with secondary
labialisation in PEC - e.g., under the influence of the 1st class marker *u-). Shagirov
(1,161) is of course right in refuting Balkarov's comparison of the Adygh form with
Akhv. - (ab-) 'to read' (Balkarov 1964, 100).
Proto-North Caucasian: *=a mcE

Meaning: to know, to see
Proto-Nakh: *=abc-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *cin- / *=acVn-(o-)
Proto-Tsezian: *=c-
Proto-Dargwa: *=umc-
Proto-Lezghian: * aca-
Proto-West Caucasian: *cA-
Notes: A rather well preserved common NC verbal root. Most forms reflect the Ablaut
grade *-a-; another stem, probably *=i mcE , is reflected in And. and Darg. Cf. also
HU: Hurr. anz-an-u - (causative) 'to declare, to promise', anz-anni 'votive; promised'
See Trubetzkoy 1930, 279; 1983, 168.

Proto-North Caucasian: *=a [r] _wA
Meaning: straight; even, equal
Proto-Nakh: *t-ar e-n
Proto-Tsezian: *-e :-
Proto-Lak: =ax=a-
Proto-Dargwa: *=arx:-
Proto-Lezghian: *t:-i :-
Notes: A common NC root with fairly good phonetic and semantic correspondences.
PN and PL have forms with dental prefixes (aspectual? - cf. also the durative Ablaut
grade *-i- in PL); other languages have only prefixed class markers. As for the
phonetic side, there are some problems with the medial resonant (perhaps we should
reconstruct *-l-, not *-r-, to account for its loss in PL), and with the Dargwa reflex: we
should expect lax *-x- in PD. Violation of the phonetic rule (* w > PD *x( ) in tense
words) may have been caused by early delabialisation (cf. an analogous
delabialisation in PL).
In some languages the root may have been influenced by PEC *-a _wVn 'to
resemble, be similar' (or even merged with it), but the two roots certainly are to be
kept separate.
The earliest form of the root could have been * _wVrA - this is suggested by the
probable Hurr. match ir- 'to be equal, alike' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 49). The
shape **=a [r] _wA must have been a result of adding prefixes (*=a- _wVrA >
*=a- _wrA > *=ar _wA ).
Proto-North Caucasian: *=hV

Meaning: small, little
Proto-Nakh: *=awi-n ( --)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *daha- ( o)
Proto-Tsezian: *=ihV
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. In Av.-And. d- is a historical prefix. Cf. also
Hurr. ai-ann 'little' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 62).
Proto-North Caucasian: *= E w
Meaning: to lie, to put; to lead
Proto-Nakh: *=ill-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *r-i o- / * i o-
Proto-Tsezian: *- L
Proto-Lak: xuj
Proto-Dargwa: *=ik- / *k-
Proto-Lezghian: * e : -
Proto-West Caucasian: * -
Notes: Since the root acquires the meaning 'to begin' or 'to end' in several subgroups,
it seems possible to compare the Hurrian derivate al-ummi 'end; last' (see Diakonoff-
The comparison seems quite plausible (see 1983, 163; note also the
existence of common EC and NC derivates meaning 'sheath, case' - see
1983, 130). The final *-w has left traces in PA (*r-i obV), Lak. (Proto.-Lak. * ob(i) >
Arch. ob) and PL (as labialisation of *- : -). In some languages, because of similar
reflexes of * and *x, the root tends to be confused with PNC *-exE (q.v.), but they
are opposed in several subgroups, and should be strictly distinguished.
Proto-North Caucasian: *= kA w
Meaning: to put (together), take; to lie, fall
Proto-Nakh: *=k-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=Vk- / *kV-b-
Proto-Tsezian: *=ok - B
Proto-Lak: l-i=i-
Proto-Dargwa: *=ak- / *=ik-
Proto-Lezghian: * ek -
Proto-Khinalug: l- =k-
Proto-West Caucasian: *k
Notes: Cf. also Hurr. k/geb-, ew-, k/ge(w)- (HU *kew-) 'to put', see Diakonoff-
Starostin 1986, 56-57.
The basic meaning of the verb is 'to put (together)' / 'to be put together, to lie'
(whence also 'to fall, to fall apart' etc.). The semantic range is so wide that we may
suspect that we deal with two originally different roots; they have, however, become
so entangled that it is very hard to distinguish two original protoforms.
Proto-North Caucasian: *=e (w)Vr

