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Magnet and magnetism. The substances which have the property of attracting small
pieces of iron, nickel, cobalt, etc. are called magnets and this property of attraction is
called magnetism.
Natural magnets. Natural magnets are piece of lodestone, which is a black iron ore
(Fe3O4) called magnetite.
Magnetic poles. These regions of concentrated magnetic strength inside the magnet just near its ends
are called magnetic poles.
The end of a freely suspended magnet which points towards north is called the north seeking or North
Pole while its end pointing towards south is called south seeking or South Pole.
Law of magnetic poles. It states that like poles repel while unlike poles of magnets attract each other.
Thus, two N-poles repels, two S-poles repel while N-pole attracts S-pole.
Artificial magnets. Pieces of iron and other magnetic materials can be made to acquire the properties
of natural magnets. Such magnets are called artificial magnets.
Uses of magnets:
(i) Magnets are used in radio and stereo speakers.
(ii) They are used in almirah and refrigerator doors to snap
them closed.
(iii) They are used in video and audio cassette tapes, on the
hard discs and floppies for computers.
(iv) In children's toys.
(v) In medicine, the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners expose the inner parts of the patient's
body for detailed examination by doctors.
An activity to show that a wire carrying an electric current behaves like a magnet
Danish physicist H.C. Oersted was the first to demonstrate in 1820 that a current carrying conductor
produces a magnetic field around it.
■ Take a straight thick copper wire and place it between the points X
and Y in an electric circuit as shown in Fig.
■ Place a small compass near to this copper wire. See the position of its needle.
■ Pass the current through the circuit by inserting the key into the plug.
■ Observe the change in the position of the compass needle.
■ Why is the needle deflected? What do you conclude?
As we pass current though the copper wire XY, the compass needle gets deflected from its position of
rest. Since a magnetic needle can be deflected only by a magnetic field, so the current carrying wire
produces a magnetic field around it or it behaves like a magnet.
A current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it. This effect is called magnetic effect of
current.
Magnetic field. The region around a magnet within which its influence can be experienced is called its
magnetic field.
Magnetic lines of force. A magnetic line of force may be defined as the curve the tangent to which at
any point gives the direction of the magnetic field at that point. It may also be defined as the path along
with a free north pole tends to move.
Methods of plotting lines of force. The following two methods are used for drawing lines of force of a
bar magnet: (i) Iron-filings method. (ii) Compass needle method.
IRON-FILINGS METHOD
■ Fix a sheet of white paper on a drawing board using some adhesive material.
■Place a bar magnet in the centre of it.
■ Sprinkle some iron filings uniformly around the bar magnet. A salt-sprinkler may be used for this
purpose.
■ Now tap the board gently.
■ What do you observe?
The iron filings arrange themselves in a pattern as shown in Fig. The magnet exerts a force on the iron
filings of the surrounding region. This force arranges the iron filings along definite lines extending from
one end of the magnet to the other. The region surrounding a magnet, in which the force of the magnet
can be detected, is said to have a magnetic field. The lines along which the iron filings align themselves
represent magnetic field lines.
■ What is the direction of the magnetic field both outside and inside
the magnet?
The deflection of the compass needle increases as it is moved towards the
poles. This is because the magnetic field is stronger near the two poles and
hence exerts larger force on the compass needle in such regions.
Magnetic field is a vector qantity as it has both direction and magnitude. The
direction of the magnetic field is taken to be the direction in which a north pole
of the compass needle moves inside it. Therefore it is taken by convention that
the field lines emerge from north pole and merge at the south pole (note the
arrows marked on the field lines in Fig. Inside the magnet, the direction of field lines is from its south pole
to its north pole. Thus the magnetic field lines are closed curves.
(ii) Maxwell's cork screw rule. If a right handed screw be rotated along the
wire so that it advances in the direction of current, then the direction in which
the screw rotates gives the direction of the magnetic field as shown in Fig.