Meaning: to sit, be quiet
Proto-Nakh: * a-/* -
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=VH-
Proto-Lezghian: * e ( )Vr-
Proto-Khinalug: -u= / -e=
Proto-West Caucasian: *ja
Notes: One of the "root-laryngeal" verbs in PNC. Since it is not widely spread in
Dagestan, details of the reconstruction (in particular, labialisation of the laryngeal) are
not very clear; the comparison, however, seems rather probable. Cf. perhaps also
Hurr. u/or- 'to become, to appear' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 62).
Proto-North Caucasian: *=HiqwA (n)

Meaning: to bear, give birth
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=aqVn ( -o-,- -)
Proto-Lak: l-aI=qa-
Proto-Dargwa: *aqVn- ( -)
Proto-Lezghian: * i a-
Proto-West Caucasian: *q: a ( q -)
Notes: The nasal conjugation, preserved in PA and PD, was for some unclear reason
lost in PL; it is, however, undoubtedly old, cf. also the HU data: Hurr. an- 'to give
birth, bear' (compared in Diakonoff-Starostin 1986 with PEC *G_Ho n 'pregnant',
but rather belonging here).
The EC-WC comparison (first proposed by Mszros 1934, 377) seems quite
plausible (however, Megr. skua 'child' has of course nothing to do with it - see
Shagirov 1, 231). Bouda's (1950, 294) comparison of the WC forms with Georg.
meq wisi, moq wasi 'relative, near one' is much worse both phonetically and
semantically. See also Abdokov 1983, 86 (Lezg. a : WC; we should note,
however, that other Lezg. forms cited by Abdokov go back to PEC *dwir E q.v.).
Proto-North Caucasian: *=Hi A [m]

Meaning: to twist, bend, wind
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *Vm- / *-V-
Proto-Tsezian: *i-
Proto-Lezghian: * i:a(n)
Proto-West Caucasian: * ( -)
Notes: The root obstruent and the vowels in all languages correspond well to each
other, but the status of the final nasal is not quite clear (both Av.-And. and Lezgian
languages reveal variation between -n and -0-conjugation). Initial laryngeal is
suggested by the HU parallel: Hurr. iz-lV- 'to roll up' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986,
43).
Proto-North Caucasian: *=Hu _Vn

Meaning: to clear up (of weather)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=V:Vn- ( -c:-)
Proto-Lezghian: * o:Vn-
Notes: Cf. also Hurr. em 'clear, bright' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 33).
Proto-North Caucasian: *=iq wV

Meaning: to sit; to be
Proto-Nakh: * -a -
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=ik -
Proto-Tsezian: *-iq - ( - -)
Proto-Lak: =i=ka-
Proto-Lezghian: * iq -
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Correspondences are regular. The root was
also present in HU, cf. the Hurr. derivate k/ - 'settee, throne' (see Diakonoff-
Proto-North Caucasian: *=irG_wVr
Meaning: to freeze, get cold
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=Vq :-
Proto-Dargwa: *=ar I -
Proto-Lezghian: * irq:e(r)-
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. In PL and Cham. there occurred a secondary
loss of labialization (before a front vowel?); otherwise the correspondences are
regular (pharyngealization in PD is automatic, in the vicinity of a front vowel). A
probable HU parallel is Hurr. e/igi, eg-o 'cold' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 60).
Proto-North Caucasian: *=i tVr

Meaning: to run
Proto-Nakh: *=a t-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *tVr-
Proto-Lezghian: * itV(r)-
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level; cf. also Hurr. it:- 'to go (away)' (see
Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 28). Correspondences are regular. Abdokov (1983, 183)
compares PAK *d d - 'to run (at once, momentarily)' (Ad., Kab. d d -n), which is
possible if we assume a secondary deglottalisation.
Proto-North Caucasian: *= _i
Meaning: brother, sister
Proto-Nakh: *wao, *jao
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *woc:i, *joc:i
Proto-Tsezian: * s: A (/* s:Vju)
Proto-Lak: us:u, s:u
Proto-Dargwa: * uc:i, *ruc:i
Proto-Lezghian: * j, * j /*r j
Proto-Khinalug: c: , r c
Proto-West Caucasian: * (/* )
Notes: One of the most stable and widely spread NC kinship terms with changing
class prefixes. It is also preserved in HU, cf. Hurr. e-ni 'brother' (despite another
etymology given in Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 43, the word most probably belongs
here).
Two basic original forms must be reconstructed as *u_- _i (jV) 'brother' (with
frequent further development > *_w jV or *_wi jV; exactly this form is reflected,
e.g., in PL and PWC), and *j- _i (jV) 'sister' (sometimes with a similar contraction
> *_i jV). The arisal of the new feminine class prefix *r- in the Eastern area led to a
new formation *r- _i (jV) 'sister', reflected in Darg., Khin. and part of Lezghian
languages.
See Trubetzkoy 1930, 278, Rogava 1956, Balkarov 1969, Shagirov 1, Abdokov
1983, 87. Despite Charaya 1912 and Yakovlev 1941, Kartvelian words for 'brother'
(Megr. ima, Georg. ma) and 'son' (wili) have nothing to do with PNC *= _i .
Proto-North Caucasian: *qa VrV ( / * rVqV)
Meaning: far; long, high
Proto-Tsezian: * : r-
Proto-Lak: laqi-
Proto-Dargwa: *haraq-
Proto-West Caucasian: *q:ara
Notes: Lak. has l- instead of r-, obviously, under the influence of laq-s:a 'high' (going
back to PEC *- qE q.v.). Otherwise correspondences are regular. Cf. also Hurr.
keri, ker-ae 'long, far away' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 59).
Proto-North Caucasian: *q_rp V / *p rq_V

Meaning: outerwear, fur-coat
Proto-Nakh: *bq
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *q:aba-
Proto-Lak: barq -ut
Proto-Dargwa: *p arq
Proto-Lezghian: *q ap:a(r)aj
Notes: A rather complicated case (as is usual with cultural words). First, we must for
phonetic and semantic reasons dismiss the possibility of borrowing from Arab. kab
'langrmeliges Obergewand' (which, however, is also present in Tsezian languages:
Bezht., Gunz. kaba, Gin. koboj 'shirt'). Second, we must exclude interlingual
borrowings: Arch. part:uq 'fur-coat' from Lak. (barq ut, dial. bartuq with
metathesis); Lak. q:awau ( < *q:abau) from Avar or from Lezghian languages;
some of the Andian forms also may be borrowed from Avar. Lezghian (Tab., Rut.)
forms could be also considered as Avar loanwords. However, there are reasons to
reconstruct the derivate *q_rp V-V (or *-V) already for PEC, cf. Hurr. qurbii
'garment worn under mail-coat or helm' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 18), which
was borrowed in Akk. kurbisu, gurpisu. Thus the PL form *q ap:a(r)aj may well be
genuine (with a shift of laryngeal features usual for roots containing two or more
stops).
Proto-North Caucasian: *q_e rVq wV

Meaning: coat, coat of mail
Proto-Nakh: * a a
Proto-Dargwa: *qarik
Proto-Lezghian: *q rVq / *q rVq
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Except for occasional assimilations (usual in
a root with two stops), correspondences are regular. Cf. also HU: Hurr. karkar-ni, Ur.
qarqara- 'armour' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 58). It is interesting to note the
recurring meaning 'coat of mail, armour' (in Nakh, HU, Lezg.): it shows that the root
may have designated some piece of armour or warrior's garment in PEC.
Proto-North Caucasian: *q_wVr

Meaning: fallow
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *rV-k: VrV
Proto-Lak: q:ur
Notes: An interesting Avar-Lak. isogloss. Its EC antiquity is proved by the presence of
the root in HU: Hurr. k/ ara-f 'fallow' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 59).
Proto-North Caucasian: *r wV ( / * wrV )