(i) If we increase the current in the conductor, the deflection of the compass
needle increases. This shows that, the magnitude of the magnetic field produced at a given point is directly proportional
to the current passing through the wire. That is, B ∝I
(ii) For a given current, if we move the compass needle away from the wire, its deflection decreases. This
shows that the magnitude of the magnetic field produced by a given current in the wire is inversely
proportional to the distance from the wire. That is,
(ii) It is directly proportional to the number of turn’s n of the coil. As the direction of current in each circular
turn is same, the fields due to the various turns get added up. That is,
(iii) It is directly proportional to the strength of current passing the coil. That is,
Clock rule to determine the polarity of any face of a circular current loop.
Clock rule. The polarity of any face of circular
current loop can be determined by using clock
rule, as shown in Fig. If the current round any
face of the loop flows in anticlockwise
direction, it behaves like a north pole. If the
current flows in the clockwise direction, the
face behaves like a south pole.
Solenoid.
■ A long cylindrical coil of insulated copper wire of large number of circular turns is called a solenoid.
■ When an electric current is passed through a solenoid, it produces a magnetic field around it. Its magnetic
field pattern is shown in Fig.
► When a current is passed through the solenoid, the current in each circular loop has the same direction, their
magnetic effects get added up producing a strong magnetic field.
►Inside the solenoid, the magnetic field is almost uniform and parallel to the axis of the solenoid.
►The magnetic field produced by a solenoid is very much similar to that of a bar magnet. Like a bar magnet,
one end of the solenoid has N-polarity while the other end has S-polarity.
►The polarity of any end (face) of the coil can be determined by using clock rule.
For all practical purposes, the magnetic field of a solenoid and that of a bar magnet can be taken identical.
Factors on which the strength of the magnetic field produced by a current carrying solenoid depends:
(i) Number of turns in the solenoid. The larger the number of turns in the solenoid, stronger is the magnetic
field produced.
(ii) Strength of the current. The larger the current passed through the solenoid, stronger is the magnetic field
produced.
(iii) Nature of the core material. By winding the coil over a soft iron cylinder, called core, the magnetic field
can be increased several thousands times.
Electromagnet. A soft iron core placed inside a solenoid behaves like a powerful magnet when a current is
passed through the solenoid. This device is called an electromagnet.
When the current is switched off, the iron core loses its magnetism and so it is no longer an electromagnet.
Thus, electromagnets are temporary magnets.
(iii) Nature of the core material. The core of the magnetic material like soft iron increases the strength of the
electromagnet.
Uses
Cranes and lifts use electromagnets to separate and lift large quantities of iron scrap
and steel
• We find them in electrical devices like electric bells, telegraphs, telephones, loud
speakers, electric trains, electric motors and so on
• Doctors use weak electromagnets to remove steel splinters from the eye
Differences between an electromagnet and a permanent magnet
Electromagnet Permanent Magnet
1. It is a temporary magnet. It shows 1. It retains magnetism for a long time even after the
magnetism only as long as the current is through its removal of the magnetizing field (or current).
coil.
2. It can produce very strong magnetic field. 2. It produces a much weaker field than an
electromagnet.
4. The polarity of an electromagnet can be reversed The polarity of a permanent magnet cannot be
by sending the current in reverse direction. changed.
Inference
A current carrying conductor experiences a force when
placed in a magnetic field. The direction of force is
reversed when the direction of current in the conductor
is reversed.
The force acting on the current-carrying conductor
can be changed by changing the direction of the magnetic field.
According to this rule, extend the thumb, forefinger, and the middle finger of the left hand in
such a way that all the three are mutually perpendicular to
each another. If the forefinger points in the direction of the
magnetic field and the middle finger in the direction of the
current, then, the thumb points in the direction of the force
exerted on the conductor.
Devices that use current carrying conductors and magnetic
fields include electric motors, generators, loudspeakers and
microphones.
Q. When is the force exerted on a current-carrying conductor (i) maximum and (ii)
minimum?