Meaning: season
Proto-Nakh: *doa
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *riHV
Proto-Lezghian: * er ( *hI-)
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. The root must have originally denoted some
span of time in spring or summer (cf. the specific meaning preserved in Lezg.). It can
probably be discovered also in Hurr. compounds like in-arBu/o 'two years old' (HU *-
arwV, see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 64).
Proto-North Caucasian: *ris_wE

Meaning: throat; neck
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *ris:V
Proto-Tsezian: *r s:
Proto-Lezghian: *s: ir(a)
Proto-West Caucasian: *p - a (- -)
Notes: Correspondences are quite regular (except for metathesis in PL which is a
frequent phenomenon). PWC has a labial prefix (a former class exponent).
In HU this root, originally meaning "gullet; intestines", shifted the meaning and
yielded *tis- (Hurr. tia, ti-na, Ur. ti-nu) "heart" (after the basic word for "heart",
*je rkwi, changed its meaning to "middle, inside"). See Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 53
(with erroneous attraction of Rut. l s).
Proto-North Caucasian: *rl_w ( - -)

Meaning: girl, woman
Proto-Nakh: *dcV ( --)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *ru:V
Proto-Lak: du
Proto-Dargwa: *rurs:i
Proto-Lezghian: *jVVj
Notes: Medial *-l- is suggested by the PD form (where *-l- regularly > -r-). In PL we
should expect *jV:V-j; the form *jVVj was probably influenced by PL * j / *rV- j
'sister' (see *- _i ).
Although all the forms point to PEC *r-, this consonant may represent the old
female class marker; in that case the root *-l_w can be a result of usual adjectival
metathesis < *(-)_wlV, and we could compare also HU forms: Hurr. ali, Ur. s l
'daughter' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 42).
Proto-North Caucasian: *V VjmV

Meaning: a k. of odorous grass
Proto-Nakh: *stim ( --)
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *sVHVmV
Proto-Tsezian: *mia- u ( - -)
Proto-Dargwa: *:aIm-
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Correspondences are regular, although it is
somewhat difficult to reconstruct vocalism (because of the root's trisyllabic nature and
the medial laryngeal). The cluster *-jm- is reconstructed to account for the
development *s- > *st- in PN and for the development *-Vjm > *-V in PC. Cf. also HU:
Hurr. im-ri 'fennel' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 23).
Proto-North Caucasian: *sVrdV (-t-)

Meaning: curse, to curse
Proto-Nakh: *serd- (-t-)
Notes: The root is attested only in Nakh (therefore the PEC reconstruction is rather
tentative), but seems to have a good HU parallel: cf. Hurr. ed- 'to curse, damn', id-
arni 'curse, malediction' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 26).
Proto-North Caucasian: *-_(w)-

Meaning: past
Proto-Tsezian: *-:V / -s(:)V
Proto-Dargwa: *-(:)i
Proto-Khinalug: -- / -e-
Proto-West Caucasian: *-- / - -
Notes: Cf. Hurr. -u/o- 'perfective aspect'.
Proto-North Caucasian: *tm i (- ,-u )

Meaning: vein; pipe, kennel
Proto-Tsezian: *t hV
Proto-Lak: tunnu
Proto-Dargwa: *tum
Proto-Lezghian: *tam: (-p:)
Proto-West Caucasian: *t:a (*da)
Notes: Cf. also the HU evidence: Hurr. tem-ari 'irrigation ditch, canal' (see Diakonoff-
Starostin 1986, 25). The original meaning must have been 'pipe, kennel blood pipe,
vein'. The PC form suggests rather short *-a - against the WC evidence implying
long *--; however, since the form is attested only in Gunz. and the vowel is
nasalized (nasalisation often shifts vowel reflexes), we prefer to reconstruct a long
vowel in PNC.
Proto-North Caucasian: *wHr wV V ( *b-)

Meaning: snake
Proto-Nakh: *b ul-
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *birka (*bilka)
Proto-Tsezian: *bekV(lV) A
Proto-Lak: baIralu
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level; one of the original trisyllabic roots. In PN we
would rather expect *b Vl-; the irregularity may be explained by a secondary
contamination in Chech. with another root (b a 'dirty', b alla 'dirt'). Otherwise
the correspondences are regular. Cf. also Hurr. fali 'worm' (read /fl / < HU *wl-),
see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 50.
Abdokov (1983, 119) compares the root with PAK *mark 'helminth', which is
hardly possible phonetically.
Proto-North Caucasian: *x_ n

Meaning: water
Proto-Nakh: * i
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * :in i
Proto-Tsezian: * : B
Proto-Lak: :in
Proto-Dargwa: *xin
Proto-Lezghian: * :n:
Proto-Khinalug: xu
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. One of the most widely preserved and stable
roots (having, however, left no trace in PWC). See Trubetzkoy 1922, 239.
Cf. also Hurr. ij 'water, river' (if we suppose a palatalisation *x- > - before front
vowels in HU), see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 49.
Proto-North Caucasian: * w m V
Meaning: cheek; buttock
Proto-Avaro-Andian: * : [i]m(V) V
Proto-Tsezian: * :u : (-o-)
Proto-Dargwa: * I a I
Proto-Lezghian: * I (m) I-
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. Inspite of some minor problems (due to the
expressive nature of the root), the reconstruction seems rather secure. Cf. also Hurr.
a li 'cheek' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 61).
Proto-North Caucasian: *z
Meaning: I
Proto-Nakh: *s
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *di-n
Proto-Tsezian: *d
Proto-Lak: t:u-
Proto-Dargwa: *du
Proto-Lezghian: *zo-n
Proto-Khinalug: z
Proto-West Caucasian: *sA
Notes:
Cf. also the HU evidence: HU *(j)es- (nom./erg. > Hurr. i-te nom.,
ia- erg., Ur. je ), *so- (obl. > Hurr. o-/u-, Ur. o-).
The PNC 1-st p. pronoun needs some comments. Like other personal
pronouns, it is characterized by unique phonetic features (voiced fricative in
PNC, the development *z > *d in Av.-And.-Tsez., Darg. and Lak. /where *d >
t:/). However, forms with *d- certainly can not be kept apart from forms with
*z, since morphologically they match each other very well.
The direct stem may be safely reconstructed as *z,

sporadically with a pronominal suffix *-n - *zn (cf. PA
*di-n, PL *zo-n; on Lak. nu and Darg. nu see *nV). A possible
trace of *-n is also the - vowel in PC: it probably reflects
*- < *--n with loss of nasalization (without it *- would be
expected in PC). The vowel -u- in Av. (du-n) and Darg. (du)
should best be explained by the influence of the 2-d p. pro-
noun q.v.
The evidence of PN, PHU, PL and Khin. allows to recons-

truct three different oblique stems for the 1-st p. pronoun.
The one is *z- /PL *za- = PN *sa-(*s-)/, the other - * ez(V)
/PL *-ez = PHU *(j)es- = PN * as = Khin. as/; finally, the
third is * iz(V) /PL gen. *-iz = Khin. i/e/. It is most pro-
bable that the third stem is reflected in Darg. *di-, PC *di-,
PA *di- (where it lost the initial vowel and became the gene-
ral oblique stem). In Lak. and HU, where the obl. stem is t:u-
and *so- respectively, it is probably due to a merger of PEC
dir. *z- and obl. *z-.
We may present the following solution for this very complicated

picture. The original ergative was * ez(V), preserved in PN as * as; in
PHU it became also nominative (merging of erg./nom. in pronouns is rather usual
in ergative languages). In PL and Khin. this stem shifted to dative - which is
parallel to the general shift of the PEC ergative case in *-s_V > PL dative
*-s: (note, however, that in Khin. the erg. form j probably still reflects
the same stem * ez(V)). The obl. stem *z- then took upon itself
ergative functions in PL. Finally, the original genitive stem * iz(V) was
preserved as such in PL, Khin and (with vowel loss) in PD, PA and PC; in all
other languages it was superseded by the general oblique stem *z-
(sometimes even by the dir. stem *z-).
To sum up: PEC (PNC) dir. stem *z(-n); erg. stem * ez(V); gen.
stem * iz(V); general oblique stem *z-.
See Trubetzkoy 1930, 273; Abdokov 1983, 137.
Proto-North Caucasian: * wlV (- -,- -)