Ans. (i) When the current-carrying conductor is held perpendicular to the direction of the
magnetic field, the force exerted on it is maximum.(ii) When the current-carrying conductor is
held parallel to the direction of the magnetic field, the force exerted on it is minimum or zero.
Q.A current carrying straight conductor is placed in east-west direction. What will be
the direction of the force experienced by this conductor due to earth's magnetic
field? How will this force get affected on?(i) Reversing the direction of flow of current
? (ii) Doubling the magnitude of current?
Ans. The direction of earth's magnetic field is from geographical south to geographical north.
According to Fleming's left hand rule, the current carrying straight conductor placed in east-
west direction will be deflected downwards. (i) On reversing the direction, the conductor is
deflected in the upward direction. (ii) If the magnitude of current is doubled, it will result in
doubling the magnitude of the force.
Q. On what factors does the force experienced by a current carrying conductor placed
in a uniform magnetic field depend?
Ans. Factors on which the force experienced by a current carrying conductor placed
in a magnetic field depends. If a current / is flowing along
the wire of length L which is placed perpendicular to the
direction of the magnetic field B, then the force F experienced
by the wire perpendicular to the current and the magnetic
field (as given by Fleming's left hand rule) is expressed as: F
= BIL, Thus, F depends on current /, length L and strength of
field B.
Q. An electron enters a magnetic field at right angles to it as
shown in Fig. The direction of force acting on the electron will be
ELECTRIC MOTOR
Electric motor. An electric motor is a rotating device which converts
electric energy into mechanical energy.
Principle. An electric motor works on the principle that a current carrying
conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force, the direction of force is given by
Fleming's left hand rule.
Construction.
I. Field magnet. It is a strong horse shoe type magnet
with concave poles.
II. Armature. It is a rectangular coil ABCD having a large
number of turns of thin insulated copper wire wound over
a soft iron core. The armature is placed between the
poles the field magnet and it can be rotated about an axis
perpendicular to the magnetic field les.
III. Split ring commutator. It consists of a cylindrical
metal ring split into two halves S1 and S2. The two ends A
and D of the armature coil are connected to the split rings
S1 and S2 respectively. As the coil rotates, the split rings
also rotate about the same axis of rotation. The
function of the split
ring commutator is to reverse the direction of current in the coil after every half
rotation.
IV. Brushes. Two graphite or flexible metal rods maintain a sliding contact with split rings S1
and S2, alternately.
V. Battery. A battery of few cells is connected to the brushes. The current from the battery
flows to the armature coil through the brushes and the split rings.
Working of a DC Motor
Now when the coil turns through 1800, the sides get
interchanged. As a result the commutator ring C1 is
now in contact with brush B2 and commutator ring C2 is
in contact with brush B1. Therefore, the current continues to flow in the same direction.
The Efficiency of the DC Motor Increases by:
• Increasing the number of turns in the coil
• Increasing the strength of the current
• Increasing the area of cross-section of the coil
• Increasing the strength of the radial magnetic field
An electric motor brings about rotational motion in domestic appliances such as electric fans, washing
machines, refrigerators, mixers, grinders, blenders, computers, MP3 players, etc.
Electromagnetic induction.
Whenever the magnetic lines of
force passing through a closed
circuit change, a voltage and hence
a current is induced in it. This
phenomenon is called
electromagnetic induction.
The voltage so produced is called
induced electromotive force (e.m.f.)
and the current is called induced
current. This phenomenon was discovered in 1831 by
Michael Faraday in England.
►Whether the magnet is moved towards/away from the coil or the coil is moved towards/away from the magnet, the
magnetic lines of force passing through the closed coil get changed.
This produces an induced potential difference in the coil which, in
turn, sets up an induced current in the circuit. The current is
indicated by the deflection in the galvanometer needle. When the
coil and the magnet are both stationary, there is no deflection in the
galvanometer. This indicates that when there is no change in the
magnetic lines of force passing through the coil, no potential
difference is induced in it.