Meaning: god
Proto-Nakh: *dli
Proto-Lak: z al
Notes: An interesting Nakh-Laki isogloss (probably having parallels in ancient
languages of Asia Minor, cf., e.g., the Hurrian god Zawalli). It is possible that the
stem goes back (with an -Vl- suffix) to PNC * w 'sky' q.v.
Proto-North Caucasian: * _o V
Meaning: healthy, whole
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *=Vc:Vl-
Proto-Lak: cullu-
Proto-Dargwa: *zara-
Proto-West Caucasian: *b za
Notes: Correspondences are regular (except -r- in PD, which is not clear). The WC
form has a frequent labial prefix.
Cf. also Hurr. awl 'health, prosperity' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 38),
suggesting perhaps PEC * _o w V.
Proto-North Caucasian: *- _V ?
Meaning: denominative attributive
Proto-Lezghian: *-Vc / *-Vc
Notes: Cf. Hurr. -zzi, Ur. -(u)s id.
Proto-North Caucasian: * _i kwA / *k_i wA

Meaning: short
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *ik: V-
Proto-Lezghian: *:i[k]V-
Proto-West Caucasian: *ka
Notes: An expressive root with two stops; in such cases metatheses and
assimilations are common in NC languages (although this makes the reconstruction
less secure). Cf. also Hurr. zug 'small, short' (see Diakonoff-Starostin 1986, 41).
Proto-North Caucasian: * wil a ( - -,- ,- )

Meaning: wheel
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *h(w)Vr(H)V
Proto-Tsezian: * or ( - -)
Proto-Lak: ja
Proto-Dargwa: *ula
Notes: Reconstructed for the PEC level. The root is very close phonetically to
* wi l i 'eye', and in Lak. and Avar the two words are indeed homonymous.
However, reflexes differ in PD and Bezht., thus the homonymy is most probably
accidental.
It is interesting to note an analogous homonymy in Georgian (twali means both

"eye" and "wheel") - this could be due to an influence of EC languages, where the
two words coincided by chance.
Proto-North Caucasian: * wi l i
Meaning: eye
Proto-Nakh: *b a
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *arHi
Proto-Tsezian: * re B
Proto-Lak: ja
Proto-Dargwa: *uli
Proto-Lezghian: * il
Proto-Khinalug: pil
Proto-West Caucasian: *b-a
Notes: One of the most widely spread NC roots. Correspondences are regular. See
Trubetzkoy 1930, 277.
Sumerian:
igi [EYE] (1133x: ED IIIb, Old Akkadian, Lagash II, Ur III, Early Old Babylonian, Old
Babylonian, unknown) wr. igi; i-bi2; i-gi "eye; carved eye (for statues)" Akk. nu
[1] igi
[2] i-bi2 (ES)
[3] i-gi
Proto-North Caucasian: *babajV

Meaning: father, grandfather
Proto-Nakh: *babV (--)
Proto-Tsezian: *babVju
Proto-Lezghian: *babaj
Proto-West Caucasian: *baba (p:)
Notes: A universal nursery word. However, the correspondences (both phonetic and
semantic) are in order, thus reconstructable for the PNC level. Its reflexes are almost
in complementary distribution with those of *babV 'mother' q.v., thus the two roots
may ultimately be the same (cf. also * o bV (jV) 'father').
Sumerian:
pap [RELATION] (86x: Old Akkadian, Ur III, Old Babylonian) wr. pap "first and foremost,
pre-eminent; father; male, virile; brother" Akk. abu; ahu; aardu; zikaru
[1] pap
Proto-North Caucasian: *babV

Meaning: mother
Proto-Avaro-Andian: *babV ( -o-)
Proto-Lak: baba
Proto-Dargwa: *baba-j
Proto-Lezghian: *p:ap:(a)
Notes: A "nursery" word, like many other EC kinship terms; may be secondary. The
non-reduplicated form * abV is very seldom attested (only in Av. ebe-l and PD
* aba), because of a possible confusion with * o bV (jV) 'father' (also a nursery
word, but probably used with that meaning already in PNC).

Andi Zeneli - Sumerian Hurrian Etymological Dictionary

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Sumerian Hurrian Etymological Dictionary

After Anu, Enlil, Enki, and Ninhursag

History of the Sumerian Language

Archaic Sumerian (c. 3000-2600 BC)

"PN wrote this tablet."

Classical (Old) Sumerian (c. 2600-2300 BC)

Neo-Sumerian (c. 2300-2000 BC)

Post-Sumerian (c. 2000 BC to 50 AD)

The Nature of the Sumerian Language

Dug - good (Emegir)

1. The subject of a transitive verb is put in the ergative case.

Lugal.e e.0 munandu

Each morpheme is expressed by a separate word.

Verbs contain within themselves number, gender, and person.

Example: Hebrew, Akkadian, Latin

eqtol - "I will kill"

Examples: Sumerian, Turkish

After Lugal-Zaggisi comes Lugal-Shagengur, Lugal-Kigubnindudi, Ninigi-dubti, Lugal-

In the end, his empire was in revolt.

After two hundred years, in 2123-2075, 1728-1686 , or 1792-1750

ECONOMIC LIFE OF SUMER

RELIGION AND MORALITY

Ningirsu was the god of irrigation, the "Lord of Floods."

Proto-North Caucasian: * a _E ( - -,-o -)

See Abdokov 1983, 136.

Proto-North Caucasian: * ilsV

Proto-North Caucasian: * ima(n)-

Proto-North Caucasian: * ir _wVr ( --)

Proto-North Caucasian: * r jc_we (-a )

Proto-North Caucasian: *- wV-

Proto-North Caucasian: * e ncE

PD *-ca-li > Ak. -ca-li (aIb-ca-li 'thirty'), Chir. aIb-ca-le id.;

Lak. -ca-l (muq -ca-l 'fourty' etc.);

The use of Sumeria sign umun > u = Hurrian eman 'ten'

See Trubetzkoy 1922, 241, 243; 1930, 275; 1983, 152.

Proto-North Caucasian: * werV

Proto-North Caucasian: * w hri ( -e)

Proto-North Caucasian: *bHa _i ( - -)

Proto-North Caucasian: *bi_ (--,- )

Proto-North Caucasian: *bu l _V (- -)

Proto-North Caucasian: *brV ( --)

Proto-North Caucasian: *bn_e (-a)

See Trubetzkoy 1922, 242.

Proto-North Caucasian: *-bV

Proto-North Caucasian: *cH

See Trubetzkoy 1930, 274; 1983, 153.

Proto-North Caucasian: *cVGVrV

Proto-North Caucasian: *wi jo

A possible HU parallel is *-s(u)wa in Hurr. tar-(u)wa-nn , Urart. tar-ua-n 'man,

Proto-North Caucasian: *HapV(-lV)

Ugaritic: m al 'die, das Linke' [Aist 307].

Hebrew: s^ m( )l 'left side, left' [KB 1332].

Note -- in s^ m( )l 'left' (adj.) [ibid. 1333], which is usually explained as a

Judaic Aramaic: s ml 'left side' [Ja 1002].

Orthographically also with both s^ and ( ) [Ja 1591],

Syrian Aramaic: s ml 'sinistra', adj. 'sinister' [Brock 481]

Also asmala, smala (with the * a- prefix)

Proto-North Caucasian: *-V- / *-V-

It is tempting to compare the reconstructed form *_ rV with East Iranian

Proto-North Caucasian: *cwV

Proto-North Caucasian: *co cV ( c_)

Hebrew: zz 'udder, nipple' [KB 268]

Proto-North Caucasian: *c_ V ( -o -)

Proto-North Caucasian: -V- / -V-

Proto-Semitic: dmy 1, a-dVm(-Vt)- 2

Proto-North Caucasian: w [] ( c-)

Proto-North Caucasian: _H q wA ( c_-, -G-)

Proto-North Caucasian: djV / ddjV

Proto-North Caucasian: H u V / Hl V

Proto-North Caucasian: li wE / i wlV

Proto-North Caucasian: _ dwi / _ dwi