MAGNETIC
EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT-NOTE
Working. As shown in Fig, suppose the armature coil ABCD is in the horizontal position. Now
the coil is rotated clockwise. The coil cuts the
magnetic lines of force. The arm AB moves upwards
while the arm CD moves downwards. According to
Fleming's right hand rule, the induced current flows
from A to B in arm AB and C to D in arm CD i.e., the
induced current flows along ABCD. The induced
current flows in the circuit through brush B2 to Bv
After half the rotation of the armature, the arm CD
moves upwards and AS moves downwards. The
induced current now flows in the reverse direction
i.e., along DCBA. The current flows from Bx to B2.
Thus the direction of current in the external circuit
changes after every half rotation. Such a current
which changes its direction after equal intervals of time is called alternating current. This
device is called A.C. Generator.
Differences between electric motor and generator.
Electric motor Generator
1. It converts electrical energy into mechanical 1. It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
energy.
3. Current is supplied to the coil placed in magnetic field 3. The coil is rotated in a magnetic field by an external
by an external source of electrical energy. As a result of it, arrangement. As a result, an electric current is induced in
coil starts rotating. the coil.
Direct current. A direct current is that current which flows with constant magnitude in the
same direction.
Alternating current. An alternating current is that current whose magnitude changes
continuously with time and whose direction reverses after equal intervals of time.
Advantage of AC over DC.
Only alternating voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by using a transformer. This makes AC more suitable than
DC for transmission for electric power over long distances without much loss of energy.
Frequency of a.c. mains in India
In India, the direction of A.C. changes after every 1/100 second, i.e., the frequency of A.C. is 50 Hz.
Domestic Electric Circuits
Domestic Wiring
• The electric power line enters our house through three wires- namely the live wire, the neutral wire
and the earth wire. To avoid confusion we follow a colour code for insulating these wires. The red
wire is the live wire, and the black wire is neutral. The earth wire is given green plastic insulation.
• The live wire has a high potential of 220 volts whereas the neutral wire has zero potential. Thus the
potential difference between the live wire and the neutral wire is 220-0 = 220 volts.
• In our homes, we receive supply of electric power through a main supply (mains), either supported
through overhead electric poles or by underground cables.
• The live wire and neutral wire, coming from the electric pole, enter a box fitted just outside our house
which has a main fuse F1. The fuse is connected in series with the live wire. This is done so because it
is only the live wire which has a high potential of 220 volts unlike the neutral wire which carries zero
potential. The fuse F1 has a high rating of about 50 amperes. Thus it prevents any damage such as fire
to the entire electrical wiring entering the house due to short-circuit or overloading.
• The two wires then enter the electricity meter which records the electrical power consumed by us in
kilowatt-hour (kWh). This meter is installed by the electric supply Department of our city.
• These two wires coming out of the meter are then connected to a main switch which is placed in a
distribution box. Another fuse F2 is placed in series with the live wire in this box for the sake of
consumer safety.
• There are two separate circuits in a house namely lighting circuit and power circuit. The lighting circuit
with a 5 A fuse is used for running electric bulbs, fan, radio, TV, tube lights etc. and the power circuit
with a 15 A fuse is used for running electric heater, electric iron, geyser, refrigerator etc as it draws
more current.
• The distribution circuits are always connected in parallel combination. In a parallel circuit even if there
is a fault or short-circuiting in any one line, the corresponding fuse blows off leaving the other circuits
and appliances intact and prevents damage to the entire house.
• In case short-circuit occurs in the power circuit, then the power-fuse will blow off but our lights will
continue to burn as the lighting circuit remains unaffected.
• A constant voltage of the main line is available for all other electrical appliances.
• Along with the two wires, a third wire called the earth wire also enters our house as shown in the fig.
The earth connection is first made to the electric meter and then to the main switch. This wire then goes
into the rooms along with the live and neutral wires.